(See ANTIBODY.)
An AVERMECTIN used in cattle as an ectoparasiticide and endoparasiticide.
Away from the axis. Term often used in describing parts of bones. Opposite of AXIAL.
The part of the body in front of (below in quadrupeds) the spine between the thorax (see CHEST) and the PELVIS. (For a description of abdominal organs, see under appropriate headings.) As birds and reptiles have no demarcation between the thorax and abdomen (no diaphragm) it is inappropriate to use these terms in these Orders.
(See under STOMACH, DISEASES OF; INTESTINES, DISEASES OF; DIARRHOEA; LIVER, DISEASES OF; PANCREAS, DISEASES OF; KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF; BLADDER, DISEASES OF; PERITONITIS; BLOAT; COLIC; ASCITES; HERNIA.)
These include injuries to the abdominal walls, to the alimentary tract and to the organs within the abdomen. Trauma may result in damage to the liver, spleen, kidneys, or urinary bladder. Apparently small external wounds of the abdominal wall may be far more serious than their appearance suggests. Radiographs and ultrasound can be useful in diagnosis.
Diagnosis An exploratory LAPAROTOMY may be necessary to establish the internal effects of such wounds, and also the cause of internal haemorrhage, free intra-peritoneal gas, peritonitis, etc.
Obtaining a sample by PARACENTESIS may be useful, although the hollow needle may be blocked by omentum. Use of a catheter and peritoneal lavage has been effective in detecting early intra-abdominal traumatic lesions, rupture of internal organs, etc. in dogs and cats.
When a stake or other pointed object has caused a large wound in the abdominal wall, the bowels may protrude through the opening, and if the incision be extensive, evisceration may take place. When only the wall of the abdomen has been damaged, there may be severe bruising, and haemorrhage into the tissues (See HAEMATOMA).
If exposure of the abdominal contents has taken place, or if the organs have been themselves damaged, there is risk of SHOCK, haemorrhage, infection, and PERITONITIS; the latter may cause great pain and usually proves fatal. For this reason the injured animal should receive promptly the expert services of a veterinary surgeon or else be humanely destroyed. Simple WOUNDS or bruises of the abdominal walls are treated in the same way as ordinary wounds.
An old breed also called Angus. It was developed in Scotland and known since the 18th century with the herd book started in 1862. They were locally known as ‘doddies’ or ‘hummlies’. They are usually all black but can be all red. The cattle are naturally polled and occasionally have white udders. They are a relatively small animal but it means that the crosses have minimal DYSTOKIA. They are hardy and able to fatten off pasture and are often sold as Aberdeen Angus beef which attracts a price premium. A few crosses with FRIESIAN CATTLE have shown SPASTIC calves.
A degenerative condition of an organ or tissue leading to dysfunction or loss of function. Usually inherited and often involving brain or other nerve tissue. (See LYSOSOMES – Lysosomal storage disease.)
A group of rapidly growing African trees being exploited as a forestry crop. The seed pods have caused poisoning in goats and cattle. Clinical signs include tachycardia, anorexia, ruminal stasis, anaemia, dyspnoea and recumbency. Affected animals always show methaemglobinaemia.
Removal of an organ, or part of an organ, by surgery.
The lack of eyelids – a normal condition in snakes.
(See GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING - GENETIC DEFECTS.)
An abnormal increase in the ocular pigment which eventually results in an impeding of the drainage of fluid in the eye and causes GLAUCOMA. It is recorded in a few breeds and mainly CAIRN TERRIERS.
Abomasum is the so-called 4th stomach of ruminating animals; more correctly, the 4th compartment of the ruminant stomach. It is also called the ‘true’ or ‘rennet’ stomach, and the ‘reed’. It is an elongated, pear-shaped sac lying on the floor of the abdomen, on the right-hand side, and roughly between the 7th and 12th ribs.
(See STOMACH, DISEASES OF; TYMPANITIC RESONANCE IN CATTLE.)
A substance causing abortion.
The premature expulsion of the fetus and fetal membranes. The termination of pregnancy. In farm animals it represents one important aspect of INFERTILITY. Some of the causes of abortion in farm animals are shown in the tables below:
Cows
Infections
Viruses
BVD/MD (bovine virus diarrhoea/mucosal disease); bovine herpesvirus 1 (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis)
Chlamydophila
C. abortus (Epizootic abortion)
Rickettsiae
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever)
Ehrlichia phagocytophilia (tick-borne fever)
Bacteria
Arcanobacterium pyogenes (formerly Actinomyces pyogenes, previously Corynebacterium pyogenes)
Salmonella dublin, S. typhimurium
Bacillus licheniformis
Brucella abortus; also B. melitensis
Listeria ivanovii, L. monocytogenes
Leptospira hardjo and other serovars
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus
Besnoitia
Fungi
Aspergillus fumigatus
Mortierella wolfii
Protozoa
Neospora caninum
Toxoplasma gondii
Trichomonas fetus
Non-infectious causes
Claviceps purpurea (ergot in feed)
Stress
Recessive lethal gene
Malnutrition
Haemolytic disease
Vitamin A deficiency
Iodine deficiency
Ewes (female Goats [does])
Infections
Viruses
Border disease/Thogoto virus
Chlamydophila
C. abortus (formerly Chlamydia ovis and Chlamydophila psittaci) (Enzootic abortion)
Rickettsiae
Ehrlichia phagocytophilia (tick-borne fever)
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever)
Bacteria
Arcanobacterium pyogenes (formerly Actinomyces pyogenes previously Corynebacterium pyogenes)
Brucella abortus, now called Taylorella equigenitalis; B. ovis; B. melitensis
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus
Campylobacter jejuni
Bacillus licheniformis
Salmonella dublin, typhimurium, montivideo, S. abortus ovis and others
Listeria monocytogenes
Arizona spp.
Fungi
Aspergillus fumigatus
Protozoa
Toxoplasma gondii
Non-infectious causes
Stress (e.g. chasing/savaging by dogs; transport)
Near-starvation
Pregnancy toxaemia
Claviceps purpurea (ergot in feed)
Iodine deficiency
Sows
Infections
Viruses
African swine fever virus
Aujeszky’s disease
Smedi
Swine fever virus
Bacteria
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (swine erysipelas)
Brucella abortus suis (not in UK)
Pasteurella multocida (occasionally)
E. coli
Leptospira pomona (not in UK) grippotyphosa, canicola, icterohaemorrhagiae
Protozoa
Toxoplasma gondii
Non-infectious causes
Malnutrition, e.g. vitamin A deficiency
(See also CARBON MONOXIDE.)
Mares
Infections
Viruses
Equine herpesvirus 1 (Equine rhinopneumonitis)
Equine viral arteritis
Bacteria
Aeromonas hydrophilia
Salmonella abortus equi
Brucella abortus (rarely)
Haemophilus equigenitalis (contagious equine metritis)
Leptospira spp. (sometimes in association with equine herpesvirus 1)
Listeriosis
Non-infectious causes
Twin foals
Plant poisoning (e.g. by Locoweed)
In thoroughbred mares, following an abortion there was reduced reproductive efficiency but subsequent pregnancy and foaling outcomes could not be predicted.
Bitches
Infections
Brucella canis (not UK)
Canine herpes virus
Neospora caninum
Streptococcus spp.
Toxoplasma gondii
Non-infectious causes
Hormonal imbalance
Trauma
Queens
Infections
Chlamydophila psittaci
Feline herpesvirus
Feline immunodeficiency virus
Feline infectious peritonitis
Feline leukaemia virus
Feline panleukopenia virus
Non-infectious causes
Nutritional deficiencies
Progesterone deficiency
Rabbits (does) Abortion is uncommon in rabbit does, but physiological resorption of fetuses can occur before 20th day of gestation. Expulsion of premature aborted fetuses occurs after 24th day of gestation. Prolonged gestation (more than 35 days) is usually due to a small litter of large fetuses which can be expelled or retained and mummified or macerated.
(See BRUCELLOSIS.)
This disease occurs in all parts of Britain, as well as overseas.
Cause Chlamydophila abortus (formerly Chlamydia ovis and Chlamydia psittaci), which is ingested by mouth from infected material. It can remain latent for long periods in non-pregnant sheep until they become pregnant again. (See CHLAMYDOPHILA.)
Diagnosis Necrotic placentitis is indicative, smears stained by Ziehl-Neelsen show many organisms. A competitive ELISA (cELISA) test is stated to be 100 per cent effective in testing for antibodies against abortion-causing strains of C. abortus. Paired serology of aborted ewes can assist, and COMPLEMENT fixation test can be used.
Signs Abortion occurs during the last 6 weeks, and usually during the last 2 or 3 weeks, of the normal period of gestation. Stillbirths and the birth of weak full-term lambs also occur. The placenta is thickened and necrotic. Most infected ewes who do not become ill have a thick, infected vaginal discharge for a week or more. Infertility is temporary, since ewes usually lamb normally the following season.
Enzootic abortion is a zoonosis (see ZOONOSES); pregnant women must avoid all contact with infected sheep.
Prevention Replacement sheep should be obtained from blood-tested disease-free flocks. Vaccines are available; antibiotics (oxytetracycline) given to the whole flock can reduce the level of abortions if given early in an outbreak. Vaccination should be administered to non-pregnant sheep; it is ineffective during an abortion outbreak.
Chlamydial abortion in cattle.
Fetal anomaly without head or arms.
The absence of forelimbs (arms).
A superficial wound of skin or mucous membrane caused by trauma, chaffing, rubbing, etc.
Localised lesion comprising of pus, surrounded by inflamed tissue. A tiny abscess is known as a PUSTULE, and a diffused area that produces pus is spoken of as an area of CELLULITIS. Abscesses in cats are usually of this type and may not always ‘point’ (see below)
An acute abscess An acute abscess is the most common form in most species. It forms rapidly, comes to a head (points) and bursts, or else becomes reabsorbed and disappears.
Causes The direct cause of an acute abscess is either infection with bacteria, or the presence of an irritant in the tissues.
The organisms that are most often associated with the formation of abscesses include staphylococci and streptococci Arcanobacterium pyogenes; Pasteurella pyocyanea and, in cats, Fusobacterium necrophorum (see BACTERIA).
When bacteria have gained access they start to multiply, and their TOXINS may damage surrounding tissue.
White blood cells (leukocytes) – in particular, those called neutrophils – gather in the area invaded by the bacteria and engulf them. The area of invasion becomes congested with dead or dying bacteria, dead or dying leukocytes, dead tissue cells and debris all of which are converted into a liquefied mass (pus) by the action of LYSOZYMES.
Signs Inflammation, (redness, warmth, swelling, and pain); and sometimes fever may occur. When abscesses are deep and so cannot be detected by palpation, measurement of body temperature, diagnostic imaging and blood tests (to identify changes of morphology and leukocyte proportions) may be required.
