1. Communism before Marxism
1. D. McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, p. 128.
2. Ibid., p. 28.
3. Ibid., p. 139.
4. N. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, ch. 1.
5. Gospel according to St Matthew, chs 5–7.
6. The Dead Sea Scrolls.
7. T. More, Utopia; T. Campanella, The City of the Sun.
8. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium, chs 12–13.
9. C. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution.
10. W. Doyle, Oxford History of the French Revolution, pp. 324–7.
11. G. Lichtheim, A Short History of Socialism, pp. 54, 56 and 58–9.
12. Ibid., pp. 42–3, 45–6 and 53–5.
13. Ibid., pp. 53 and 55–9.
14. K. Bock, ‘Theories of Progress, Development, Evolution’ in T. B. Bottomore and R. Nisbet (eds), A History of Sociological Analysis, pp. 60–7.
15. I. Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment.
16. J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy, pp. 41–9.
17. Ibid., pp. 46 –7.
18. N. Machiavelli, The Prince.
19. R. Porter, The Enlightenment.
2. Marx and Engels
1. D. McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, ch. 2.
2. F. Wheen, Karl Marx, pp. 256–7.
3. K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto, p. 103.
4. Ibid., p. 102.
5. Theses on Feuerbach in D. McLellan (ed.), Karl Marx: Selected Writings, p. 158.
6. McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, pp. 155–66.
7. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1.
8. McLellan, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought, pp. 361 et seq.
9. Ibid., pp. 391–402.
10. Ibid., pp. 276–80.
11. T. Shanin, Late Marx and the Russian Road: Marx and ‘the Peripheries of Capitalism’ .
12. F. Engels, Anti-Dühring; The Dialectics of Nature; The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State.
13. See note 9.
14. F. Mehring, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life, pp. 161–5.
15. See K. Kautsky, The Agrarian Question.
3. Communism in Europe
1. H. J. Steinberg, Il socialismo tedesco da Bebel a Kautsky, chs 1–2.
2. D. Geary, Karl Kautsky, ch. 3.
3. E. H. Carr, Michael Bakunin.
4. See R. Hilferding, Boehm-Bawerk’s Criticism of Marx; R. Luxemburg, The Accumulation of Capital.
5. W. J. Mommsen, The Age of Bureaucracy: Perspectives on the Political Sociology of Max Weber.
6. R. Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy, parts 1–2. See also T. B. Bottomore, Elites and Society, chs 2–3.
7. E. Bernstein, Evolutionary Socialism.
8. E. David’s work had an international impact, being translated into Russian; it earned the ire of Lenin; see his Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 5, pp. 222–35.
9. See below, pp. 48–53.
10. K. Kautsky, The Agrarian Question. See also M. Salvadori, Karl Kautsky e la rivoluzione socialista, chs 2–3.
11. G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War: The Collapse of the Second International, pp. 11–29.
12. M. S. Shatz, Jan Waclaw Machajski: A Radical Critic of the Russian Intelligentsia.
13. Michels, Political Parties, part 6.
14. J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 2, ch. 13.
15. D. A. Smart (ed.), Pannekoek and Gorter’s Marxism.
16. R. Luxemburg, The Mass Strike.
17. See above, p. 34.
18. Austro-Marxism, pp. 102–35.
19. Ibid.
20. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War, pp. 19–22.
21. See below, pp. 63–4 and 106–7.
4. Russian Variations
1. A. Walicki, The Controversy over Capitalism: Studies in the Social Philosophy of the Russian Populists.
2. See above, p. 30.
3. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 1, chs 4–5.
4. Ibid., pp. 110–11.
5. Ibid., ch. 9.
6. See above, p. 32.
7. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 1, pp. 33–7 and 128–33.
8. R. Service, Lenin: A Biography, pp. 188–9.
9. Ibid., ch. 9.
10. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 1, pp. 165 et seq.
11. R. C. Williams, The Other Bolsheviks: Lenin and his Critics, 1904–1914, pp. 66–80.
12. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, p. 65.
13. J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 1, pp. 224–7.
14. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 2, ch. 2.
15. G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War: The Collapse of the Second International; Service, Lenin: A Biography, p. 103.
16. Service, Lenin: A Biography, pp. 226–8.
5. The October Revolution
1. R. Service, The Russian Revolution, 1900–1927, pp. 39–40.
2. R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study in Organisational Change, pp. 42–62.
3. Gosudarstvo i revolyutsiya in V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 33.
4. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 2, pp. 216–23.
5. The specific differences between Leninist communism and rival socialist and social-democratic variants are discussed below, pp. 107–8.
6. A. Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power.
6. The First Communist State
1. R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study in Organisational Change, pp. 82–3.
2. I. Getzler, Kronstadt 1917–1921: The Fate of a Soviet Democracy, pp. 233–44.
3. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution, ch. 4.
4. Ibid., pp. 101–9.
5. Ibid., p. 147.
6. Ibid., p. 125.
7. R. Service, Lenin: A Biography, pp. 268–9.
8. Ibid., pp. 380–1.
9. Ibid., p. 233.
10. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, p. 211.
11. L. Chamberlain, The Philosophy Steamer: Lenin and the Exile of the Intelligentsia.
12. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, pp. 244–8.
13. Service, Lenin: A Biography, p. 403.
14. R. Service, ‘Bolshevism’s Europe from Lenin to Stalin, 1914–1928’, in S. Pons and A. Romano (eds), Russia in the Age of Wars, 1914–1945, pp. 69–78.
15. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, pp. 179–80.
7. European Revolutions
1. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, pp. 45–6.
2. RGASPI, f. 325, op. 1, d. 62, p. 4.
3. J. P. Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg, vol. 2, pp. 761–77.
4. American Legation in Belgrade to Herbert Hoover, 25 March 1919: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 2.
5. M. Károlyi, ‘The History of my Abdication’ (typescript: Vienna, 15 July 1919), pp. 3–6: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 2.
6. Letter of Philip Marshall Brown to Archibald Cary Coolidge, 17 April 1919: Hungarian Political Dossier, vol. 1: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 2. Brown met Kun on 15 April 1919.
7. American Relief Administration Bulletin, no. 19, 25 July 1919: Gibbes Lykes Papers (HIA), box 1.
8. Lt Emery Pottle and Dr E. Dana Durand, ‘An Interview with Bela Kuhn [sic]’, American Relief Administration Bulletin, no. 19, 25 July 1919, pp. 34–5.
9. A. R. Hunt, Facts about Communist Hungary, p. 6.
10. Ibid., p. 3.
11. Ibid., p. 4.
12. H. James (American representative on the Interallied Danube Commission), ‘Report on trip to Germany-Austria and Czecho-Slovakia’, p. 1: Henry James Papers (HIA).
13. T. T. C. Gregory (the American Relief Administration’s director for central Europe), ‘Stemming the Red Tide’ (typescript, 1919), p. 70: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 1.
14. Notes on communism in central Europe (typescript, no title or date), p. 2: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 1.
15. Telegrams, 2 February and 19 April 1919: RGASPI, f. 17, op. 109, d. 46, pp. 1–2.
16. T. T. C. Gregory, ‘Beating Back Bolshevism’ (typescript, no date [possibly 1920]), p. 6: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 1.
17. Trotski’s message to Rakovski, Podvoiski and Antonov-Ovseenko, 18 April 1919: RGASPI, f. 325, op. 1, d. 404, p. 86, and Lenin’s telegram to Aralov and Vacietis, 21 April 1919, ibid., p. 92; telegram of Vacietis and Aralov to Antonov, 23 April 1919, ibid., op. 109, d. 46, pp. 3–5.
18. See below, pp. 95–6.
19. R. L. Tökés, Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic: The Origins and Role of the Communist Party of Hungary in the Revolutions of 1918–1919.
20. Memorandum by Ferenc Julier, former Commander of the General Staff of the Red Army; it was prepared for the Hoover Library in 1933 and translated into English: Hungarian Subject Collection (HIA), p. 3.
21. Report of T. T. C. Gregory (American Relief Administration) to Herbert Hoover, 4 June 1919, pp. 1–2: T. T. C. Gregory Papers (HIA), box 1.
22. Memorandum of Ferenc Julier (see note 20), pp. 3–4 and 14.
23. Inter-Allied Military Commission (Budapest) to Supreme Council of the Peace Conference, 19 August 1919: Gibbes Lykes Papers (HIA), box 1; Logan to Paris, 13 August 1919.
24. Office diary, 13 February 1919, p. 3: Herbert Haviland Field Papers (HIA). Field was a delegate of the US peace treaty commission.
25. Office diary, 15 March 1919, p. 10: Herbert Haviland Field Papers (HIA).
26. J. Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII, p. 75.
27. R. Leviné-Meyer, Leviné the Spartacist, p. 104.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid., p. 95.
30. R. J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, pp. 60–76
31. Leviné-Meyer, Leviné the Spartacist: The Life and Times of the Socialist Revolutionary Leader of the German Spartacists and Head of the Ill-Starred Munich Republic of 1919, p. 153.
32. E. Toller, An Appeal from the Young Workers of Germany.
33. I. N. R. Davies, White Eagle, Red Star, chs 3–6.
34. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, p. 141.
35. Speech by Stalin to the Twelfth Party Congress, section on ‘the national question’, 25 April 1923: ITsKKPSS, no. 4 (1991), p. 171. See Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, pp. 191–2.
36. S. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Study in the Politics of Diplomacy, 1920–1924, chs 1–2.
37. R. H. Ullman, The Anglo-Soviet Accord, pp. 474–8.
38. R. L. Tökés, ‘Béla Kun: The Man and the Revolutionary’, in I. Völgyes (ed.), Hungary in Revolution, 1918–19, pp. 186–9.
39. Letter of Stalin to Zinoviev, August 1923, which Zinoviev read out to the joint plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Committee, July–August 1923: RGASPI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 317 (Viii), p. 22; Stalin’s unchallenged comments to the same plenum: RGASPI, f. 17, op. 2, d. 293, pp. 99–101.
8. Communism and its Discontents
1. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 3, ch. 9.
2. R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study on Organisational Change, pp. 168–9.
3. I am adopting the suggestion of Brian Pearce, peerless translator of Russian historical works, that ‘Change of Waymarks’ best translates the name of the group.
4. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution, p. 168.
5. D. Koenker, Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolution, pp. 171–86.
6. A. Pospielovsky, ‘Strikes during the NEP’, Revolutionary Russia, no. 1 (1997).
7. C. Read, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia, chs 3–5.
8. T. Shanin, The Awkward Class: Political Sociology of Peasantry in a Developing Society, pp. 169–79.
9. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, p. 256.
10. Ibid., p. 403.
11. J. Baberowski, Der Feind ist überall: Stalinismus im Kaukasus, pp. 316–49.
9. The Communist International
1. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 84, d. 1: 28 September 1918.
2. See Chap. 4.
3. C. Sheridan, Russian Portraits, pp. 25–62.
4. H. Barbé, ‘Souvenir de militant et dirigeant communiste’ (typescript, HIA), p. 33.
5. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 52, d. 6.
6. I. Linder and S. Churkin, Krasnaya pautina: tainy razvedki Kominterna, 1919–1943, p. 31.
7. See the account by Barbé, ‘Souvenir de militant et dirigeant communiste’, pp. 74–5.
8. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 42, p. 112.
9. A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, pp. 327–36.
10. P. S. Pinheiro, Estratégias da illusão: a revolução mundial e o Brasil, 1912–1935, p. 30.
11. A. S. Lindemann, The ‘Red Years’: European Socialism versus Bolshevism, 1919–1921.
12. P. Spriano, Storia del Partito Comunista Italiano, vol. 1: Da Bordiga a Gramsci.
13. Barbé, ‘Souvenir de militant et dirigeant communiste’, p. 33.
14. Ibid., pp. 205–7.
15. Ibid., p. 209.
16. Ibid., p. 33.
17. J. Redman [B. Pearce], The Communist Party and the Labour Left, 1925–1929, p. 8.
18. G. S. Murphy, Soviet Mongolia: A Study of the Oldest Political Satellite.
19. Barbé, ‘Souvenir de militant et dirigeant communiste’, p. 140.
20. Ibid., p. 228.
21. Memoirs of Zhen Bilan in Peng Shu-tse Papers (HIA), folder 3, pp. 11 and 29.
22. Ibid., folder 21, pp. 28–9.
23. Documents on Communism, Nationalism, and Soviet Advisers in China, 1918–1927: Papers Seized in the 1927 Peking Raid, p. 105.
24. Linder and Churkin, Krasnaya pautina, pp. 195–206. See above, pp. 95–6.
10. Probing America
1. Minutes of the Central Executive Committee of the CPA, 15 November 1919: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA), box 32.
2. H. Klehr, J. E. Haynes and K. M. Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, doc. 1, p. 19.
3. S. M. Lipset and G. Marks, It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States, p. 35.
4. F. M. Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States: From the Depression to World War II, p. 51.
5. Communist International Instructions (HIA), folder XX695–10.V, p. 7.
6. Ibid., pp. 1–10. The comment on the press (p. 7) has ‘party’ and ‘dailies’ in capital letters in the original.
7. Letter from Moscow to ‘Dear Comrade’ (Jay Lovestone?), 19 May 1924: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 196, folder 3.
8. Letter from ‘Henry’ to ‘Dear Comrades’, 26 February 1926: ibid., folder 4. On the national composition of the party see H. Klehr, Communist Cadre: The Social Background of the American Communist Party Elite, p. 25.
9. Official central letters to ‘Dear Comrade’: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 195, folder 6.
10. M. Eastman, ‘A Statement of the Problem in America and the First Step to its Solution’: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA), box 31. See also Political Committee minutes, 29 June 1927, p. 5 on the ‘deplorable state of affairs’ in the Jewish Section: Charles Wesley Ervin Papers (HIA).
11. Klehr, Communist Cadre: The Social Background of the American Communist Party Elite, p. 46
12. Unsigned report, 8 October 1925: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 197, folder 1.
13. Ibid.
14. Official Comintern letter, 20 June 1925, p. 2: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA), box 32.
15. T. Draper, American Communism and Soviet Russia: The Formative Period, p. 334.
16. Secretariat minutes, 13 September 1927, p. 2: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA), box 32.
17. Ibid.
18. Klehr, Haynes and Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, doc. 59, p. 206.
19. H. M. Wicks, speech at the American Commission of Comintern in Moscow, 21 April 1929, p. 7: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA), box 31.
20. H. Haywood, Negro Liberation (1948) sums up the project. See also H. Haywood, Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist.
21. S. Adams, Comrade Minister: The South African Communist Party and the Transition from Apartheid to Democracy, pp. 27–8.
22. Letter from ‘Ed.’, 11 April 1920: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 195, folder 10.
23. See for example Ruthenburg cable to Lovestone, 5 December 1925: ibid., box 386, folder 56.
24. Ibid., box 197, folder 5.
25. James Cannon to T. Draper, 10 May 1954, p. 1: Theodore Draper Papers (HIA).
26. Telegram of 20 April 1927: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 195, folder 11.
27. Unsigned typescript copy, 25 April 1927: ibid., box 197, folder 11.
28. Draper, American Communism and Soviet Russia, p. 200.
29. Letter to Bukharin, 9 September 1928: Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 198, folder 8.
30. Unsigned typescript about Comintern to ‘Dear Friends’, 24 April 1929: ibid., folder 12.
31. K. McDermott and J. Agnew, The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin, p. 88.
32. Telegram of 7 November 1924. Jay Lovestone Papers (HIA), box 368, folder 47.
33. G. Lewy, The Cause that Failed: Communism in American Political Life, p. 307.
34. Lipset and Marks, It Didn’t Happen Here, p. 40.
35. See p. 174.
36. Earl Browder Says, p. 2.
37. Ibid., pp. 4–5.
38. R. L. Benson and M. Warner (eds), Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response, 1939–1957, p. xii.
39. Ibid., p. 49.
40. Ottanelli, The Communist Party of the United States, p. 210.
41. See the Manual for Community Club Leaders. A Handbook for the Use of Officers and Committees of Communist Community Clubs (prepared by the Organisational Department of the Communist National Committee).
42. Letters of Earl Browder to Elizabeth Churchill Brown, 1 January and 16 September 1954: Elizabeth Churchill Brown Papers (HIA). Browder made this call on 26 September 1943: Chicago Herald-Examiner, 27 September 1943; I have drawn this information from his private letter to Elizabeth Churchill Brown, 1 September 1954. Stalin was not the only communist leader annoyed. According to Browder, the British communist party criticised him for treading outside his political patch: letter to Elizabeth Churchill Brown, 16 September 1954. Both letters are in Elizabeth Churchill Brown Papers (HIA). For a more general account see Klehr, Haynes and Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, pp. 98–9.
43. E. Browder, Teheran: Our Path in War and Peace.
44. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli anni di Mosca (1934–1945), p. 683: 26 January 1944.
45. Ibid., pp. 696–7: 8 March 1944.
46. ‘À propos de la dissolution du PCA’, Cahiers du Communisme, 6 April 1945.
47. See below, pp. 206–7.
48. See below, pp. 239–40.
49. Lewy, The Cause that Failed, p. 81.
50. See below, pp. 273–4.
51. Klehr, Haynes and Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, p. 353.
52. See below, Chap. 27.
53. G. Hall, The Power of Ideology: Keynote Address to the First Ideological Conference of the Communist Party USA [sic], July 14–16 1989, Chicago, pp. 6, 7 and 21.
54. Klehr, Haynes and Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, pp. 158–9 (including docs 44–5).
55. Hall, The Power of Ideology, p. 6.
56. See above, pp. 420–4.
57. G. Hall, The Era of Crisis: Forging Unity in Struggle: Report to the Twenty Fifth National Convention, Communist Party, USA, p. 2.
11. Making Sense of Communism
1. N. Bukharin and Ye. Preobrazhenskii, Azbuka kommunizma.
2. L. Kaganovich, Kak postroena RKP(b).
3. R. Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study in Organisational Change, pp. 104–11.
4. R. Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. 2, ch. 7.
5. Zinoviev was unusual in being frank about the situation.
6. P. Dukes, Red Dusk and the Morrow: Adventures and Investigations in Red Russia, pp. 222–3; P. Dukes, The Story of ‘ST 25’: Adventure and Romance in the Secret Intelligence Service in Red Russia, pp. 276, 289 and 293.