An acute abscess is said to point when it has reached the stage when the skin covering it is dead, thin, generally glazed, and bulging. If slightly deeper, the skin over the area becomes swollen, is painful, and ‘pits’ on pressure. When the abscess bursts, or when it is evacuated by lancing (at the site of bulging or pitting), the pain disappears, the swelling subsides, and the temperature falls. If all the pus has been evacuated, the cavity rapidly heals; if, however, the abscess has burst internally into the chest or abdomen, then pleurisy or peritonitis may follow. When an abscess is deeply seated so as to be out of reach of diagnosis by manipulative measures, its presence can be confirmed by blood tests.
Treatment LANCING is the treatment of choice. It is best to leave the opened abscess uncovered to encourage drainage. Hot fomentations, or application of a poultice, may afford relief. Antibiotics may be employed once drained or as the sole means of treating multiple or deep-seated abscesses. They may be injected into a cavity with or without following aspiration of the pus. A cold or chronic abscess takes a long time to develop, seldom bursts (unless near to the surface of the body), and becomes surrounded by large amounts of hard fibrous tissue. The pus can be solid (‘inspissated’) or semisolid (‘caseated’). Some can be lanced.
A cold or chronic abscess It takes a long time to develop, seldom bursts (unless near to the surface of the body), and becomes surrounded by large amounts of fibrous tissue.
Causes Abscesses due to TUBERCULOSIS, ACTINOMYCOSIS, Staphylococci, and Caseous abscess formation in the lymph nodes of sheep, are the most common types of cold or chronic abscesses. They may arise when an acute abscess, instead of bursting in the usual way, becomes surrounded by dense fibrous tissue. The neutrophils of rabbits, birds, and reptiles do not contain many lysosymes (so are more properly described as heterophils) and the pus in their abscesses is less liquefied – caseated - and inspissated to such an extent that drainage is not achieved by lancing and total excision is the preferred form of treatment.
Signs Swelling may be noticeable on the surface of the body (as in actinomycosis), or it may show no signs of its presence until the animal is slaughtered (as in the case of many tuberculous abscesses and in lymphadenitis of sheep). If it is present on the surface, it is found to be hard, cold, only very slightly painful, and does not rapidly increase in size.
Treatment This may involve surgery to remove the abscess, and/or the use of antibiotics, depending upon the nature of the abscess and its location.
A breed of short-haired cat similar in appearance to those depicted in illustrations from ancient Egypt. It is favoured for its quiet vocalisation. Familial renal amyloidosis has been found in this breed and it is also prone to MYASTHENIA GRAVIS and HIP DYSPLASIA. DNA tests are available for PROGRESSIVE RETINAL ATROPHY and ERYTHROCYTE PYRUVATE KINASE DEFICIENCY. The breed was the first to have its genome sequenced.
Acacia poisoning has been recorded in cattle and goats. Signs include ataxia, excitation and prostration.
The inflexibility of a limb; rigidity, ankylosis.
A chronic condition of the skin, the primary form mainly found mainly in short-haired dogs, especially Dachshunds. The secondary form is seen in obesity, nutritional and endocrine disorders. The skin becomes thickened with loss of hair and excessive black pigmentation, and is velvety to the touch. The condition often starts in the axillae (armpits) but the abdomen has also been seen as the primary location. The primary disease cause is unknown and it is not usually curable. It and the secondary form may respond to corticosteroids (local and injection), after the removal of secondary infections.
Acapnia is a condition of diminished carbon dioxide in the blood.
The congenital absence of the heart.
A parasitic twin without a heart, utilising the circulation of its twin.
A parasitic twin without a heart, utilising the circulation of its twin.
A parasiticide effective against mites and ticks.
A forage mite only accidentally parasitic.
The absence of a tail.
This has led to human infection with BRUCELLOSIS, ORF, Q FEVER and TUBERCULOSIS (TB).
Accidental self-injection with an oil-based vaccine is painful and dangerous; it requires immediate medical attention.
If the accident involves IMMOBILON, the effects can be reversed by an immediate self-injection of Revivon (diprenorphine hydrochloride). A veterinary surgeon who had no Revivon with him died within 15 minutes of accidental self-injection, when a colt made a sudden violent movement. Even a scratch with a used needle can cause collapse. All involved in a procedure with the drug should be aware of the location of the antidote and that of the product leaflet. (See DIPRENORPHINE HYDROCHLORIDE; ETORPHINE; IMMOBILON/REVIVON.) Tuberculin testing can reactivate latent infection in humans. Certain other products such as tilmicosin can be dangerous if much is injected. Thus the ‘Warnings’ section on a data sheet or product marketing authorisation should always be read before using a new product. Prescribers and suppliers of veterinary medicines should at all times make sure that those using the products are suitably competent, and make them aware of the potential risk.
Any part of the animal may be injured in an accident. Often the damage is obvious, such as a broken limb. Serious internal injury may not be immediately apparent. Road traffic accidents are the commonest cause of accidents to dogs and cats. Care must be taken in handling injured animals, as mishandling may make the injury worse. (See also ELECTRIC SHOCK, ‘STRAY VOLTAGE’ AND ELECTROCUTION; FRACTURES; BLEEDING; RABBITS-HANDLING; INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE; BURNS AND SCALDS; SHOCK; EYE, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.)
First-aid for owners: how to carry an injured cat with a suspected limb fracture. A dog may be carried similarly if not too large. An alternative for a bigger dog is to draw it gently on to a coat or rug, ready for lifting into the back of a car for transport to a veterinary surgeon. Photo, Marc Henrie / Pedigree Petfoods.
(See EYE.)
A potent anti-viral substance extracted from the fleshy leaves of aloe vera. It has the additional property of enhancing the immune system especially lymphocytic function.
A development anomaly in which head and arms are absent, the same as ABRACHIOCEPHALUS.
The absence of a head.
Acepromazine (Acetylpromazine) is a phenothiazine-derived tranquilliser. Given by injection before anaesthesia, it enables low doses of barbiturates to be used: 1 to 3 mg per kg bodyweight, given by mouth a quarter of an hour or more before food, may be used for the prevention of travel sickness in small animals. In equines, also used for relaxation of the penis; should be used with care.
Acepromazine lowers blood pressure, and so is contraindicated in accident cases. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is recommended for reversing any fall in blood pressure.
Acetabulum is the cup-shaped depression on the PELVIS with which the head of the femur forms the HIP-JOINT. DISLOCATION of the hip-joint sometimes occurs as the result of ‘run-over’ accidents, and FRACTURES of the pelvis involving the acetabulum frequently result from the same cause.
(See PARACETAMOL.)
Acetic acid is used as a treatment for alkalosis, which may be caused by urea poisoning. Acetic acid may form naturally in pig mash feeds allowed to stand, or in silage and fermented hay, when it can cause illness or even death. It is one of the normal breakdown products of cellulose digesting bacteria in the rumen. It is a VOLATILE FATTY ACID produced in carbohydrate digestion in ruminants.
This, and ketosis, are names given to a metabolic disturbance in cattle and sheep. It may be defined as the accumulation in the blood plasma, in significant amounts, of KETONE BODIES. The disorder may occur at any time, but is commonest in winter in dairy cows kept indoors when receiving a full ration of concentrates. The condition is uncommon in heifers and occurs less frequently before the 3rd calving. It can be seen in cows in the 1st month after calving and is most commonly apparent at 3 weeks.
Cause The disturbance is caused by the cow’s demands for carbohydrate exceeding that available from the feed or where KETONE BODIES are produced more rapidly than they are utilised. Whenever the glucose level in the blood plasma is low, as in starvation or on a low-carbohydrate diet, or when glucose is not utilisable, as in diabetes, the concentration of free fatty acids in the plasma rises, as may fatty acid levels. This rise is roughly paralleled by an increase in the concentration of ketone bodies, which provide a 3rd source of energy. In other words, unless fat is metabolised at the same speed as it is mobilised, the liver will become fatty. The moderate ketosis which occurs under a variety of circumstances is to be looked upon as a normal physiological process supplying the tissues with a readily utilisable fuel when glucose is scarce.
By contrast, the severe forms of ketosis met with in the lactating cow and the diabetic cow, and characterised by high concentrations of ketone bodies in the blood and urine, are obviously harmful pathological conditions where the quantities of ketone bodies formed grossly exceed possible needs. Secondary ketosis can occur following any condition that reduces feed intake without a comparable reduction in milk yield.
Signs The cow shows rapid weight loss, reduced appetite and favours roughage to concentrates. Rumen activity is reduced and faeces become harder. The animal is markedly dull, with a dull coat and reduced milk yield. The breath has a sickly sweet smell of acetone, which may also be detected in the milk and urine. Sometimes nervous signs are present, with the animal licking walls, head rope and other objects, and over-excitement. Most animals recover with treatment.
Diagnosis Rothera’s test on milk; urine may be used but can cause false positives.
First-Aid Treatment consists in giving about half pint (500 ml) of glycerine or propylene glycol, diluted in water, or a preparation containing sodium propionate, all by mouth.
The feeding of cut grass or flaked maize, the addition of a little molasses to feed, and exercise all aid recovery. Injections of dextrose and/or corticosteroids are used under veterinary control. Vitamin B12 is used by some clinicians. A very few resistant cases defy all treatment; the cow improves up to a point but does not feed properly and dies in 10 to 20 days.
Prevention In the 2nd half of a lactation, the diet of a dairy cow should contain a greater proportion of home-grown foods with a lower digestibility than that in the diet fed during peak lactation.
At the beginning of the dry period, the cows should be fit but not fat (condition score 2.5 to 3). The cows should be kept in this condition during the dry period by a diet of relatively poor-quality forage or heavy stocking and should be given a vitamin/mineral supplement. Production rations should be introduced in the last 2 weeks of the dry period and contain both the forage and concentrate elements to be fed after calving. Cattle should not be ‘steamed up’ but should receive up to 3 kg (6½ lb) (dry) of the milking ration.
After calving, the quantity of production ration fed should be steadily increased as the milk production increases. For high-yielding cows the production concentrate ration should contain 16 to 18 per cent crude protein with a high metabolisable energy. The carbohydrate in the ration should be readily digestible. The inclusion of some ground maize may be particularly helpful in ketosis-prone herds, since some of the starch escaping rumen fermentation is digested and absorbed as sugars. Production concentrates should contain a balanced vitamin and mineral supplement.
Cows must not be given excessive amounts of straw. Concentrates can be fed between meals from out-of-parlour feeders, as a constituent of a complete diet, or layered in silage. High-yielding cows should not be penned for a long time in yards, but be given ample opportunity for exercise.