7. Dukes, Red Dusk and the Morrow, pp. 11, 22, 82 and 208. His various Soviet official attestations are held in the Sir Paul Dukes Papers (HIA), box 1.
8. R. Bruce Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent: Being an Account of the Author’s Early Life on Many Lands and His Official Mission to Moscow in 1918, pp. 236–348.
9. H. Radek and A. Ransome, Radek and Ransome on Russia, pp. 1–24.
10. H. Brogan, The Life of Arthur Ransome, pp. 153–4 and 281–2.
11. Ibid., pp. 160–2; Y. Membery, ‘Swallows, Amazons and Secret Agents’, Observer, 21 July 2002.
12. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 52, d. 4, pp. 1–2.
13. A. Rhys Williams, Lenin: The Man and his Work (1919) and Through the Russian Revolution (1967).
14. J. Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World (1919).
15. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 52, d. 6.
16. G. Hicks, John Reed: The Making of a Revolutionary, p. 395.
17. P. Avrich, The Russian Anarchists, chs 6–7.
18. E. Goldman, My Disillusionment in Russia (1923); My Further Disillusionment in Russia (1924).
19. R. Luxemburg, The Russian Revolution.
20. K. Kautsky, Die Diktatur des Proletariats.
21. Yu. Martov, Mirovoi bol’shevizm.
22. Jonathan Davis, ‘Left Out in the Cold: British Labour Witnesses the Russian Revolution’, Revolutionary Russia, no. 1 (June 2005), pp. 71–88.
23. H. G. Wells, Russia in the Shadows.
24. B. Russell, The Theory and Practice of Bolshevism.
25. N. Glazer and D. P. Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians and Irish of New York City, pp. 139–80 and 268–9.
26. M. N. Roy, Memoirs, p. 348.
27. See above, p. 51.
28. Testimony of Giovanni Casale in C. Bermani (ed.), Gramsci raccontato: Testimonianze raccolte da Cesare Bermani, Gianni Bosio e Mimma Paulesu Quercioli, p. 131.
29. Testimony of Ercole Piacentini in ibid., p. 168.
30. L. Sedda, Economia, politica e società sovietica nei quaderni del carcere, pp. 34, 36, 48 and 82. See A. Gramsci, Quaderni del carcere, Q 4, p. 489, Q. 9, p. 1120, Q. 11, p. 1425, Q. 19, p. 2030.
31. Letter to Tatyana Schucht, 26 August 1929: A. Gramsci, Lettere dal carcere, p. 110.
12. The USSR in Torment
1. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 214–17.
2. Ibid., pp. 3–4 and 225–30.
3. R. Service, The Russian Revolution, 1900–1927, pp. 76–80; C. Merridale, Moscow Politics and the Rise of Stalin, p. 53.
4. J. Hessler, A Social History of Soviet Trade: Trade Policy, Retail Practices and Consumption, 1917–1953, pp. 142–6.
5. A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, pp. 171 and 241; S. G. Wheatcroft, ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s’, Soviet Studies, no. 2 (1990), p. 366.
6. S. Fitzpatrick, ‘Stalin and the Making of a New Elite, 1928–1939’, Slavic Review, no. 3 (1979).
7. Akademicheskoe delo, 1929–1931: Delo po obvineniyu akademika S. F. Platonova, p. xlviii.
8. Trud, 4 June 1992.
9. B. A. Viktorov, ‘Geroi iz 37-go’, Komsomol’skaya pravda, 21 August 1988.
10. See below, pp. 255–9.
13. The Soviet Model
1. Letter to F. Dzier
y
ski, n.d.:
RGASPI, f. 76, op. 3, d. 345. I took this from the Volkogonov Papers, reel 9 in the Bodleian Library.
2. J. Riordan, ‘The Strange Story of Nikolai Starostin, Football and Lavrentii Beria – Sports Personality and Soviet Chief of Intelligence’, Europe-Asia Studies, July 1994.
3. P. Gregory, The Political Economy of Stalin: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives.
4. ‘Sovershenno sekretno’: Lubyanka – Stalinu o polozhenii v strane (1922–1934 gg.), vols 1 ff.
5. Yelizaveta Parshina and Leonid Parshin, ‘Razvedka bez mifov’ (typescript, 1994, HIA) p. 5.
14. World Strategy
1. See below, pp. 200–1.
2. K. McDermott and J. Agnew, The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin, p. 102.
3. Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska, 1928–1941, p. 77.
4. McDermott and Agnew, The Comintern, p. 95.
5. In 1939, however, things reached a further stage when Stalin took the decision on the Nazi–Soviet non-aggression treaty without properly consulting even Molotov.
6. N. I. Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma, p. 298.
7. McDermott and Agnew, The Comintern, pp. 85–6.
8. G. Fiori, Antonio Gramsci, pp. 249–56.
9. Cilly Vassart, ‘Le Front Populaire en France’ (typescript, HIA), pp. 8 and 31.
10. McDermott and Agnew, The Comintern, pp. 121–2.
11. I am grateful to Brian Pearce for his memory and advice here.
12. G. Procacci, Il socialismo internazionale e la Guerra d’Etiopia.
13. A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1917 to 1930, pp. 246–9.
14. A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1930 to 1945, pp. 74–5.
15. Ibid., pp. 82–90.
16. Ibid., ch. 4 et seq.
17. D. A. L. Levy, ‘The French Popular Front, 1936–1937’, in H. Graham and P. Preston (eds), The Popular Front in Europe, pp. 67–9.
18. Ibid., pp. 72–4.
19. P. Preston, Franco: A Biography, pp. 200–2.
20. H. Graham, The Spanish Republic at War, 1936–1939, pp. 285–91; P. Preston, The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution and Revenge, pp. 254–7 and 261–5.
21. Vassart, ‘Le Front Populaire en France’, p. 65.
15. Stalinist Ideology
1. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 361 and 364.
2. Ibid., p. 361.
3. A. Gide, Retour de l’U.R.S.S., pp. 72–3.
4. F. Bettanin, Fabbrica del mito: storia el politica nell’URSS Staliniana, p. 174.
5. Istoriya vsesoyuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii (bol’shevikov): kratkii kurs.
6. Service, Stalin: A Biography, p. 307.
7. See D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, p. 211.
8. Gide, Retour de l’U.R.S.S., p. 65.
9. Pravda, no. 35, 5 February 1931.
10. G. A. Almond, The Appeals of Communism, pp. 74–5.
11. Ibid., pp. 90–1.
12. M. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 157: this was Djilas’s recollection of a post-war conversation in Stalin’s dacha.
13. M. Gor’kii, L. Averbakh and S. Firin (eds), Belomorsko–baltiiskii kanal imeni I. V. Stalina.
16. Inside the Parties
1. A. Koestler (no title), in R. H. Crossman (ed.), The God that Failed, p. 54.
2. K. McDermott and J. Agnew, The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin, pp. 121–2.
3. I. Roxborough, ‘Mexico’, in L. Bethell and I. Roxborough (eds), Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944–1948, p. 191.
4. L. Bethell, ‘Brazil’, in ibid., p. 37.
5. See above, pp. 125.
6. On the German Communist Party after 1933 see A. Paucker, German Jews in the Resistance, 1933 –1945: The Facts and the Problems, p. 45.
7. On Mongolia: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 29, d. 1, pp. 1–3: 13 September 1937; on Spain, H. Graham, The Spanish Republic at War, 1936–1939, pp. 287–91.
8. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli anni di Mosca (1934–1945), p. 677.
9. J. Chang and J. Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, pp. 262–6.
10. P. Short, Mao: A Life, pp. 383–9; Chang and Halliday, Mao, pp. 251–2.
11. Ibid., pp. 254–5.
12. Short, Mao, pp. 282.
13. See below, Chs 20 and 34.
14. H. Barbé, Souvenir de militant et dirigeant communiste (typescript, HIA), pp. 333–4.
15. Autobiographical notes dated 17 November 1945, pp. 1–5: E. W. Darling Papers (HIA), box 1, folder 1.
16. Darling’s letter to Harry Pollitt, 6 January 1946: ibid.
17. Darling’s letter to Harry Pollitt, 18 September 1946: ibid.
18. K. Philby, My Silent War.
19. One possible exception was communist party member and noted economist M. H. Dobb’s Russian Economic Development since the Revolution (London, 1928).
20. Quoted from R. Wright, American Hunger by R. Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century, p. 79.
21. Y. Slezkine, The Jewish Century, pp. 94–5.
22. See the contributions of Palme Dutt and Pollitt in About Turn: The British Communist Party and the Second World War. The Verbatim Record of the Central Committee Meetings of 25 September and 2–3 October 1939.
23. Ivy Litvinov Papers (HIA), box 1, Oral History, p. 3.
24. See below, p. 213.
17. Friends and Foes
1. L. Trotsky, My Life: An Attempt at an Autobiography; L. Trotsky, History of the Russian Revolution.
2. The Case of Leon Trotsky: Report of Hearings on the Charges Made against Him in the Moscow Trials.
3. L. Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is it Going?
4. O. Bauer, Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie; N. Berdyaev, The Russian Idea; T. Dan, The Origins of Bolshevism; N. S. Trubetskoi, K probleme russkogo samosoznaniya: sobranie statei.