After the first 10 to 12 weeks of lactation, the feeding routine of the high-yielders can be modified. The home-grown forage can be slowly increased in the ration with a corresponding decrease in the more expensive highly digestible carbohydrates if the cow’s performance is not affected. This change-over must be a gradual process.
A ketone with characteristic smell found in small amounts in some samples of normal urine, and in greater quantities during the course of diabetes mellitus, acetonaemia, pneumonia, cancer, starvation, and diseases of disturbed metabolism.
Acetonuria is the excretion of ketones in the urine.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, an important link in the transmission of nerve impulses between the nerves themselves (at the synapses) and between the nerve and the muscle. Paralysis results if the body’s ability to produce acetylcholine is affected by shock, injury or certain drugs, such as curare. Pharmaceutical preparations of such compounds are used in anaesthesia to produce muscle relaxation, which facilitates surgical procedures.
In the healthy animal, acetylcholine is destroyed by the enzyme cholinesterase as soon as the nerve impulse has passed. When this reaction is prevented, as in poisoning by organophosphorous insecticides, convulsions follow. Excessive salivation is an important sign in dogs so poisoned.
An enzyme which carries acetyl groups into the energy cycle (KREB’S CYCLE; TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE) and also precedes lipid formation.
It is also known as N-acetylcysteine or N-acetyl-L-cysteine. It is a nutritional supplement and a pharmaceutical drug. It is used as an antidote to PARACETAMOL (ACETAMINOPHEN) poisoning, a mucolytic agent and when deficient to supplement sulphur-containing amino acids (provides CYSTEINE)
(See ACEPROMAZINE.)
(See ASPIRIN.)
Absence of progressive peristalsis and failure of the lower oesophageal sphincter to relax. It has been reported as an inherited condition in Boston terriers, English springer spaniels, smooth fox terriers, wire-haired fox terriers, German shepherd dogs and Rhodesian ridgebacks.
A congenital absence of one or both hands (forefeet).
The congenital absence of hands or feet.
A group of tendons which insert on the calcaneus near the point of the hock. The tendon is made up of the tendons of the gastrocnemius, soleus, superficial digital flexor, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris muscles.
(adjective, Achondroplastic)
Achondroplasia is a form of dwarfing due to disease affecting the long bones of the limbs before birth. It is noticed in some calves of certain breeds of cattle such as the Dexter, in some breeds of dogs, and in lambs. (See GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING - GENETIC DEFECTS.)
(See RINGWORM.)
A deficiency of pigmentation tissue that can result in day blindness or partial or total colour blindness. (See also CONE DEGENERATION.)
The absence or loss of pigment from the hair. It occurs following freeze branding in animals such as cattle, and horses.
Acid-fast organisms are those which, after staining with carbol-fuchsin dye, retain their colour after immersion in strong acid solutions; the non-acid-fast group are decolourised by the acid. The test usually used is ZIEHL-NEELSEN.
The important acid-fast bacteria are:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis in humans and other primates;
M. bovis, which causes tuberculosis in cattle and some other mammals;
M. microtis, which is a pathogen of mice and shrews;
M. piscium, which causes tuberculosis in fish;
M. avium, which causes tuberculosis in birds and a variant var. paratuberculosis (johnei), which causes Johne’s disease in ruminants and the camelids;
M. leprae, which causes leprosy in humans, primates and armadillos.
Many mycobacteria are saprophytic and are found in soil, water, decaying vegetation, etc.
A positive stain obtained by using the ZIEHL-NEELSEN test.
These are organic acids used in the diet as growth enhancers; their use increased following the European ban on the use of antibiotics in growth promoters. They are either short chain monocarboxlic acids (formic, acetic, proprionic, butyric) or carboxylic acids (lactic, malic, tataric, and citric). They act on acid-sensitive bacteria. A Bulgarian study showed that 4 per cent citric and 4 per cent tartaric acids in the feed of cattle completely inhibited E. coli, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. Their effect is caused by decreasing the internal pH of the microbes to a level at which it inhibits or eventually kills them.
A condition of reduced alkaline reserve of the blood and tissues, with or without an actual fall in pH. Sudden death may occur in cattle from acidosis after gorging on grain, or following a sudden introduction of cereal-based concentrates. A subacute form (SARA – subacute ruminal acidosis) is now commonly seen in 20-22 per cent of newly calved high yielding dairy cows. It is a common complication of diarrhoea, particularly in young animals. (See also BARLEY POISONING.) Sheep may similarly be affected. Rabbits, having a limited ability to excrete hydrogen ions, are particularly susceptible to metabolic acidosis.
Strong acids are intensely destructive of animal tissue. If accidentally consumed, the effects are immediate and drastic.
Signs Excessive salivation, great pain, and destruction of the mucous membrane lining the mouth (which causes the unfortunate animal to keep its mouth open and protrude its tongue) are seen. After a short time convulsive seizures and vomiting occur, and general collapse follows; while if a large amount of acid has been taken, death from shock rapidly supervenes.
Treatment Alkaline demulcents should be given at once and in large quantities; bicarbonate of soda given in gruels or barley-water or milk is quite useful. These neutralise the acids into harmless salts, and soothe the corroded and burnt tissues. (See ACETIC ACID; HYDROCYANIC ACID (HCN).)
Aciduria is the excretion of acid urine. It may occur as a result of feeding a specialised diet to reduce the formation of urinary calculi (stones) in the dog and cat. Also in dairy cows it can follow DCAD.
Acinus is the name applied to each of the minute sacs of which secreting glands are composed.
A congenital patent foramen ovale in the heart (hole in the heart).
(compare FURUNCULOSIS)
An inflammation of sebaceous glands or hair follicles. In the horse, a contagious form of acne is sometimes due to infection with Corynebacterium ovis. Acne often accompanies canine distemper, and is seen on the chin of the cat. It is not comparable with human acne.
(Aconitum napellus) Also known as monkshood, it is a poisonous plant cultivated in gardens, but also growing wild in the cooler mountainous parts of both hemispheres. It is frequently cultivated in gardens in Britain for its decorative appearance. All parts of the plant are poisonous, the parts above the ground being often eaten by stock (see ACONITE POISONING). Aconite owes its poisonous properties to an alkaloid (aconitine), mainly found in the tuberous root, but present in smaller amounts in other parts of the plant. Aconitine is irritant in large doses, but smaller doses have a sedative and paralysing effect on the sensory nerves.
Aconite (Aconitum napellus). The flowers are either blue or yellow, and each has a petal which is in the shape of a helmet or hood; hence the name ‘monkshood’ which is often applied to the plant when growing in gardens. Height: 65 cm to 2 m (2 to 6 ft).
Aconite poisoning is apt to occur when herbivorous animals gain access to gardens.
In pigs poisoning sometimes occurs through eating the horseradish-like roots.
Signs The chief signs shown are general depression, loss of appetite, salivation, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth and jaws, grinding of the teeth; pigs are nauseated and may vomit; and horses become restless and may be attacked with colic. Animals walk with an unsteady gait, and later become paralysed in their hind-limbs. The animal becomes unconscious, followed by convulsions and death.
Treatment An emetic must be given to the pig, dog and cat to induce vomiting, and a stomach-tube may be passed in the large herbivorous animals that do not vomit. Stimulants, such as strong black tea or coffee, should be given by mouth.
Absence or scantiness of faeces in the intestines.
The absence of the pupil of the eye.
The lack of a trunk; a fetal abnormality consisting of a head and extremities without a trunk.
A congenital problem most commonly seen in calves from suckler cows fed on an unsupplemented silage diet. Affected calves have domed heads, other facial deformities, and stunted limbs.
(See under OAK POISONING.)
(See AUDITORY NERVE.)
(See ACEPROMAZINE.)
An inherited syndrome resulting from sensory neuronal degeneration with associated self-mutilation of the extremities seen particularly in German short-haired pointers and English pointer puppies from three months old.
An intensely itchy thickened area of skin usually found over the dorsal aspect of the carpus in dogs. It is extremely difficult to control as continual chewing by the dog interferes with healing. It may be behavioural in origin or have an underlying pathological cause.
The congenital absence of cranium, partial or complete.
A naturally occurring mould producing pyrrocidines that disrupts the ability of Aspegillus and Fusarium spp. to infect ripening maize kernels thereby preventing mycotoxicosis caused by these moulds.
A condition caused by excess of the growth hormone STH, produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, leading to enlargement of the extremities and to overgrowth of connective tissue, bone and viscera. (See also SOMATOTROPIN.)
Congenital shortness or smallness of the extremities.
Also known as hypertrophic osteopathy, or Marie’s disease, it is a condition in which superfluous new bone is laid down – first in the limbs and later in other parts of the skeleton. It may accompany tumours and tuberculosis in the dog.
A cap over the anterior part of the head of spermatozoa; it contains enzymes which aid penetration of the ovum.
ACTH is the abbreviated form of ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIN. (See also CORTICOTROPHIN.)
Actinobacillosis is a disease of cattle similar in some respects to ACTINOMYCOSIS, and sometimes mistaken for it.
Generally only 1 or 2 animals in a herd are affected at one time.
It is most commonly seen as hard and painful swellings, often with ulcerated areas on the tongue, hence the common name ‘wooden tongue’. It may also be seen as swellings on the lips, cheeks, jaw, and at the base of the horn. Pneumonia or infection of the liver or alimentary canal may lead to death in untreated cases. The disease occurs also in sheep and occasionally in pigs and foals. Skin lesions can occur in goats and camelids.
Cause Actinobacillosis is due to infection with Actinobacillus lignièresi. Infection occurs through injuries, abrasions, etc. of soft tissues, including tongue and subcutaneous tissues and when lymph nodes are affected through invasion along the lymph vessels. Abscesses form.
Lesions may also involve the lungs, rumen, omasum, abomasum, and reticulum.
Actinobacillus seminis was discovered in a sheep in Australia. The infection, sometimes subclinical, has since been recognised in several countries including the UK, and causes polyarthritis.
Signs With Actinobacillus lignièresi when the tongue is affected the animal has difficulty in mastication and swallowing and there is usually a constant dribbling of saliva from the mouth. When lymph nodes in the throat are affected, the swelling and pressure caused may have little effect or may make swallowing and breathing difficult; if the lesion is in the skin and superficial tissues only, it may attain to a great size without causing much trouble. If the saliva is examined there may be found in it small greyish or greyish-yellow ‘pus spots’, in which the organism can be demonstrated by microscopic methods. Later, the saliva may become thick, purulent, and foul smelling.
Treatment Antibiotics are often effective, such as streptomycin for a minimum of five days. In intransigent cases, intravenous sodium iodide is used.