5. J. Davis, ‘Webb, (Martha) Beatrice (1858–1943)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
6. S. and B. Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilization?
7. S. J. Taylor, Stalin’s Apologist: Walter Duranty, the New York Times’s Man in Moscow, pp. 206–9.
8. M. Muggeridge, Winter in Moscow.
9. The Diaries of Beatrice Webb, vol. 4: The Wheel of Life, 1924–1943, pp. 301, 308 and 414.
10. Ibid., p. 495.
11. H. Johnson, The Socialist Sixth of the World, p. 367.
12. A. Gide, Retour de l’U.R.S.S., pp. 43–55.
13. I. Stalin, Beseda s angliiskom pisatelem G. D. Uellsom, 23 iyunya 1934 g., pp. 9, 13, 15–16, 18 and 20.
14. M. Holroyd, Bernard Shaw, vol. 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power, pp. 301–4 and 309–14.
15. M. Muggeridge, ‘Russian Journal’ (HIA), 28 September 1932, p. 15.
16. See D. Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment, p. 100.
17. New York Times, 23 August 1933.
18. Taylor, Stalin’s Apologist, pp. 208–9.
19. J. Chang and J. Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, pp. 198–200.
20. J. E. Davies, Mission to Moscow: A Record of Confidential Dispatches to the State Department, Official and Personal Correspondence, Current Diary and Journal Entries, including Notes and Comment up to October 1941, pp. 177–9.
21. Caute, The Fellow Travellers, p. 270.
22. J. S. Walker, Henry A. Wallace and American Foreign Policy, pp. 106–8. See also Wallace’s jottings in The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946, pp. 337–9, where he recorded his impressions of the area around Magadan and Kolyma.
23. Muggeridge, ‘Russian Journal, (HIA), 1 December 1932, p. 90.
24. Ibid., 19 November 1932, p. 72.
25. P. Sloan, Soviet Democracy; R. Page Arnot, A Short History of the Russian Revolution: From 1905 to the Present Day.
26. E. Lyons, Assignment in Utopia.
27. R. O. G. Urch, The Rabbit King of Siberia, pp. 195–7.
28. S. Dmitrievsky, Dans les coulisses du Kremlin.
29. B. Bajanov, Avec Staline dans le Kremlin.
30. R. Crompton, William – the Bad, p. 68.
31. Ibid., p. 69.
32. R. W. Service, Bar-Room Ballads: A Book of Verse, p. 90.
33. See below, p. 273.
18. Communism in the World War
1. See H. P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, p. 351.
2. Ivy Litvinov Papers (HIA), box 1, Oral History, p. 3.
3. D. Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment, p. 190.
4. A. Thorpe, The British Communist Party and Moscow, 1920–43, pp. 257–8.
5. Reproduced in Appendix I in J. Attfield and S. Williams (eds), 1939: The Communist Party of Great Britain and the War. Proceedings of a Conference Held on 21 April 1979, Organised by the Communist Party History Group, pp. 147–52. See also the account by M. Johnstone, in ibid., pp. 24–7.
6. About Turn: The British Communist Party and the Second World War. The Verbatim Record of the Central Committee Meetings of 25 September and 2–3 October 1939, p. 41 (editorial comment by M. Johnstone), pp. 197–211 (speech by Pollitt), pp. 283–91 (speech by Dutt). See also A. Thorpe, The British Communist Party and Moscow, 1920–43, pp. 258–60.
7. Political Letter to the Communist Party Membership, Political Bureau of the Communist Party of Great Britain: 15 July 1940.
8. Marxist Study (leaflet of the London District Committee of the CPGB): December 1940.
9. NA, KV2/1038, doc. 406a, p. 3.
10. Ibid.: meeting of 15 October 1939.
11. Ibid., doc. 401.
12. Thorpe, The British Communist Party and Moscow, pp. 265–6.
13. F. W. Deakin, ‘European Communism during the Second World War’, in F. W. Deakin, H. Shukman and H. T. Willetts, A History of World Communism, p. 136.
14. F. Claudin, The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform, p. 309.
15. S. Beria, Beria, My Father: Life inside Stalin’s Kremlin, p. 155.
16. C. Bohlen, Witness to History: 1929–1969, p. 146.
17. W. A. Harriman and E. Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1946, pp. 369–70. See A. Beichman, ‘Roosevelt’s Failure at Yalta’, Humanitas, no. 1 (2003), pp. 104–5.
18. N. Lebrecht, ‘Prokofiev was Stalin’s Last Victim’, Evening Standard, 4 June 2003.
19. This is now held in the Dom-muzei I. V. Stalina in Gori, Georgia.
20. J. Rossi, Spravochnik po GULagu, vol. 1, p. 40.
21. G. Dimitrov, Dimitrov and Stalin: 1934–1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives, p. 32, citing Dimitrov’s diary. I have retranslated the phrase na ruku.
22. Ibid., p. 302.
23. Ibid., p. 659.
24. Ibid., p. 612.
25. Ibid., pp. 615–17.
26. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 443–4.
27. R. Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century, pp. 133–4.
19. Forcing the Peace
1. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniya, vol. 2(xv) (ed. R. MacNeal), p. 204.
2. A. S. Belyakov’s recollections of A. A. Zhdanov’s oral account of a meeting of central party leaders: G. Arbatov, Zatyanuvsheesya vyzdorovlenie, 1953–1985 gg.: svidetel’stvo sovremennika, p. 377.
3. E. Bacon, The Gulag at War, pp. 93–4; D. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, p. 193.
4. T. Dunmore, The Stalinist Command Economy, ch. 5.
5. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 527–40.
6. I. V. Stalin, Ekonomicheskie problemy v SSSR, in Sochineniya, vol. 3(xvi), pp. 294–304.
7. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 534–7.
8. M. Laar, The War in the Woods: Estonia’s Struggle for Survival, 1944–1956.
9. M. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 133.
10. N. Naimark, ‘Communist Regimes and Parties after the Second World War’, Journal of Modern European History, no. 1 (2004), pp. 28–56.
11. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, 1944–1949, p. 48.
12. M. Mevius, Agents of Moscow, pp. 72–5.
13. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, p. 114.
14. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 1, p. 545.
15. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, p. 113.
16. Ibid., p. 111.
17. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 617.
18. Comments to Polish government delegation led by B. Bierut: ibid., pp. 460–1.
19. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, pp. 21 and 53; meeting with Polish delegation, 19 August 1946: Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 511.
20. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 269.
21. Ibid., p. 559.
22. Ibid., p. 565.
23. N. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949, p. 154.
24. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 580.
25. A. M. Ledovskii (ed.), ‘Peregovory I. V. Stalina s Mao Tszedunom v dekabre 1949 – fevrale 1950 g.: novye arkhivnye dokumenty, Novaya i noveishaya istoriya, no. 1 (1997), p. 38.
26. D. G. Kirby, Finland in the Twentieth Century, p. 164; L. Péter, ‘East of the Elbe’, p. 36.
27. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, p. 106. See also P. Kenney, Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists, 1945–1950, p. 29.
20. The Cold War and the Soviet Bloc
1. J. Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History, p. 43.
2. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 566–7.
3. A. Fursenko and T. Naftali, One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, Kennedy, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1958–1964, p. 171.
4. ‘X’ (George F. Kennan), ‘The Sources of Soviet Conduct’, Foreign Affairs, vol. 25 (July 1947), p. 566.
5. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 1, p. 675.
6. M. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power. National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War, pp. 61–76.
7. M. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 134.
8. See below, p. 269.
9. See below, pp. 266–8.
10. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 137.
11. See below, pp. 252–3.
12. ‘Struggle for People’s Democracy and Socialism – Some Questions of Strategy and Tactics’, Central Committee of the Communist Party of India statement, 1949 (typescript): Communist Party of India Papers (HIA), pp. 85–6.
13. See Chapter 24.
14. See below, pp. 251–3.
15. L. T. Vasin, ‘Kim Ir Sen. Kto on?’, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 September 1993, p. 5.
16. See below, pp. 401–2.
17. A. Farrar-Hockley, The British Part in the Korean War, vol. 2.
18. K. Philby, My Silent War, pp. 117–21.
19. A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1945 to 1965, p. 53.
20. NA, PREM 8/1077.
21. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 558.
22. N. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945–1949, ch. 2.
23. Ibid., p. 181.
24. H. M. Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall: Soviet–East German Relations, 1953–1961, p. 18.
25. F. Bettanin, Stalin e l’Europa: la formazione dell’impero esterno sovietico (1941–1953), p. 170.
26. H. Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution, pp. 178–9.
27. A. Paczkowski, The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom, pp. 205–6 and 229.
28. Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution, pp. 209–11.
29. C. Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, pp. 22–3.
30. Ibid., pp. 121–2.
31. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 118.
32. Naimark, The Russians in Germany, p. 11.
33. A. Mgeladze, Stalin, kakim ya ego znal. Stranitsy nedavnego proshlogo, p. 113.
34. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, pp. 640 and 658.
35. Ibid., pp. 802–6 and 831–58; SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, 1944–1949, doc. 46.
36. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 276.