Pigs The disease has been recorded both in the UK (very rarely) and overseas, caused by Actinobacillus equuli (Bacterium viscosum equi) causing sudden deaths with dehydration, multifocal subcutaneous haemorrhages throughout the carcase, epicardial and endocardial haemorrhages, congested oedematous lungs, congested liver, multiple spots on kidney surface and multifocal embolic infarcts in the renal cortex. Actinobacillus suis has been recorded occasionally; it causes septicaemia in piglets and lesions in various organs. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (formerly Haemophilus pleuropneumoniae) causes pleuropneumonia in pigs.
Horses Actinobacillus equuli causes septicaemia and internal lesions in foals (see under FOALS, DISEASES OF).
Precautions The disease can be transmitted to man. Accordingly, care must be taken over washing the hands, etc., after handling an animal with actinobacillosis.
A Gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium that is a commensal on the mucosal membranes of adult horses. It causes fatal septicaemia in newborn foals; the infection is directly from the mare via the mouth or respiratory tract. It can cause sudden deaths in pigs. (See ACTINOBACILLOSIS.)
A Gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium formerly called Haemophilus pleuropneumoniae. It has at least 13 strains and is recognised worldwide. It mainly affects growing pigs but in naïve herds, adults and baby pigs are affected. The main signs are respiratory (a cough) with poor growth, often initiated by stress. It is part of the PORCINE REPRODUCTIVE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME complex. Post-mortem examination shows pleuropneumonia. Diagnosis can be by bacterial isolation from lung, serotyping of strains, and monitoring slaughter. Treatment is with antibiotics including CEPHALOSPORINS and TILMICOSIN. Prevention is by reducing stress at management changes and vaccination.
This has been recorded in very many species of animals, including man, dogs, pigs, birds and reptiles.
The lesions produced bear a considerable resemblance to those of actinobacillosis (see above), and are often indistinguishable from them, but typically actinomycosis affects the cheeks, pharynx and especially the bone of the jaws (it is known as ‘lumpy jaw’ in cattle), while actinobacillosis is more likely to attack soft tissues only.
Cause Actinomyces bovis. This anaerobic bacterium is present in the digestive system of cattle, and it is probable that it can only become pathogenic by invading the tissues through a wound. It is common during the ages when the permanent cheek teeth are cutting the gums and pushing out the milk teeth.
The liver is sometimes affected, while actinomycosis and actinobacillosis have both been found in lungs and bronchi.
Yellow sulphur granules are found in the lesions.
Actinomyces (Corynebacterium) pyogenes is a major cause of abscesses and suppurative conditions.
Signs The swelling in bone and other tissue, mainly composed of dense fibrous tissue, may reach a considerable size causing interference with mastication, swallowing, or breathing, depending on the situation of the lesion. In most cases when the mouth or throat is affected, there is a constant dribbling of saliva in varying amounts from the mouth. In the earlier stages this saliva is normal in its appearance, but later becomes offensive.
Actinomycosis of the bone of the upper and lower jaws produces an increase in the size of the part and a rarefication of its bony structure, the spaces becoming filled with the proliferation of fibrous tissue which is characteristic of the disease.
When the udder is affected, hard fibrous nodules may be felt below the skin, varying in size from that of a pea to a walnut or larger, and firmly embedded in the structure of the gland itself. These swellings enclose soft centres of suppuration which, on occasions, may burst either through the covering skin, or into an adjacent milk sinus or duct. The milk from such animals should not be used for human consumption because of the danger of the consumer contracting the disease.
Treatment Antimicrobials (penicillin, streptomycin, sulphonamides) may be effective. In intransigent cases, intravenous sodium iodide and/or potassium iodide by mouth may be used.
Precautions The disease can be transmitted to man; hygienic precautions are necessary after handling infected animals.
Electrically charged sodium and chlorine ions in water produced by electrochemical means was supplied to pigs in Germany. This resulted in a 5 per cent increase in daily liveweight gain and improved feed conversion.
This is a medicine or pharmaceutical product which has proven biological activity against particular disease organism(s) or causes or is active in specific diseases or certain disorders that are generalised or related to specific organs.
This roundworm, now called Echinaria uncinata has caused outbreaks of disease in geese, ducks, and poultry. The life-cycle of this parasite involves an intermediate host, Daphnia pulex, the water flea. On post-mortem examination of affected birds, worms may be found in nodules scattered over the mucous membrane of the oesophagus and proventriculus. Mortality may be high. Dosage with fenbendazole is normally effective.
The centuries-old Chinese technique of needle insertion at certain specified points on the surface of the body has become a part of Western veterinary medicine for treatment, analgesia, and resuscitation. Acupuncture can produce the morphine-like natural substances called ENDORPHINS which are, in effect, analgesics.
Adaptations have been made, such as the use of lasers instead of needles. Ultrasonics and heat have also been applied to the points.
Acupuncture is commonly used to relieve painful conditions; also in treating poor circulation, tissue damage, and smooth muscle dysfunction. However, it is not a panacea and must be applied by experts.
Success has been reported for the use of injections of sterile saline at acupuncture points in treating intractable pain in horses. The injections were repeated at weekly intervals for up to 8 weeks.
In China, acupuncture has been used for surgical analgesia in animals and man.
A disease is called acute – in contradistinction to ‘chronic’ – when it appears rapidly, and either causes death quickly or leads to a speedy recovery. Very rapid onset or death is termed ‘peracute’. (See also under DEATH, CAUSES OF SUDDEN; CHRONIC, PERACUTE, SUBACUTE.)
(See PROTEIN, ACUTE PHASE.)
A congenital abnormality in which there is the complete absence of the digits.
A tumour affecting the jaw and composed of cells that normally produce dental enamel.
The common viper (Vipera berus). About 50 cm (20 in) in length, it has dark markings on a paler ground. If disturbed, this snake may bite farm or domestic animals. The bite is dangerous especially in juveniles and particular if the animal is bitten on the head or forequarters. An antiserum is available: veterinarians require a Special Treatment Certificate.
Addison’s disease (hypoadrenocorticism) is caused by failure of the ADRENAL GLANDS to produce adequate amounts of corticosteroids. It may be caused by congenital defects in, injury to, or disease of the cortex of the gland, when it is known as primary hypoadrenocorticism. Secondary hypoadrenocorticism results from excessive or prolonged dosage of an animal with cortisone products, which depresses the natural production of the hormone.
Signs In the dog or cat, where it most commonly occurs, the animal may be lethargic, depressed and weak; diarrhoea and vomiting may be seen. In severe cases left untreated, death may result. Diagnosis is by ACTH stimulation test.
In cattle, it is associated with a high incidence of aborted, weakly or still-born calves.
Treatment The condition responds rapidly to administration of hydrocortisone or other appropriate corticoid product to restore levels of cortisol in the blood; numerous formulations are available. (See also HYPERADRENOCORTICISM in ferrets.)
Substances incorporated in a pre-mix added to animals’ feed, often for a purpose other than nutrition. They are mainly growth promoters, enhancers of feed conversion, or, commonly, used to provide vitamins or minerals necessary for a healthy diet. In addition to minerals and vitamins, biological substances and certain dyes such as xanthins (for coloration of rainbow trout) are permitted additives. Other additives that are available on prescription include certain ANTHELMINTICS and coccidiostats for the control of parasites in farm animals. The use of antibiotics as growth promoters, permitted to a limited extent to date, has now been phased out in the EU. However prescribed antibiotics can be used for animals to treat diseases.
Very strict controls apply to the preparation and use of medicated feeds with the principal aim of ensuring that consumers are not put at risk from medicinal residues in food animals. The legislation is contained in Veterinary Medicines Regulations which are revised annually. A guidance note is issued by the Veterinary Medicines Directorate under the heading ‘Medicated feeding stuffs and specified feed additives’ and the Feeding Stuffs (Zootechnical Products) Regulations 1999. All UK compounders, whether commercial or home mixers, must register with the Royal Pharmaceutical Society or the Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland. Keepers of exotic animals often have great difficulty in balancing the nutritional requirements of their charges and make use of additives of vitamins and minerals. Specialised formulations are available.
(See also under ANTIBIOTIC; GROWTH PROMOTERS; HORMONES IN MEAT PRODUCTION.)
Inflammation of a lymph gland.
Adenofibroma is a fibrous tumour enclosing neoplastic glandular tissue.
A TUMOUR composed of epithelial tissue, often gland-like in appearance. It may sometimes be found in positions where glandular tissue is not normally present. A malignant form is the adenocarcinoma.
The formation of numerous adenomatous growths in an organ. (See PORCINE INTESTINAL ADENOMATOSIS; PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS.
Swelling of the glands, particularly the lymph glands.
Adenosine is a purine which is part of the structure of certain genes controlling the formation of amino acids. Adenosine triphosphate and diphosphate are important in the contraction of muscles.
A compound produced from the hydrolysis that is important in the metabolisation of energy. It is involved in the process by which potential (‘stored’) energy is transformed into kinetic (‘usable’) energy.
Also called adenylic acid: a nucleotide adenosine 5-phosphate. It is used in energy production and synthesis of nucleotides.
A nucleotide adenosine 5-triphosphate which can be converted to ATP and AMP. It is found in all cells.
This is a contraction of the original term ‘adenoidal-pharyngeal conjunctival agents’. (See VIRUSES.)
(See ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE.)
(See BACTERIAL ADHESIVENESS.)
Adhesions occur by the uniting or growing together of structures or organs which are normally separate and freely movable. They are generally the result of acute or chronic inflammation, and in the earlier stages the uniting material is fibrin, which later becomes resolved into fibrous tissue.
Treatment Surgical division of these adhesions is often necessary especially in the abdominal cavity, the ocular fornix and in adhesions of the walls of the vagina following injuries received at a previous parturition. (See PLEURISY; PERITONITIS.)
Another name for FAT CELLS or lipocytes and they are of two types containing brown or white fat.
Here fat is stored as an energy reserve; globules of fat form within connective tissue cells. When additional fat is stored, each cell eventually becomes spherical, its nucleus pushed to one side.
During demanding muscular exercise, or when food is insufficient, or during a debilitating disease, the cells release the fat into the bloodstream and resume their normal shape. (See also LIPOMA.)
A substance added to a vaccine, in order to stabilise the product and enhance the immune response.
Abbreviation for ad libitum feeding. This is a labour-saving system under which pigs or poultry help themselves to dry meal, etc., and eat as much as they wish. It is also used in dairy cattle and for intensive beef production. (See also DRY FEEDING.)
(See ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE.)
These are two small organs situated at the cranial extremities of the kidneys, and are endocrine glands consisting of a cortex and medulla.
Function The cortex secretes hormones which are called steroids or corticosteroids. These include glucocorticoids, notably cortisol, concerned with the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism; and mineralocorticoids (which regulate sodium and potassium levels in body fluids), e.g. aldosterone. The cortex also secretes androgens; the medulla secretes adrenalin and noradrenalin.
Surgical removal of the adrenal glands (adrenalectomy) has been carried out in the treatment of CUSHING’S SYNDROME in the dog – survival being possible through hormone implants. Otherwise, removal of the adrenals usually leads to death within a matter of weeks.
Typical fat cell formed by intake of fat globules. (Reproduced with permission from R. D. Frandson, Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, Lea & Febiger, 1986, after Ham and Leeson, Histology, J. B. Lippincott Co.)
Atrophy The commonest cause of adrenal atrophy in the western world has been said to be corticosteroid therapy. Hyperadrenocorticism in ferrets differs from that in humans, dogs, and cats, in that adrenocortical sex steroids, rather than cortisol, play an important role in the pathogenesis.
Adrenalin (adrenaline) is the ‘fight or flight’ hormone from the adrenal glands (see above).
Its chief action is that of raising the tone of all involuntary muscle fibres, stimulating the heart, constricting the walls of the smaller arteries, and producing a rise in the blood pressure. It is used for checking capillary haemorrhage in wounds, and for warding off shock or collapse by raising the blood pressure. It can be used to treat acute allergies.
A naturally occurring hormone produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Abbreviation for Aleutian Disease Virus (See ALEUTIAN DISEASE.)
(See under FLIES.)
A form of PARASITIC BRONCHITIS caused by the Genus Aelurostrongylus of ROUNDWORM. A. abstrusus in the cat, A. falciformis in badgers and A. pridhasmi in wild milk. Treatment is with AVERMECTINS or BENZIMADAZOLE products.
A lungworm of cats. (See ROUNDWORMS.)
A micro-organism which needs oxygen for its growth and multiplication. (See also ANAEROBE.)
Aeromonas shigelloides is associated with chronic diarrhoea in cats. (See also FURUNCULOSIS.) Aeromonas salmonicida is implicated in furunculosis, a skin disease of salmon. A vaccine against the disease is available.
A liquid agent dispersed in air in the form of a fine mist. If aerosols, for insecticidal and other purposes, are used over a long period, e.g. by a continuous evaporator, thought must be given to the effect of the chemicals used on (a) the health of the livestock; (b) organochlorine or other residues left in the carcase to the detriment of people eating meat and; (c) the health of the stockmen.
Aerosols as a Mode of Infection Viruses excreted by animals suffering from an infectious disease may be transmitted to other animals (or man) as an aerosol. (‘Coughs and sneezes spread diseases.’)
Salmonella, Brucella and other infections of veterinary surgeons through aerosols has occurred during uterine irrigation, calving interventions and embryotomies in cows.
The tendency of micro-organisms to group themselves about a bubble of air in culture media.
Aetiology is the cause of a disease, or the study of such causes.
Abbreviation of AMERICAN FOULBROOD. (See also BEES.)
A small (toy) breed of terrier. It has a wiry coat and while it loses its hair, it does not have a moult. They are usually black but can be grey, red, black and tan and belge (mixed black, white and red hairs), and weigh 2.0 kg to 6.0 kg (6.5 lb to 13.2 lb). They may be territorial over food and toys. It is suspected that CHIARI-LIKE MALFORMATION and SYRINGOMYELIA may be inherited. They can suffer HIP DYSPLASIA, TRACHEAL COLLAPSE and CATARACTS.
Conducting towards a central or specific site or organ. Used for nerves, nervous activity, arterioles, alimentary tract, kidney etc. Efferent is the conducting away from a central or specific site or organ. (See EFFERENT.)
A tall breed of dog with a silky coat. Inherited cataract caused by a recessive gene has been reported in the breed.
Toxins produced by fungi, e.g. Aspergillus flavus: they cause poisoning in animals eating contaminated feed materials. The toxins have been found mainly in groundnut meal, but sunflower and cottonseed can also be affected. The Feeding Stuffs Regulations 2000 require those products, and copra, palm kernel, maize and feeds derived from them, to be screened for the presence of toxins. Under the Feeding Stuffs Regulations 2000 the maximum permitted level of aflatoxins is 0.2 mg/kg of feed materials with more than 12 per cent moisture.
In cattle, aflatoxins may give rise to a reduced growth rate and lower milk yield. Aflatoxins are excreted in the milk. In pigs, jaundice may be seen; post mortem, the liver has a leathery appearance. Adult pigs may show bile duct carcinoma.
Aflatoxicosis in poultry is characterised by haemorrhages, anorexia, decreased efficiency in food utilisation, pathological changes in the liver, kidneys and bile ducts, and death. The problem can be prevented by storing grain with 13 per cent of moisture or less which is uneconomic in many countries. The litter may also be a source of toxins and consequently it is important to keep the moisture in the litter to a minimum by ensuring that the ventilation of the house is adequate and that the waterers are operating correctly.
Fish are extremely susceptible to aflatoxins. As one of the precautions taken to keep animal feeds free of dangerously high levels of aflatoxins, trout have been used for testing. In young trout (as in pigs), aflatoxin poisoning is likely to result in cancer of the liver. (Mature cock fish become fully resistant.) Equally, care has to be taken with commercial dry trout feeds, to ensure that aflatoxin level is below 0.5 parts per billion; otherwise malignant tumours are apt to develop, and later liquid-filled cysts may grow to a remarkable size.
As the long-term effect is cancer of the bile ducts, animals without gall-bladders, e.g. horses and deer, are less likely to be affected. (See also MYCOTOXICOSIS; CIRRHOSIS.)
AFRC is the abbreviation for the Agricultural and Food Research Council. This body was replaced in 1994 by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. (See BBSRC.)
Cattle in origin about ¾ Brahman and ¼ British beef breed. (See also under CYTOGENETICS.)
(See HORSE-SICKNESS, AFRICAN.)
(See SWINE FEVER, AFRICAN.)
A synonym for Brahman or Zebu cattle.
(See PLACENTA.)
Infected placentas may be a source of infection to other animals. (See SCRAPIE; BRUCELLOSIS; ABORTION, ENZOOTIC.)
Partial or complete absence of milk, or milk flow, from the udder. It can be the result of diseases including infections especially with pyrexia or of pain in the udder or elsewhere or ‘emotional’ problems such as weaning. Where this is due to a failure of milk ‘let down’, oxytocin may be prescribed. (See SOWS’ MILK, ABSENCE OF; COW’S MILK, ABSENCE OF.)
This is a disease of goats especially, and sheep less commonly, characterised by inflammatory lesions in the udder, eyes, and joints. It is not found in the UK, but is chiefly encountered in France, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Italy, the Pyrenees, North Africa and India.
Cause Mycoplasma agalactiae. The disease often occurs in the spring and the summer, and disappears with the advent of the colder weather. The infection may be carried by flies or the hands of the milkers and by the litter in a shed becoming contaminated, while the fetus may be infected before birth.
Signs Fever, mastitis and a greatly reduced milk yield. The milk becomes yellowish-green and contains clots. In addition to the udder, both joints and eyes may be involved; a painful arthritis, and conjunctivitis followed by keratitis (with resultant temporary blindness) may worsen the animal’s condition.
Emaciation and death within 10 days may occur in very acute cases; otherwise recovery usually follows within a few weeks, though the former milk yield will not have been regained.
Male animals may have orchitis as well as arthritis.
Inflammation of the lymph nodes may occur, and lesions may be found also in abdominal organs and tissues, and in the chest.
Treatment Isolation of the affected animals and strict segregation of the in-contacts should be carried out.
Agar is the gelatinous substance prepared from Ceylon moss and various kinds of seaweed. It dissolves in boiling water, and, on cooling, solidifies into a gelatinous mass at a temperature slightly above that of the body. It is used extensively in preparing culture-media for use in bacteriological laboratories, and also in the treatment of chronic constipation in dog and cat.
A test used in diagnosis of, e.g., equine infectious anaemia. (See also COGGINS TEST.)
The congenital absence of the stomach.
The bleaching of flour with nitrogen trichloride. The use of such flour in dog foods gave rise to HYSTERIA, CANINE.
The absence of an organ as a result of the lack of the primordium in the embryo.
A condition of the fetus in which the genital organs are absent or poorly developed and the intestines protrude from an incompletely-formed abdominal wall.
Horses By the time it has reached 17 years, which generally means about 14 years of work, a horse’s powers are on the wane. Many at this age are still in possession of their full vigour, but these are generally of a class that is better looked after than the average, e.g. hunters, carriage-horses, or favourites. On an average, the feet of the horse are worn out first, not the arteries as in man and, consequently, horses with good feet and legs are likely to outlast those inferior in this respect, other things being equal. After the feet come the teeth. The cheek teeth have a long reserve crown of over 7 cm (2 ¾ in) when they are five years old. The occlusal surfaces are worn down by grinding at approximately 2.5 cm (1 in) in 10 years. Therefore, the 30-year-old horse has lost many of its teeth by this age and requires a special diet to maintain its body weight. It often happens that the upper and lower rows of teeth do not wear in the normal way; the angle of their grinding surfaces alters until the chewing of the food becomes less and less effective, and the horse loses condition. Tooth rasping may remedy this.
Instances are on record of horses attaining the age of 35, 45 and 50, and one of a horse that was still working when 63 years old. These, however, are very exceptional. The average age at which a horse dies or is euthanased lies somewhere between 20 and 25 years.
Cattle The great majority of bullocks are killed before they reach 3 years of age, and in countries where ‘prime beef’ is grown they are fattened and killed between 1 and 3 years. In the majority of dairy herds, few cows live to be more than 8 or 10 years of age as they are less productive. Pedigree bulls may reach 12 or 14 years of age before being discarded but they are not usually kept that long. Records are in existence of cows up to 39 years old, and it is claimed that one had 30 calves. Productive suckler cows may be kept longer than dairy animals.
Sheep Here again the requirements of the butcher have modified the age of the animal at death. Wether lambs are killed at ages ranging from 4 to 9 months (Christmas lambs), and older fat sheep up to 21 months. Ewes, on average, breed until they are from 4 to 6 or 7 years, when they too are fattened and slaughtered for mutton. Exceptionally, they reach greater ages, but unless in the case of pure breeding animals, each year over 6 reduces their ultimate value as carcases. Mountain ewes usually only have four lambings while on the hills. Rams are killed after they have been used for 2 or 3 successive seasons at stud – that is, when they are 3 or 4 years of age, as a rule.
Pigs In different districts the age at which pigs are killed varies to some extent, according to the requirements of local trade. Pigs for pork production are killed at about 3½ to 4 months; bacon and commercial pigs are killed between 6 and 7½ months, and only breeding sows and boars are kept longer. Ages of up to 12 years have been recorded for sows.