37. Ibid., p. 43.
38. Ibid., p. 742.
39. Naimark, The Russians in Germany, p. 291.
40. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 45.
41. Ibid., p. 569, and vol. 2, p. 97.
42. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 85.
43. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, pp. 539–41.
44. Ibid., pp. 301, 366 and 367.
45. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 116. See also Edward Ochab’s recollections in T. Toranska, ‘Them’: Stalin’s Polish Puppets, pp. 36 and 49.
46. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 368.
47. Ibid., p. 34.
48. See below, p. 256.
49. ‘People’s democracy’ edged out other current possible terms such as ‘new democracy’ and ‘progressive democracy’: see Bettanin, Stalin e l’Europa, p. 170.
50. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 457.
51. Ibid., p. 458.
52. Z. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict, p. 74.
21. The Yugoslav Road
1. C. Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, p. 18.
2. M. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 90.
3. B. M. Karapandzich, The Bloodiest Yugoslav Spring, 1945 – Tito’s Katyns and Gulags, p. 20
4. N. Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, p. 195.
5. See above, p. 242.
6. Memorandum to M. A. Suslov, 18 March 1948: Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 1, pp. 787–800.
7. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli Anni di Mosca (1934–1945), pp. 784 and 793.
8. Memorandum to M. A. Suslov, 18 March 1948: Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, pp. 787–800.
9. Ibid., p. 877.
10. Djilas, Rise and Fall, pp. 248–9.
11. J. R. Lampe, Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country, pp. 249–51.
12. Ibid., p. 252.
13. Djilas, Rise and Fall, pp. 241 and 244–5.
14. Ibid., p. 267.
15. Lampe, Yugoslavia as History, pp. 256-7.
16. Djilas, Rise and Fall, pp. 310-11.
17. Ibid., p. 264.
18. Lampe, Yugoslavia as History, p. 273.
19. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 274.
20. Lampe, Yugoslavia as History, pp. 258-9.
21. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 294.
22. Ibid., pp. 268 and 271.
23. See below, pp. 309 and 315.
24. D. Rusinow, The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948-1974, p. 99.
25. Ibid., p. 106.
26. Ibid., p. 132.
27. P. Lendvai, Eagles in Cobwebs, p. 162.
28. Rusinow, The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948-1974, p. 245.
29. Ibid., p. 177.
30. Ibid., pp. 202–3.
31. Ibid., p. 234.
32. Ibid., pp. 299, 310 and 324.
33. Malcolm, Bosnia, p. 211.
34. F. Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples, p. 271.
35. Ibid., p. 276.
36. For the disintegration of Yugoslavia see below, pp. 433–4 and 456–6.
22. Western Europe
1. D. W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction, p. 4.
2. Letter of 27 July 1943: Dagli archivi di Mosca. L’URSS, il Cominform e il PCI (1943–1951), doc. 1, p. 223. On Secchia’s career see S. Pons, L’impossibile egemonia: L’URSS, il PCI e le origini della Guerra Fredda (1943-1948), p. 216.
3. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, p. 9.
4. G. Dimitrov, Diario. Gli Anni di Mosca (1934-1945), p. 713.
5. E. Aga-Rossi and V. Zaslavsky, Togliatti e Stalin, pp. 62–3 and 66–9. The Stalin–Togliatti conversation is recorded by Dimitrov, Diario, p. 691; the Stalin–Thorez conversation is reproduced in ibid, pp. 287–95 – see also ibid., p. 769, and M. Narinskij, ‘Stalin, Togliatti e Thorez, 1944–1948’, in Dagli archivi di Mosca, pp. 79–80.
6. Ercoli [Togliatti], ‘Sui compiti attuali dei compiti italiani, 1° marzo 1944’: Dagli archivi di Mosca, doc. 9, p. 238; Dimitrov, Diario, p. 770.
7. Dimitrov, Diario, p. 694.
8. P. Ripert, De Gaulle, p. 95.
9. See Secchia’s discussion with Stalin: Aga-Rossi and Zaslavsky, Togliatti e Stalin, pp. 296–300.
10. Ripert, De Gaulle, pp. 96–7.
11. See above, p. 127.
12. Narinskij, ‘Stalin, Togliatti e Thorez, 1944–1948’, pp. 82–3. See also Pons, L’impossibile egemonia, p. 22, and ‘Una sfida mancata: l’URSS, il Cominform e il PCI (1947–1948’), in Dagli archivi di Mosca, pp. 163 and 167–8.
13. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, pp. 115–16.
14. Dagli archivi di Mosca, pp. 301–2.
15. Istochnik, no. 3 (1995), p. 149.
16. Letter of D. Shevlyagin to M. A. Suslov, June 1947: Dagli archivi di Mosca, doc. 17, p. 275; record of conversation of A. A. Zhdanov and P. Secchia, 12 December 1947: ibid., doc. 18, pp. 277, 279 and 281.
17. NA, KV2/1777, 474bc, p. 1.
18. See Chapter 23.
19. See G. C. Donno, La Gladio Rossa del PCI (1945–1967); G. P. Pelizzaro, Gladio Rossa: dossier sulla più potente banda armata esistita in Italia.
20. Dzh. Chervetti [G. Cervetti], Zoloto Moskvy, p. 153: reference to the US Congress inquiry led by M. Halperin, J. J. Berman, R. L. Borosage and C. M. Marwick, The Lawless State: The Crimes of the US Intelligence Agencies.
21. Donno, La Gladio Rossa del PCI (1945–1967), chs 2–3.
22. P. Stavrakis, Moscow and Greek Communism, 1944–1949, p. 33.
23. Ibid., pp. 13–16.
24. Ibid., p. 85.
25. Ibid., pp. 92–4 and 105–7.
26. Ibid., p. 109.
27. Ibid., pp. 139–40.
28. Telegram of Molotov to Stalin, September 1947, about what had been sent to Zachariadis, the Greek communist leader: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 48, d. 21.
29. M. Djilas, Conversations with Stalin, p. 141.
30. Stavrakis, Moscow and Greek Communism, pp. 169–70.
31. V. Zaslavsky, Lo Stalinismo e la sinistra italiana: dal mito dell’URSS alla fire del comunismo 1945–1991, p. 107.
32. Istoricheskii arkhiv, no. 4 (1997), p. 101.
33. Message to Rákosi, 19 February 1948: Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944 –1953, vol. 1, p. 762.
34. The British Road to Socialism.
35. G. Matthews, member of the Executive Committee of the CPGB at that time and later to become its Assistant General Secretary, gave his account in ‘Stalin’s British Road?’, Changes Supplement, 14–27 September 1991, pp. 1–3.
36. A. Nuti, La provincia più rossa: la costruzione del Partito Nuovo a Siena (1945–1956), p. 218.
37. Interview with Eugenio Reale, Sente, 24 March 1975. It was Reale, Togliatti’s close friend and confidant at the time, who was told by Rákosi about his intentions.
38. Letter of Palmiro Togliatti to Eugenio Reale (n.d.): Eugenio Reale Papers (HIA).
39. Letter of M. A. Suslov to A. A. Zhdanov, 23 May 1947: Dagli archivi di Mosca, doc. 16, p. 270.
40. E. Biagi, ‘Usciti dall’URSS Palmiro mi disse: finalmente liberi!’, Corriere della Sera, 21 August 2003.
41. Dagli archivi di Mosca. L’URSS, il Cominform e il PCI (1943–1951), doc. 39, p. 417.
42. M. Djilas, Rise and Fall, p. 103.
43. See, for example, the comments of Eduardo D’Onofrio: Nuti, La provincia più rossa, p. 111.
23. Warring Propaganda
1. Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches 1897–1963, vol. 7: 1943–1949, pp. 7285–93.
2. NA, KV 2/1977, serial 474bc. On the outlawing of the German Communist Party see P. Major, The Death of the KPD: Communism and Anti-Communism in West Germany.
3. The Lost Orwell: Being a Supplement to the Complete Works of George Orwell, pp. 141–51.
4. D. C. Engerman, ‘The Ironies of the Iron Curtain: The Cold War and the Rise of Russian Studies in the United States’, Cahiers du Monde Russe, no. 45/3–4 (2004), pp. 469–73.
5. On Rothstein in general see NA, KV 2/1584. The private information on the annual meeting came from my colleague Prof. Olga Crisp at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies.
6. I. W. Roberts, History of the School of Slavonic & East European Studies, 1915–1990, pp. 58–9.
7. A film, The Inn of the Sixth Happiness, starring Ingrid Bergman, was also made of Gladys Aylward’s life.
8. Converting Britain, BBC Radio 4, 10 August 2004.
9. S. Rawicz, The Long Walk. Although this book was devoid of religious content it was made available cheaply to Christian denominations. I received a copy as a nine-year-old as a Sunday school prize. A BBC Radio 4 programme, The Long Walk by Tim Whewell on 30 October 2006, demolished Rawicz’s claim of a Siberian escape.
10. J. A. C. Brown, Techniques of Persuasion: From Propaganda to Brainwashing, pp. 267–93.
11. See B. Robshaw, ‘Biggles Flies Again’, Independent on Sunday, 27 July 2003.
12. E. Reale, Avec Jacques Duclos au banc des accusés à la Réunion Constitutive du Kominform à Szklarska Poreba. Reale published materials in the Italian press before his French-language memoir.
13. R. H. Crossman (ed.), The God that Failed.
14. Ibid., pp. 15–75; A. Koestler, Darkness at Noon.
15. J. S. Berliner, Factory and Manager in the USSR.
16. E. H. Carr, The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin, 1917–1929; I. Deutscher, Russia, China, and the West: A Contemporary Chronicle, 1953–1966; I. Deutscher, The Unfinished Revolution: Russia, 1917–1967.
17. H. Johnson, What We Saw in Rumania; H. Johnson, The Upsurge of China.
18. P. Shapcott, ‘I Once Met the Red Dean’, Oldie, June 2004, p. 35.
19. J. Steinbeck, Russian Journal, p. 20.
20. H. Klehr, J. E. Haynes and K. M. Anderson (eds), The Soviet World of American Communism, p. 338.
21. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, pp. 543 –4.
22. Rabotnichesko delo, 7 January 1950: see Z. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict, p. 115.
23. K. Simonov, Russkii vopros: p’esa v 3-kh deistviyakh, 7 kartinakh.
24. Speech of D’Onofrio to the Third Cominform Conference, 17 November 1949: The Cominform. Minutes of the Three Conferences, 1947/1948/1949, p. 764.
25. D. Caute, The Fellow Travellers: A Postscript to the Enlightenment, p. 290.
26. K. Burk, Troublemaker: The Life and History of A. J. P. Taylor, pp. 193–4.
27. See above, p. 262–5.
24. The Chinese Revolution
1. Ma Feng, ‘A Nation Celebrates its New Beginning’, Time Asia, 27 September 1999; P. Short, Mao: A Life, pp. 419–20.
2. G. Dimitrov, The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov, 1933–1949, p. 443. Dimitrov’s diary entry essentially concurs with Djilas’s memoir, at least about the Chinese communists, in Conversations with Stalin, p. 141. See in particular S. Tsang, The Cold War’s Odd Couple: The Unintended Partnership between the Republic of China and the UK, 1950–58, p. 21 and n. 121.
3. G. Benton and S. Tsang, ‘Opportunism, Betrayal and Manipulation in Mao’s Rise to Power’, China Journal, no. 55 (January 2006). On Mao’s domination of his leading associates see Tsang, The Cold War’s Odd Couple, p. 23.
4. J.-L. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 47.
5. Mao Zedong, ‘Report to the Second Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the Seventh Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, 5 March 1949’, Selected Works, vol. 4, p. 364.
6. F. C. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, in R. MacFarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China, 1949–1989, p. 28.
7. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, pp. 70–1. The total number of victims still cannot be ascertained with precision.
8. Ibid., pp. 97–100.
9. L. T. White III and Kam-yee Law, ‘Explanations for China’s Revolution at its Peak’, in Kam-yee Law (ed.), The Chinese Cultural Revolution Reconsidered: Beyond Purge and Holocaust, p. 8.
10. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, p. 12.
11. Ibid., p. 33.
12. E. Friedman, P. G. Pickowicz and M. Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, pp. 103–4
13. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, pp. 37 and 39.
14. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 153.
15. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, p. 42.
16. Friedman, Pickowicz and Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, p. 123.
17. Ibid., p. 193.
18. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 489.
19. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, pp. 60–3.
20. Ibid., pp. 74–5.
21. Ibid., p. 22.
22. Ibid., p. 73.
23. J.-L. Domenach, The Origins of the Great Leap Forward: The Case of One Chinese Province, p. 25.
24. Friedman, Pickowicz and Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, p. 218.
25. Ibid., pp. 189–90.
26. Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing, pp. 21, 40, 69 and 121.
27. Ibid., p. 25.
28. Ibid., p. 70.
29. Domenach, The Origins of the Great Leap Forward, pp. 53–4, 62 and 76.
30. In fact the slogan had already been in use since the previous year.
31. Domenach, The Origins of the Great Leap Forward, pp. 102–3.
32. J. Spence, Mao Zedong, pp. 540–1.
33. Domenach, The Origins of the Great Leap Forward, pp. 103, 105, 109.
34. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 127.
35. Ibid., p. 130.
36. Ibid., pp. 128 and 145.
37. Ibid., pp. 157–9 and 185.
25. Organising Communism
1. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 1, p. 126.
2. I. N. R. Davies, Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland, pp. 326–7.
3. See above, p. 242.
4. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 2, p. 532.
5. R. R. King, Minorities under Communism: Nationalities as a Source of Tension among Balkan Communist States, p. 150.
6. F. C. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, in R. MacFarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China, 1949–1989, p. 51. See also I. V. Sadchikov’s report to Molotov on Yugoslavia, 17 December 1945: Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 326.
7. N. P. Bugai (ed.), L. Beriya – I. Stalinu: ‘Soglasno Vashemu ukazaniyu’, pp. 225–32.
8. Report by the American Legation to the US Department of State, 16 July 1953, p. 3: Seymour M. Finger Papers, Foreign Service Dispatches (HIA).
9. W. Brus, ‘The Peak of Stalinism’, in M. Kaser (ed.), The Economic History of Eastern Europe, 1917–1975, vol. 3: Institutional Change within a Planned Economy, p. 9.
10. Calculated from the tables cited by F. Fejtö, Histoire des démocraties populaires, vol. 1, p. 373.
11. See above, p. 246–7.
12. C. Milosz, The Captive Mind, p. 218.
13. Ibid., pp. 189–90.
14. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 2, p. 563.
15. E. Dedmon, China Journal, p. 19.
16. E. Friedman, P. G. Pickowicz and M. Selden, Chinese Village, Socialist State, p. 121.
17. Report by the American Legation to the US Department of State, 16 July 1953, p. 3: Seymour M. Finger Papers, Foreign Service Dispatches (HIA).
18. D. Childs and R. Popplewell, The Stasi: The East German Intelligence and Security Service, pp. 82–4.
19. N. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949, pp. 194–5.
20. P. Kenney, Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists, 1945–1950, pp. 80–1 and 85.
21. Ibid., p. 278.
22. I. Barankovics, Catholic Church and Catholic Faith in Hungary.
23. Milosz, The Captive Mind, p. 199.
24. Ibid., pp. 102–4.
25. Ibid., p. 21.
26. See above, pp. 192–3.
27. Kenney, Rebuilding Poland, p. 176.
28. Ibid., p. 91.
29. Ibid., p. 234.
30. SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, 1944–1949, p. 121.
31. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 1, p. 558.
32. Ibid., pp. 607 and 685; SSSR – Pol’sha: mekhanizmy podchineniya, 1944–1949, p. 123.
33. J. Triska and C. Gati (eds), Blue Collar Workers in Eastern Europe, p. 31.
26. Against and For Reform
1. L. Bethell and I. Roxborough, ‘The Postwar Conjuncture in Latin America: Democracy, Labor and the Left’, in L. Bethell and Ian Roxborough (eds), Latin America between the Second World War and the Cold War, 1944–1948, p. 18.
2. See below, p. 391.
3. See below, pp. 392 and 402–4.
4. See below, pp. 377–8.
5. R. Service, Stalin: A Biography, ch. 48.
6. Zh. and R. Medvedev, Neizvestnyi Stalin, pp. 82–3.
7. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 1, p. 766, and vol. 2, p. 82.
8. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 901–2.
9. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 91.
10. Ibid., pp. 317–18.
11. Ibid., pp. 233 and 318.
12. Ibid., p. 650.
13. Ibid., pp. 150 and 258.
14. D. Childs and R. Popplewell, The Stasi: The East German Intelligence and Security Service, pp. 43 –4.
15. Report by the American Legation to the US Department of State, 16 July 1953, p. 3: Seymour M. Finger Papers, Foreign Service Dispatches (HIA).
16. Service, Stalin: A Biography, p. 568.
17. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, vol. 2, p. 177.
18. Record of conversation of Stalin and Secchia, 14 December 1947: Dagli archivi di Mosca. L’URSS, il Cominform e il PCI (1943–1951), doc. 20, p. 289.
19. M. Kramer, ‘The Early Post-Stalin Succession Struggle and Upheavals in East-Central Europe: Internal-External Linkages in Soviet Policy Making’, Journal of Cold War Studies, part 1 (1999), pp. 12–22.
20. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964. Chernovye protokol’nye zapisi zasedanii: stenogrammy, vol. 1, pp. 94–7: Presidium meetings of 30 January and 1 February 1956.
21. N. Barsukov, ‘Kak sozdavalsya “zakrytyi doklad” Khrushchëva’, Literaturnaya gazeta, 21 February 1996, p. 11.
22. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, vol. 1, pp. 106–7: Presidium meeting of 22 February 1956.
23. K. Morgan, Harry Pollitt, p. 176.
24. See below, p. 320–1.
25. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, vol. 1, pp. 44–5.
26. A. Paczkowski, The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom, p. 273.
27. J. Granville, The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956, p. 116.
28. C. Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, pp. 135–8.
29. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, vol. 1, pp. 196–202: Presidium meetings of 2–4 November 1956.
30. J. Callaghan, Cold War, Crisis and Conflict: The CPGB, 1951–1968, pp. 76–7.
31. Letter to the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee, 30 October 1956: reproduced in V. Zaslavsky, Lo Stalinismo e la sinistra italiana: dal mito dell’URSS alla fine del comunismo, 1945–1991, pp. 190–1.