Dogs and cats These are the only domesticated animals which are generally allowed to die a natural death. The average age of the dog is about 12 years, and of the cat 9 to 12, but instances are not uncommon of dogs living to 18 or 20 years of age, and of cats similarly. (See also BREEDING OF LIVESTOCK; DENTITION.)
Elephants Their normal lifespan in the wild is 65 to 70; some working elephants are employed up to a similar age and then retired.
Agglutination is the clumping together of cells in a fluid. For example, bacteria will agglutinate when a specific antiserum is added to the suspension of bacteria. Similarly, the blood serum of one animal will cause the red blood cells of another to become agglutinated.
Agglutination is explained by the presence in the serum of a protein (agglutinin) which combines with an agglutinable substance, or agglutinogen, possessed by the organisms.
Agglutination is made use of in the Agglutination Test, which depends upon the principle that in the blood serum of an animal harbouring in its body disease-producing organisms (though it may show no signs), antibody levels in serum can be evaluated using various agglutination test methods.
Aggression can be an acquired trait in animals such as those used as guard dogs, but often it can be a natural protective response, as in nursing bitches, cows, sows, etc. A survey of UK dog owners showed about a fifth showed aggression to other dogs on walks but usually most did not show signs in other situations. In some cases aggression can be the result of infirmity – pain and lack of mobility causing an animal to protect itself (e.g. large dogs with arthritis). A low protein (17 per cent) or medium protein (25 per cent) diet supplemented with tryptophan may lower territorial aggression. Many different methods are employed to reduce aggressive behaviour, including retraining under the guidance of a behaviourist, the use of behaviour-modifying drugs, neutering, or a combination of all three remedies. Owners and others should always be aware that an allegedly reformed animal may revert to aggressive behavioural activity at any time. (See also ENCEPHALITIS; MENINGIOMA; RABIES; BENZOIC ACID POISONING; EQUINE VERMINOUS ARTERITIS; ‘VICES’ AND VICIOUSNESS; CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS; MUSCLES, DISEASES OF - MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM; OVARIES, DISEASES OF; HYPERAESTHESIA; BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY; LISTERIOSIS; ANAPLASMOSIS; ACETONAEMIA; GRASS SICKNESS; HEARTWATER.)
(See AGAR-GEL IMMUNODIFFUSION TEST.)
The congenital absence of the tongue.
The congenital absence of the tongue and mouth opening.
The congenital absence of the lower jaw (MANDIBLE)
A type of drug which gives a positive response (e.g. contraction or relaxation of a muscle fibre, or secretion from a gland) when its molecule combines with a receptor. The latter is a specific structural component of a cell, on its membrane, and usually a protein.
Antagonist (The opposite of agonist) A drug which blocks the attachment of any other substance at the receptor, so preventing any possible active response.
Partial agonist A drug which produces a positive response at the receptor (®), but only a weak one. However, since it occupies the receptor it prevents any full agonist from binding so that, in the presence of agonists, partial agonists may act as antagonists.
Many drugs are now classified according to their major action, e.g. ®β blockers, H1 and H2 receptor antagonists.
β receptors are present in the heart and smooth muscle of the bronchioles, uterus and arterioles supplying skeletal muscle. Drugs which are selective β1 (heart) or β2 (elsewhere) are now available. For example, CLENBUTEROL HYDROCHLORIDE is a specific β2 agonist; it is used as a bronchodilator to treat respiratory conditions in horses, dogs and cats, but in cattle, it acts as a growth promoter, and so is prohibited in the EU.
A levy board organisation combining various other bodies including the British Pig Executive (BPEX), DairyCo and the English Beef and Lamb Executive (EBLEX), Their address is AHDB, Stoneleigh Park, Kenilworth, Warwickshire, CV8 2TL. Telephone: 0247 669 2051; email: info@ahdb.org.uk; website: www.ahdb.org.uk.
Lack of gyri (folds) on the brain which is normal in lower mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish
(See AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE DEVELOPMENT BOARD.)
Abbreviation of AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS (See HORSE-SICKNESS, AFRICAN.)
(See ANIMAL HEALTH AND VETERINARY LABORATORIES AGENCY.)
(See ANIMAL HEALTH AND WELFARE BOARD FOR ENGLAND.)
1. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
2. AVIAN INFLUENZA
Atmospheric air contains by volume 20.96 per cent of oxygen, 78.09 per cent of nitrogen, 0.03 per cent of carbon dioxide, 0.94 per cent of argon, and traces of a number of other elements – the most important of which are helium, hydrogen, ozone, neon, xenon, and krypton, as well as variable quantities of water vapour. (See SMOG.)
Air that has been expired from the lungs in a normal manner shows roughly a 4 per cent change in the amount of the oxygen and carbon dioxide, less of the former (16.96 per cent) and more of the latter (4.03 per cent). The nitrogen remains unaltered.
The importance of fresh air to animals is immense. (See VENTILATION; RESPIRATION; OZONE; SLURRY; CARBON MONOXIDE.)
A large, black-and-tan, wiry-coated breed. Entropion and cataract are inherited, probably as autosomal dominant traits, while cerebellar hypoplasia, deformed vertebrae (spondylitis deformans), and inflamed eyes and skin depigmentation (uveodermatological syndrome) may be inherited by mechanisms not completely known.
This has been used in poultry hatcheries to reduce airborne fluff produced by day-old-chicks and thereby the overall bacterial population of the environment.
(See BRONCHUS; NOSE AND NASAL PASSAGES; TRACHEA.)
Part of the respiratory system, particularly in reference to birds and some reptiles.
Inflammation of the air sacs in birds.
In horses, heart rate and behaviour indicated that it was less stressful than road transport, as resting values occur during the flight. (See TRANSPORT STRESS.)
First isolated from mosquitoes in Japan; antibodies detected in cattle, horses and sheep in Australia. A cause of abortion in cattle, and of birth of abnormal calves. The virus, a member of the Bunyavirus group, is teratogenic.
Some calves are born blind and walk with difficulty; some have the cerebrum virtually replaced by a water-filled cyst.
(See also Arthrogryposis under GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING - GENETIC DEFECTS.)
(See JAPANESE AKITA DOGS.)
A disease, first recorded in the USA in the 1980, associated with greyhounds but later found in other breeds. A similar disease has been recorded in Britain since 2012. First seen as a slowly-healing ulcer usually of legs or face, then depression, loss of appetite and vomiting, quickly turning into acute kidney failure often with AZOTURIA. The cause is unknown but it has been suggested that it might be the result of E. Coli toxin. There is a high mortality but early aggressive veterinary treatment can save the affected animal.
An amino acid that enables energy to be stored in the nervous system (including the brain) and muscles.
An enzyme involved in amino acid transfer. Liver damage results in high levels in the circulating blood. It is used as a measure of liver damage in dogs and cats.
A breed of dog developed from the husky. Dwarfism (chondrodysplasia) is inherited in some litters. Day blindness may also be inherited and CONGENITAL HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIA occurs. Factor VII haemophilia and cases of hip dysplasia have been reported.
A benzimidazole anthelmintic, which has a good efficacy against most gastrointestinal helminths (except Trichuris spp.), lungworms and some tapeworms. At a higher dose, it is efficacious against liver fluke.
Albinism is a lack of the pigment melanin in the skin – an inherited condition.
The white of an egg.
A group of water-soluble proteins which are moderately soluble in salt solutions and coagulated by heat. They include plasma albumin (mainly produced in the LIVER) and binds in the blood with water, CATIONS, HORMONES, BILIRUBIN, THYROXINE, drugs, etc. It is also the protein of the ‘white’ of eggs. (See PROTEINS; CONALBUMIN; ALBUMINURIA.)
The presence of albumin in the urine: one of the earliest signs of NEPHRITIS and cystitis. Its presence can be demonstrated by laying a small amount of SULFOSALICYLIC ACID on the surface of a urine sample in a test tube or by use of a commercial dipstick test kit. (See URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF).
Acute poisoning is usually the result of too large doses given bona fide, but occasionally the larger herbivora and pigs eat fermenting windfalls in apple orchards; or are given or obtain, fresh distillers’ grains, or other residue permeated with spirit, in such quantities that the animals become virtually drunk. In more serious cases they may become comatose.
This is a hormone secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland. Aldosterone regulates the electrolyte balance by increasing sodium retention and potassium excretion. (See CORTICOSTEROIDS.)
A persistent insecticide; a chlorinated hydrocarbon used in agriculture and formerly in farm animals. Its persistence has prevented its veterinary use. Signs of toxicity include blindness, salivation, convulsions, rapid breathing. (See GAME BIRDS, MORTALITY.)
(See MULTICENTRIC LEUKAEMIA.)
First described in 1956 in the USA, this disease of Mustelidae (mink, ferrets) caused by Aleutian Disease Virus (ADV), a parvovirus, which also occurs in the UK, Denmark, Sweden, New Zealand and Canada.
Mink
Signs The disease is characterised by the development of antigen/antibody complexes which produce signs including: failure to put on weight or even loss of weight; thirst; the presence of undigested food in the faeces – which may be tarry. Bleeding from the mouth and anaemia may also be observed. Death usually follows within a month.
Ferrets In these animals antibodies, and so antigen-antibody complexes, are less readily formed.
Signs include: loss of weight; malaise; chronic respiratory infection; and paresis or paraplegia. Bleeding from the mouth and anaemia may also be observed. Death usually follows within a month and cardiomyopathy and lymphoma may be seen on necropsy. The disease can be confused with the later stages of rabies.
Diagnosis In ferrets diagnosis is complicated by their failure to produce large amounts of antibodies and so screening of populations for carriers is difficult. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis, immunofluorescent antibody and ELISA tests on blood and saliva (difficult to obtain) are used.
(See COMPLEMENT.)
(See ALFAXALONE.)
American name for LUCERNE.
Previously used in combination with alfadalone, but not recently. It is a neurosteroid general anaesthetic in veterinary practice under the trade name Alfaxan. It is licensed for use in both dogs and cats and is also used off-licence in rabbits.
Simple plant life of very varied form and size, ranging from single-cell organisms upwards to large seaweed structures. Algae can be a nuisance on farms when they block pipes or clog nipple drinkers. This happens especially in warm buildings, where either an antibiotic or sugar is being administered to poultry via the drinking water. Filters may also become blocked by algae.
The colourless Prototheca species are pathogenic for both animals (cattle, deer, dogs, pigs) and man. (See MASTITIS IN COWS – Algal mastitis.)
The non-toxic algae of the Spirulina group are used in the feed of some ornamental fish and human health supplements. S. platensis (originally found in Lake Chad) is being investigated as a feed ingredient for animals. Nalila salina (originally from Lake Uroumich, northern Iran) is rich (12 per cent of dry matter) in natural carotenoids.