32. Ibid., pp. 192–4.
33. M. P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power. National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War, pp. 366–7.
27. Detente and Expansion
1. See below, p. 362–3.
2. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954-1964. Chernovye protokol’nye zapisi zasedanii: stenogrammy, vol. 1, p. 400: 14 December 1959.
3. Ibid., p. 280: 10 November 1957.
4. See below, Chapter 29.
5. See below, p. 320.
6. J. Chang and J. Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, p. 428. I have slightly changed the run of the translated words.
7. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, vol. 1, pp. 862–72: Presidium meeting of 13 October 1964.
8. KGB report, 11 May 1965: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 65, d. 13, pp. 1-6.
9. Report from the British embassy in Bucharest, 5 February 1974: NA, FCO 28/2549, doc. 12, p. 1.
10. NA, FO 800/720, doc. 3, p. 1.
11. See below, pp. 402-3.
12. N. Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War after the War, p. 22.
13. See below, p. 459.
14. See below, pp. 406–10.
15. See below, pp. 410–11.
16. K. Crane, The Soviet Economic Dilemma of Eastern Europe, pp. 15–42.
17. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 43, d. 9.
18. Ibid., op. 51, d. 28: Politburo decision of 8 January 1969.
19. Ibid, op. 38, d. 47; V. Riva, Oro da Mosca, p. 60.
20. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 38, d. 47; Riva, Oro da Mosca: i finanziamenti sovietici al PCI dalla Rivoluzione d’ottobre al crollo dell’URSS. Con 240 documenti inediti delgi archivi moscoviti, p. 60.
21. O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times, pp. 215–16.
22. Chang and Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, pp. 607–8.
23. Z. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict, p. 455.
24. See below, pp. 388–90.
25. RGANI, f. 2., op. 3, d. 161: Central Committee plenum, 26 June 1969, pp. 5–6 and 8–14. See S. Pons, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo, p. 10.
26. S. Ellis and T. Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid: The African National Congress and the South African Communist Party, p. 9.
27. RGANI, f. 2, op. 3, d. 161, p. 9.
28. Ibid., pp. 14 –15.
29. Dzh. Chervetti [G. Cervetti], Zoloto Moskvy, p. 66.
30. Ibid., pp. 44, 47.
31. Ibid., p. 134. This was a peculiar conversation because, as Cervetti left the room, Ponomarëv said that the Italian communists could still receive their cut of the payments made by Italy for Soviet natural gas supplies. Cervetti has declared himself mystified by this comment: ibid., p. 135.
32. Memorandum by V. Zagladin, Deputy Chief of the International Department of the Central Committee of the CPSU, 4 October 1979: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 32, d. 12.
33. Andropov’s report quoted in V. Bukovskii, Moskovskii protsess, pp. 354–5.
34. Riva, Oro da Mosca, p. 520.
35. Pons, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo, pp. 105 and 107.
36. Chervetti, Zoloto Moskvy, pp. 138–9.
37. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 33, d. 15, pp. 1–2.
38. Ibid., pp. 394.
39. R. W. Judy, ‘The Case of Computer Technology’, in S. Wasowski (ed.), East–West Trade and the Technology Gap, pp. 67–71.
40. Ibid., p. 385.
41. P. Hanson and K. Pavitt, The Comparative Economics of Research Development and Innovation in East and West: A Survey, p. 79.
42. A. C. Sutton, Western Technology and Soviet Economic Development, 1945 to 1965, pp. 379–80.
43. R. Giles, ‘The KGB in Afghanistan, 1979–1989’, paper delivered at St Antony’s College, Oxford: 31 May 2006.
44. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 42, d. 7, pp. 1–2.
45. Pons, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo, p. 170.
28. China Convulsed
1. F. C. Teiwes, ‘The Establishment and Consolidation of the New Regime’, in R. MacFarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China, 1949–1989, p. 12.
2. Ibid., p. 82; J.-L. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 232.
3. Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing, p. 252.
4. Testimony of Bu Yulong: Zhang Lijia and C. Macleod (eds), China Remembers, p. 75.
5. Testimony of Bian Shaofeng: ibid., p. 83.
6. Ibid., pp. 82–3.
7. J. Becker, Hungry Ghosts: China’s Secret Famine. See also V. Smil, ‘China’s Great Famine: Forty Years Later’, British Medical Journal, 18–25 December 1999, pp. 1619–21.
8. J. Chang and J. Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story, p. 400.
9. NA, FCO 9/272, docs 1 and 4.
10. Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao: The Memoirs of Mao’s Personal Physician, pp. 94, 104 and 358.
11. Ibid., p. 260.
12. Ibid., p. 9.
13. Ibid., pp. 496 and 498.
14. Shaoguang Wang, ‘Between Destruction and Construction: The First Year of the Cultural Revolution’, in Kam-yee Law (ed.), The Chinese Cultural Revolution Reconsidered: Beyond Purge and Holocaust, pp. 26–7.
15. Ibid., pp. 28–30.
16. Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing, p. 71.
17. Xiaoxia Gong, ‘The Logic of Repressive Collective Action: A Case Study of Violence in the Cultural Revolution’, in Kam-yee Law (ed.), The Chinese Cultural Revolution Reconsidered, pp. 128.
18. Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing, p. 85.
19. Nien Cheng, Life and Death in Shanghai, p. 59.
20. Ibid., pp. 63–7.
21. Ibid., p. 83.
22. Ibid., pp. 111, 115, 128, 309 and 351.
23. See the testimony of Fr André Bonnichon in his ‘La Cellule 23’, Etudes, September 1954, p. 189.
24. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 269.
25. Xiaoxia Gong, ‘The Logic of Repressive Collective Action’, p. 129, citing an interview with Hu Yaobang in 1985.
26. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 270.
27. L. T. White III and Kam-yee Law, ‘Explanations for China’s Revolution at its Peak’, in Kam-yee Law (ed.), The Chinese Cultural Revolution Reconsidered, p. 10; Shaoguang Wang, ‘The Structural Sources of the Cultural Revolution’, in ibid., pp. 77–9 and 81.
28. Deng Rong, Deng Xiaoping and the Cultural Revolution, p. 46.
29. Xiaoxia Gong, ‘The Logic of Repressive Collective Action’, p. 115.
30. Deng Rong, Deng Xiaoping and the Cultural Revolution, pp. 246 and 250.
31. Ibid., pp. 275–9.
32. Ibid., pp. 329–30.
33. Ibid., pp. 376–81 and 389–99.
34. Ibid., p. 390.
29. Revolutionary Cuba
1. The speech included the recitation of a poem, which was a sign of the ramshackle combination of repression and tolerance under Batista’s rule: see F. Castro, Historia Me Absolverá!.
2. J. Lagas, Memorias de un capitán rebelde, pp. 19–20.
3. R. López-Fresquet, ‘14 Months with Castro’ (typescript, HIA), pp. 24–5.
4. Ibid., pp. 47 and 196; Mario Llerena, ‘Memoir’ (typescript, HIA), vol. 1, p. 24.
5. López-Fresquet, ‘14 Months with Castro’, p. 112; Lagas, Memorias de un capitán rebelde, pp. 19–20.
6. See his statement of intentions in Humanismo. Revista de insubornable orientación democrática (Havana), January–April 1959, pp. 329–37.
7. López-Fresquet, ‘14 Months with Castro’, pp. 106 and 108.
8. Yu. P. Gavrikov, Fidel’ Kastro: Neistovyi komandante Ostrova svobody, p. 143.
9. F. Castro, Speech at the United Nations: General Assembly Session, September 26, 1960, pp. 18, 21 and 23.
10. F. Castro, Fidel Castro Speaks on Marxism-Leninism, p. 31: speech of 2 December 1961.
11. Meeting of Castro with Komsomol delegation, 13 January 1961: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 28, d. 5, p. 8.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., p. 9.
14. López-Fresquet, ‘14 Months with Castro’, pp. 184–5.
15. I owe this insight to my St Antony’s colleague Valpy Fitzgerald.
16. Castro, Fidel Castro Speaks on Marxism-Leninism, p. 46: speech of 2 December 1961.
17. R. Gott, Cuba: A New History, p. 201.
18. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964. Chernovye protokol’nye zapisi zasedanii: stenogrammy, vol. 1, p. 646: Presidium meeting of 16 November 1962; and pp. 720–1: Presidium meetings of 16 November 1962 and 7 June 1963.
19. N. S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes, p. 179.
20. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, vol. 1, p. 621: 25 October 1962.
21. J. Haslam, The Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende’s Chile: A Case of Assisted Suicide, p. 154.
22. F. Castro, Comparecencia del Comandante Fidel Castro Ruz, Primer Ministro del Gobierno Revolucionario y Primer Secretario del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Cuba, para Analizar los Acontecimientos de Checoslovaquia, Viernes 23 de Agosto de 1968, pp. 23–9.
23. Moncada.Órgano del Ministerio del Interior, June 1968, p. 5.
24. J. A. Rodríguez-Menier, ‘El Minint por Dentro’ (typescript, HIA), ch. 7.
25. Report by C. J. Menéndez Cervera and E. Sánchez Santa Cruz, Comisión Cubana de Derechos Humanos y Reconciliación Nacional, 5 July 2006, p. 1.