Toxic freshwater algae, characteristically blue-green in colour, are found in summer on lakes in numerous locations, particularly where water has a high phosphate and nitrate content derived from farm land. Formed by the summer blooms of cyanobacteria, they can form an oily, paint-like layer several cm thick. Deaths have occurred in cattle and sheep drinking from affected water; photosensitivity is a common sign among survivors. Dogs have also been affected.
The main toxic freshwater cyanobacteria are strains of the unicellular Microcystis aeruginosa, and the filamentous forms Anabaena flos-aquae, Aphanizomenon and Oscillatoria agardhii.
Signs vary according to the dominant cyanobacterium present. Anabaena flos-aquae, for example, can form alkaloid neuromuscular toxins which can produce signs within half an hour; these being muscular tremors, stupor, ataxia, prostration, convulsions, sometimes opisthotonus and death. Dyspnoea and salivation may also be seen.
Mycrocystis strains produce a slower-acting peptide toxin, which may cause vomiting and diarrhoea, salivation, thirst, piloerection, and lachrymation. Survivors may show LIGHT SENSITISATION, with inflamed white skin and oedema of ears and eyelids.
Poisoning by algae has been recorded in dogs that have been in the sea off Denmark. In the USA, a colourless alga is reported to have caused dysentery, blindness and deafness, and sometimes ataxia and head-tilting.
In Victoria, Australia, 17 sheep died and many others showed signs of light sensitivity after drinking from a lake affected by a thick bloom of M. aeruginosa. The deaths were spread over six months after removal from access to the lake.
Poisoning in cattle was suspected in the UK after a spell of hot weather in East Anglia caused an algal bloom in field ponds and 50 per cent of the cows in a herd suddenly showed nervous signs. BSE was ruled out as the cause.
(See DIGESTION, ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION.)
A substance which neutralises an acid to form a salt, and turns red litmus blue. Alkalis are generally the oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, or bicarbonates of metals.
Varieties Ammonium, lithium, potassium and sodium salts are the principal alkalis, their carbonates being weak and their bicarbonates weaker.
Uses In poisoning by acids, alkalis in dilute solution should be administered at once. (See ACIDS, POISONING BY; STOMACH, DISEASES OF; DISINFECTION; DETERGENTS; LAUNDRY DETERGENT POD POISONING.)
An enzyme found on the membrane surfaces of cells. Increased levels occur in serum when there is increased LIVER activity such as in HEPATITIS or in diseases including obstructive JAUNDICE, bone diseases where there is increased bone breakdown (OSTEOCLAST activity) such as in HYPERTHYROIDISM, or bone cancer. It can also rise in some other types of cancer. The liver and bone tissues develop distinct isoenzymes.
Alkaloids constitute a large number of the active principles of plants and all possess a powerful physiological action. Like alkalis, they combine with acids to form salts, and turn red litmus blue. Many alkaloids are used in medicine, and their names almost always end in ‘ine’ – e.g. atropine, morphine, quinine, etc.
Aconitine, from monkshood (Aconitum napellus).
Aconine, from monkshood (Aconitum napellus)
Arecoline, from areca nut (Areca catechu).
Atropine, from belladonna, the juice of the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna).
Caffeine, from the coffee plant (Coffea arabica) and from the leaves of the tea plant (Thea sinensis), also found in the kola nut, guarana, and species of holly, etc.
Cocaine, from coca leaves (Coca erythroxylon).
Digitoxin*, from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).
Digitalin*, from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).
Ephedrine, from various species of Ephedra.
Ergotoxin*, from ergot (Claviceps purpurea).
Ergometrine, from ergot (Claviceps purpurea).
Hyoscyamine, from henbane (Hyoscyamus niger).
Hyoscine or Scopolamine also from henbane.
Morphine, also from henbane.
Codeine, from opium, the juice of the opium poppy (Papaver comniferans).
Thebaine, from opium, the juice of the opium poppy (Papaver comniferans).
Heroin, from opium, the juice of the opium poppy (Papaver comniferans).
Nicotine, from tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tobaccum).
Physostigmine or Eserine from Calabar beans (Physostigma venenosum).
Pilocarpine, from jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandi).
Quinine, from cinchona or Peruvian bark (Cinchona, and Cinchona rubra).
Santonin*, from wormwood (Artemesia pauciflora).
Sparteine, from lupins (Lupulinus, sp.) and from broom (Cytisus scoparius).
Strychnine, from Nux vomica seeds (Strychnos nux vomica).
Veratrine, from cevadilla seeds (Cevadilla officinale, or Schoenocaulon officinale).
Those marked * are neutral principles.
A first-aid antidote for poisoning by an alkaloid is strong tea.
A pathological condition due to accumulation of base (alkali) or loss of acid from body fluids without a related loss of base. It is characterised by a decrease in hydrogen ions and a rise in pH. It is the opposite of acidosis and is seen clinically less commonly.
(See ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE.)
A product of PURINE metabolism and is present in the urine of most mammals except man, primates and DALMATIAN DOGS.
The outer of two fluid-filled sacs that surround the developing embryo. It is a sac extending from the hind gut of the early embryo and containing urine-like fluid which helps to protect the embryo. The allantois fuses with the chorion to become part of the PLACENTA. Occasionally the fetal ureter, instead of being connected to the placenta, becomes connected to the allantoic sac, which becomes dilated with fetal urine to a stage where it can depress appetite by compressing the rumen, a condition is called hydroallantois. The abdomen of the cow becomes pear-shaped and the only cure for the condition is to abort the fetus. (See also PERVIOUS URACHUS.)
Alleles (allelomorphs) are genes which influence a particular development process, processes, or character, in opposite ways, and can replace one another at a particular locus on a chromosome. They result from a previous mutation, and the original gene and its mutated form are called an ‘allelomorphic pair’. Another definition is: one of a pair or series (multiple alleles) of genes occupying alternatively the same locus. (See also GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING.)
The chemical entity responsible for the development of allergic disease; usually a foreign protein.
A form of conjunctivitis (‘RED EYE’) mainly seen in dogs often caused by airborne allergens, or resulting from changes in their environment or their immune status. It commonly also occurs with RHINITIS resulting in SNEEZING or other allergic signs. It is becoming increasingly common. (See also ALLERGY; EYE, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.)
Allergic dermatitis is another name for dermatitis caused by an allergy. For example, ‘Queensland Itch’ is seen in horses in Australia, where it is a result of hypersensitivity to the bites of insects. In the United Kingdom midges are responsible for the development of Sweet Itch; in Japan it follows bites of the stable-fly. It is intensely itchy in character. Treatment involves the use of antihistaminics and prevention of access of biting flies responsible for the development of the condition: susceptible animals should be kept indoors during the periods of midge activity; if outside, appropriate horse rugs should be used.
Causes in dogs are more complex and include fleas, fungi (particularly house dust) and others for which many diagnostic tests have been developed. Allergic dermatitis in cats is usually related to infestation with fleas so treatment involves disinfestations and, possibly, the use of STEROIDS. (See also ECZEMA.)
An allergic rhinitis particularly seen in JERSEY CATTLE. It results in the animal rubbing its nose, often damaging the nose, sneezing, nasal discharge and often acute DYSPNOEA. It is seen in warm moist weather and appears to be allergy to pollen or fungal spores. Some animals also suffer MILK ALLERGY.
A specific sensitivity to e.g. a plant or animal product, usually of a protein nature. In the dog and cat, sensitivity occurs most commonly from bedding, carpeting, rubber products, household cleaners, plants and some skin dressings; in pigs, soya-bean protein antigens.
The three main signs are itching, self-inflicted damage as a result, and redness; sometimes oedema of the face, ears, vulva or extremities, or skin weals.
Many foodstuffs have caused allergy in the dog, e.g. cow’s milk; horse, ox, pig, sheep and chicken meat; eggs. True food allergies are less common in cats but can be distressing. Allergy may commonly arise in large animals following the bites of flies, sandflies, stable-flies, and sometimes bee or wasp stings. Pollens can produce skin changes as can avianised vaccines, horse serum, antibiotics, and synthetic hormone preparations
(See also ATOPIC DISEASE; ECZEMA; ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK; ANTIHISTAMINES; LIGHT SENSITISATION; LAMINITIS; REAGINIC ANTIBODIES.)
A piece of tissue, or a complete organ, transplanted from one animal to another of the same species. (See SKIN GRAFTING TRANSPLANTATION.)
1. The treatment of choice for LEISHMANIASIS in dogs. Given by mouth, it is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and excreted by the kidneys.
2. It is also used in dogs to treat UROLITHIASIS.
Cape aloes are an anthraquinone laxative with an intensely bitter taste. Aloe vera is a popular ingredient in skin preparations and the juice is reputed to be of benefit in cases of eczema.
Absence of hair from where it is normally present. It has to be differentiated from loss of hair due to mange, ringworm, lice infestation, and eczema or other causes. For example, the result of hormone imbalance, dietary deficiencies, trauma (e.g. burns) or selenium poisoning. A temporary alopecia is occasionally seen in newborn animals, and also in the dams of newborn animals. The female rabbit dam plucks fur to create alopecic areas to provide nesting material. Senile alopecia occurs in all species. In the gerbil, alopecia is seen on the top of the head and around the base of the tail. Alopecia in dogs, with symmetrical hair loss from trunk, neck and end of tail, may sometimes be due to a deficiency of the growth hormone SOMATOTROPIN. The age group affected is 1 to 4 years. Highly pigmented skin may be a feature, and treatment with growth hormone has proved successful. A deficiency of iodine or of thyroxine (HYPOTHYROIDISM) may produce usually symmetrical hair loss on the flanks and extending to the limbs. This type of canine alopecia usually responds to thyroid therapy. In male dogs of 5 years and upwards, alopecia may be accompanied by an attraction for other males, and usually responds to castration but not to hormone therapy. A Sertoli-cell tumour of the testicle also causes alopecia and feminisation. Symmetrical bare patches, accompanied by other signs, are a feature of Cushing’s disease.
(See ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE.)
A subspecies of SOUTH AMERICAN CAMELID now farmed in the UK and elsewhere for its fine wool; not reared for meat. Individuals can live for up to 20 years. There are two main types – the Suri (long fine fleece) and the Huaccaya (thick and more dense fibres). They are susceptible to infections already present in Britain. Clostridial vaccination is advised. Cryptosporidiosisi, coccidiosis and E. coli infections have been recorded. Exposure to the sun following shearing may cause dermatitis; fly strike is unusual. A dermatosis is zinc responsive. When contented alpaca make a humming noise, but scream if upset. They spit or empty their stomach contents when annoyed. Foot trimming is important and they can develop split nails. Attention to the teeth is important particularly reducing the canines in males, which are used in fighting.
HAEMONCHOSIS results in ANAEMIA usually without diarrhoea. In Britain and Europe several cases of BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS have occurred, usually in the lungs, and some cases were ‘open’ allowing the spread of infection.
In New Zealand parturition is known as ‘unpacking’.
In 2010 there were over 30,000 in the UK.
These are SYMPATHOMIMETIC AGENTS. (See IMIDAZOLINE COMPOUNDS.)
A narcotic used for the destruction of rodents, pigeons, etc. It acts by lowering the body temperature. Accidental poisoning in dogs and cats can occur with seizures, muscle tremors, hyperaesthesia, hypothermia, salivation, myosis, stupor, coma and ataxia. Signs occur about two hours after ingestion and may last for 24 to 48 hours. Animals should be kept warm; emetics may be given to conscious animals in the early stages and a stomach pump can be used in unconscious animals.
Viruses of arbovirus group A and equine encephalitis viruses bear this name.
(See ALFAXALONE.)
(See GERMAN SHEPHERD DOG.)
(See ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE.)
These are medicines and treatments which do not possess the same evidence base as CONVENTIONAL MEDICINE. It includes many practices including herbal medicine, homeopathy, and acupuncture. (See COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE.)
Animals unaccustomed to high altitudes can be adversely affected by them. Like humans, animals suffer hypoxia. Testicles of cats, rabbits and rats atrophy with resulting fertility problems. Hens and geese lay infertile eggs or cease laying. Ascites caused by high altitudes has been reported in all types of poultry. Acclimatisation to high altitudes results in the formation of more and smaller red blood cells so that oxygen-binding capacity is increased. (See also ‘MOUNTAIN SICKNESS’.)
A prostaglandin analogue used for the synchronisation of oestrus in mature sows (Regumate Porcine) and the suppression of prolonged oestrus in mares (Regumate Equine).
In the rat, research in South Africa has shown that aluminium toxicity might be due to (experimental) porphyria. In Israel it has been shown that rats given aluminium salts, and then examined under ultra-violet light, show fluorescence of eyes, long bones, brain and peri-testicular fat. In rats at least, therefore, aluminium cannot be regarded as a harmless element.
A disease of lambs in Norway, associated with the eating of bog asphodel Narthecium ossifragum. Signs are photosensitisation and jaundice; it is thought to be due to poisoning by microfungi present on the plant.
Inflammation of an alveolus. (See EXTRINSIC ALLERGIC ALVEOLITIS.)
(plural, Alveoli)
A tooth socket in the jaw. The term is also applied to the minute divisions of glands and to the air sacs of the lungs.
A condition in geriatric cats that closely resembles the human disease. Signs include disorientation, compulsive behaviours, disturbed sleep patterns and incontinence. Histologically, changes to the brain and blood resemble those in the human disease. (See also DEMENTIA.)
Impaired vision or even loss of sight, resulting from disease of the optic nerve, brain, or spinal cord.
Diminution of vision.
An information bulletin published by the Veterinary Medicines Directorate. The title is an acronym for Animal Medicines European Legislation Information and Advice.
Complete absence of one or more limbs.
(Americans call tortoises turtles.) A ban on the importation into the UK of tortoises from Mediterranean countries led dealers and pet shops to seek an alternative, and the choice was Terrapene carolina. Care of these animals is rather specialised and a vivarium is necessary. They are terrestrial animals, but occasionally immerse themselves in water although they are poor swimmers. Their recommended diet includes earthworms, mushrooms, beans, beansprouts, cucumber, grapes, banana and some leafy vegetables usually with a vitamin and mineral supplement. Specialist advice on husbandry is available from keepers’ societies.
A breed smaller than the English spaniel and with longer hair. Cataract DISTICHIASIS and ENTROPION are all probably inherited dominant traits. Other inherited mainly recessive conditions may include haemophilia (factor IX and X deficiencies), patellar luxation and prognathia. Other conditions apparently inherited include cleft primary an secondary palates, ECTROPION, PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS, primary glaucoma, RETINAL DYSPLASIA, SPONDYLITIS and umbilical hernia.
This is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE of BEES in the UK. In July 2011, American foulbrood (caused by Paenibacillus bacterium) was detected in an apiary in Perthshire, Scotland. The infected hive was destroyed and movement restrictions placed on bees and equipment from the apiary concerned. There is no permitted treatment for the disease in the UK.
A dog which was bred from the STAFFORDSHIRE BULL TERRIER and was often intended for fighting. It is banned in UK under the Dangerous Dogs Act 1989.
A breed derived mainly from dams of Spanish origin, for a long time bred by American Indians, and from Galloway sires brought by the early settlers. ‘It was Barb blood spiced with a Celtic infusion and refined with a dash of Eastern blood that fashioned the Quarter Horse.’ (R. M. Denhardt.) The horse was named as it was used to race over a quarter of a mile, i.e. it is a horse bred for racing very short distances.
The famous American breed is renowned for is smart carriage. It has a high-stepping show horse. Black is the main colour.
An organic compound containing ammonia (NH3).
A group of anthelmintics discovered in 2000 and introduced in 2009. The first AAD (monepantel), a liquid drench, was used in 2010 in UK sheep for treatment and control of parasitic gastroenteritis.
Amino acids are the ‘building blocks’ into which proteins can be broken down, and with which proteins can be constructed.
Amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, together with an amine group (NH2).
The quality of a protein, in terms of its value as an animal feed, depends upon its content of essential amino acids. These are lysine, methionine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, histidine, valine and arginine.
LYSINE is a particularly important amino acid for growth and milk production, and is one of those prepared synthetically and added to some livestock feeds.
The pig and rat require, for rapid growth: lysine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, phenylalanine, valine and histidine. The chick needs glycine in addition to these. The cat needs TAURINE.
A group of bactericidal antibiotics produced from Streptomyces species including streptomycin, neomycin, framycetin and gentamicin.
A drug used against BLACKHEAD OF TURKEYS; it is not currently used in the EU.
An enzyme which catalyses transfer reactions involving amino acids.
An ectoparasiticide for the treatment of lice and tick infestation and mange in dogs. It has been used in farm animals. It must not be used on chihuahuas, nor on cats or horses. It is sold under a variety of trade names.
A few drops of ammonia on a piece of cotton-wool held a few inches from the nostrils have a good effect in reviving animals which have collapsed. (Inhalation of concentrated ammonia can prove fatal.) Ammonia fumes from litter may adversely affect poultry. (See DEEP LITTER FOR POULTRY; also QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS.)
An excess of ammonia in the rumen has been cited as a cause of hypomagnesaemia in spring following massive applications of nitrogenous fertiliser. (See also UREA.)
Ammonia poisoning Hydrolysis of urea to ammonia in the rumen may occur very rapidly in cattle receiving excessive amounts of urea. If more ammonia reaches the blood and then the liver than the latter organ can detoxify, then ammonia poisoning will result. (See UREA.)
Several cows died after being fed straw which had been treated with ammonia for 5 days only and came direct from the treatment box. (It is recommended that the treatment should be for 10 days, with a 2-day interval before the product is fed to livestock.) Laryngeal oedema and emphysema of the lungs were caused. The level of ammonia in the atmosphere of animal housing must not exceed 14 ppm. Higher levels cause discomfort, especially in the case of birds, and continuous exposure can lead to ulceration of the cornea. A similar hydrolysis occurs in stale litter in rabbit hutches and releases ammonia in sufficient quantities to affect the animals quite seriously, as rabbits are very susceptible to the chemical. Due to its acidity, the use of peat moss as litter in rabbit trays and on the floor of hutches may counteract the effect of this hydrolysis.
(See also LITTER, OLD.)
The innermost of the 3 mammalian fetal envelopes. It is continuous with the skin at the umbilicus (navel), and completely encloses the fetus but is separated from actual contact with it by the amniotic fluid, or the ‘liquor of the amnion’, which in the mare measures about 5 or 6 litres (9 to 10 pints). (See PLACENTA.)
This ‘liquor amnii’ forms a kind of hydrostatic bed in which the fetus floats, and serves to protect it from injury, shocks, and extremes of temperature. It allows free, though limited, movements and guards the uterus of the dam from the spasmodic fetal movements which, late in pregnancy, are often vigorous and even violent.
At birth it helps to dilate the cervical canal of the uterus and the posterior genital passages, forms part of the ‘waterbag’, and, on bursting, lubricates the maternal passages. (See PARTURITION.)
Amoebic encephalitis due to Acanthamoeba castellani was found after the euthanasia of a 4-month-old puppy. Fits and hyperkeratosis of the foot pads suggested that the cause was the distemper virus, but A. castellani was recovered from an area of suppurative necrosis in the brain.
(In human medicine, several species of this amoeba are recognised as an important cause of granulomatous encephalitis.) (Pearce, J. R. & others, JAVMA 187, 951.)
An antibiotic resembling ampicillin, but its action is quicker and it is excreted more rapidly. Amoxycillin is often used in combination with clavulanic acid, which makes it more effective by blocking the effect of penicillinase, by which ampicillin is destroyed. It is used in most species except horses.
(See ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE.)
Synonym for Paramphistomes. (See PARAMPHISTOMIOSIS.)
An antimycotic preparation which is produced from species of Streptomyces bacteria. It combines with ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane making it porous and may thereby contribute to the fungal cell death. It is used to treat avian gastric yeast infestations in caged birds, but in UK it often had to be imported with an appropriate import certificate.
A semi-synthetic penicillin, active against both Gram-positive and GRAM-NEGATIVE bacteria. It is not resistant to penicillinase, but can be given by mouth (except in camelids and horses).
A small glass container having one end drawn out into a point capable of being sealed so as to preserve its contents sterile. It is used to contain solutions of drugs for hypodermic injection, while many vaccines and other biological products are also distributed in ampoules. A potential hazard of glass embolism has been recognised in human medicine, and the wisdom of allowing glass particles to settle, before filling a syringe, has been stressed.
A drug used for the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in turkeys, guinea fowl and chickens.
Removal of a limb. If a long bone of dog, cat, rabbit, other small mammal, bird or reptile has been shattered into several pieces (COMMINUTED or COMPOUND FRACTURE), or chronically infected or cancerous, amputation is usually the only humane course to take (other than euthanasia). Amputation is considered kinder than leaving the animal a permanent cripple, perhaps suffering some degree of pain for the rest of its life. A three-legged dog or cat can be expected to revise its technique of balance and movement, and to become not merely nimble but fast as well; and to demonstrate a capacity for enjoying life. After amputation of a hind limb in a pet rabbit, its ear on the same side will need regular cleaning as it uses the hind limb for this purpose. Tail amputation may also be performed in dogs and cats for similar reasons as for limbs. Cats may take some time to learn to balance again after tail removal, especially when climbing and jumping.