26. Rodríguez-Menier, ‘El Minint por Dentro’, pp. 4–6.
27. See the remarks of Vladimir Ivashko, Gorbachëv’s Deputy General Secretary, to the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Uruguay Jaime Peres, 31 May 1991: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 11, d. 188, p. 4.
28. Official diary of Yu. V. Petrov: ibid., op. 8, d. 60, p. 2.
29. F. Castro, Speech to the Latin American Trade Union meeting held in Havana, 9 November 1991: Granma International, 24 November 1991.
30. Speech to the First Congress of Pioneers, 1 November 1991: ‘Debemos preservar siempre la esperanza’, p. 18.
30. Communist Order
1. J. Halliday (ed.), The Artful Albanian: The Memoirs of Enver Hoxha, pp. 6–7.
2. Hoxha, however, made an exception for the British comedian Norman Wisdom: see below, p. 358.
3. A. Weiner, ‘The Empires Pay a Visit: Gulag Returnees, East European Rebellions and Soviet Frontier Politics’, Journal of Modern History, June 2006, pp. 333–76; A. Weiner, ‘Déjà Vu All Over Again: Prague Spring, Romanian Summer and Soviet Autumn on the Soviet Western Frontier’, Contemporary European History, no. 2 (2006), pp. 159–91.
4. See KGB Chairman Vladimir Semichastny’s report to the Politburo in 1965: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 6, d. 30.
5. Basic Rules of Behaviour for Soviet Citizens Travelling to Capitalist and Developing Countries formulated by the Central Committee Secretariat in July 1979: ibid., op. 31, d. 7, pp. 1–8.
6. ‘The Wall’, episode 9, CNN Cold War series (1998).
7. H. M. Harrison, Driving the Soviets up the Wall: Soviet–East German Relations, 1953–1961, p. 161.
8. Ibid., p. 203.
9. Ibid., p. 186.
10. D. Childs and R. Popplewell, The Stasi: The East German Intelligence and Security Service, pp. 84–6.
11. L. Harding, ‘In the Grip of the Angkang’, Guardian, 20 December 2005.
12. Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, 1944–1953, vol. 2, p. 619.
13. I. Hallas, ‘Radio Jamming’, www.okupatsioon.ee/english/mailbox/radio/ radio/html: dated 3 May 2000.
14. Personal information from my (once scalped) colleague at St Antony’s, Richard Clogg.
15. Rhyming Reasoner, no. 2, November 1956. I am grateful to Paul Flewers for supplying this reference.
16. A. B. Evans, Soviet Marxism-Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology, pp. 105–6.
17. See RGASPI, f. 89, op. 6, dd. 15–25.
18. Evans, Soviet Marxism-Leninism, p. 142.
19. V. Medvedev, Chelovek za spinoi, pp. 144 and 149.
20. T. Garton Ash, We the People: The Revolution of 89, pp. 137–8. Havel made this comment in January 1990.
21. D. Rusinow, The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948–1974, p. 139.
22. A. L. Bardach, Cuba Confidential: Love and Vengeance in Miami and Havana, p. 230.
23. See above, p. 188.
24. NA, FCO 28/2549, doc. 3.
31. Rethinking Communism
1. J.-P. Sartre, Sartre on Cuba.
2. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964. Chernovye protokol’nye zapisi zasedanii: stenogrammy, vol. 1, pp. 453 and 464.
3. A. Horne, Macmillan, vol. 2: 1957–1986, p. 284.
4. W. Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and his Era, p. 476.
5. R. Medvedev, Let History Judge; R. Medvedev, On Socialist Democracy.
6. R. Bahro, The Alternative in Eastern Europe, especially pp. 39, 117, 362, 368 and 453.
7. A. Sakharov, Progress, Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom.
8. P. Togliatti, Il memoriale di Yalta, pp. 28, 41 and 43–6.
9. S. Pons, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo, p. 255.
10. On Lukács see above, p. 140.
11. Lukács summarised his standpoint in The Process of Democratization, written in the last months of his life. He died in 1971.
12. H. Marcuse, Soviet Marxism: A Critical Analysis.
13. H. Marcuse: Eros and Civilization; One Dimensional Man; Essay on Liberation; Counterrevolution and Revolt.
14. L. Colletti, Il Marxismo e Hegel.
15. P. Anderson, Considerations on Western Marxism, ch. 3.
16. M. G. Horowitz, ‘Portrait of the Marxist as an Old Trouper’, Playboy, September 1970, pp. 174–5.
17. Marcuse, Eros and Civilisation.
18. D. Cohn-Bendit and G. Cohn-Bendit, Obsolete Communism: The Left-Wing Alternative.
19. Daniel Cohn-Bendit’s brother Gabriel was the co-author.
20. Cohn-Bendit and Cohn-Bendit, Obsolete Communism, pp. 204–45.
21. R. Service, A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Putin, p. 459.
22. See above, p. 280.
23. F. Kermode, Not Entitled: A Memoir, pp. 234–8.
24. R. Pipes, Vixi: Memoirs of a Non-Belonger; R. Conquest, The Dragons of Expectation: Reality and Delusion in the Course of History: both books include recollections of the authors’ political engagement. See the policy statement of 1979: R. Conquest, Present Danger: Towards a Foreign Policy.
25. J. Haslam, The Vices of Integrity: E. H. Carr, 1892–1982; Service, A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Putin, p. xxv.
26. Service, A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Putin, p. xxvii; R. Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century, pp. 143–4.
27. Service, A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Putin, p. xxvii.
32. Europe East and West
1. Z. Brzezinski, The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict, p. 389.
2. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964. Chernovye protokol’nye zapisi zasedanii: stenogrammy, vol. 1, p. 86: meeting of 10 January 1956.
3. M. Kaser, Comecon: Integration Problems of the Planned Economies, pp. 63–82; J. F. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule, p. 146.
4. R. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – and After, p. 313.
5. The Khrushchev–Tito Revisionist Group Concoct New Plans against the Cause of Socialism, pp. 5, 7 and 15.
6. J. Halliday (ed.), The Artful Albanian: The Memoirs of Enver Hoxha, p. 9.
7. See above, pp. 356–7.
8. N. Bethell, Gomulka: His Poland and his Communism, pp. 258–62.
9. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – and After, pp. 298–9.
10. C. Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, pp. 160–1.
11. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – and After, p. 321.
12. Z. Mlyná
, Night Frost in Prague: The End of Humane Socialism,
p. 157.
13. A. Paczkowski, The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom, pp. 281 and 288–9.
14. W. Brus, ‘Political System and Economic Efficiency’, in S. Gomulka (ed.), Growth, Innovation and Reform in Eastern Europe, p. 28.
15. Ibid., p. 290.
16. Crampton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century – and After, p. 360.
17. A. H. Smith, The Planned Economies of Eastern Europe, pp. 230–2.
18. Ibid., pp. 227–30.
19. D. Deletant, Ceau
escu and the Securitate: Coercion and Dissent
in Romania, 1965–1989, pp. 192, 207–8 and 322–31.
20. See above, p. 371.
21. S. Pons, Berlinguer e la fine del comunismo, p. 48.
22. Ibid., p. 140.
23. S. Carrillo, Eurocomunismo y estado.
24. See above, p. 113.
25. Draft letter of Secretariat of the Central Committee of the CPSU, February 1977: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 33, d. 15.
26. T. Hofnung, Georges Marchais: l’inconnu du Parti Communiste Français, pp. 315–17.
27. See below, pp. 399–400.
33. Reduced Expectations
1. L. L. Sharkey, An Outline History of the Australian Communist Party, pp. 55–68.
2. J. P. Ongkili, Nation-Building in Malaysia, 1946–1974; Njoto, Strive for the Victory of the Indonesian Revolution with the Weapon of Dialectical and Historical Materialism: A Speech at the Alkiarcham Academy of Social Sciences on 3 June 1964, pp. 3–26.
3. G. M. Kahin and A. R. Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia.
4. T. J. Nossiter, Marxist State Governments in India: Politics, Economics and Society, pp. 69–71, 73 and 80.
5. BBC News, 1 November 2005: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/world/ south_asia/4374826.stm.
6. On Kerala communists’ unorthodoxy see above, p. 243.
7. Nossiter, Marxist State Governments in India, p. 17.
8. Ibid., pp. 21–3 and 32.
9. P. Louis, People Power: The Naxalite Movement in Central Bihar, pp. 58–9.
10. Ibid., p. 32.
11. Z. Brzezinski, The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century, p. 203.
12. R. Boyd, ‘The Japanese Communist Party in Local Government’, in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Local Governments in Western Europe and Japan, p. 192.
13. G. A. Almond, The Appeals of Communism, p. 151.
14. A. Nuti, La provincia più rossa: la costruzione del Partito Nuovo a Siena (1945–1956), pp. 90 and 114.
15. Ibid., pp. 211, 272 and 291.
16. S. Gundle, ‘Models and Crises of Communist Government in Italy’, in B. Szajkowski (ed.), Marxist Local Governments in Western Europe and Japan, pp. 74–5.
17. A. F. Knapp, ‘A Receding Tide: France’s Communist Municipalities’, in ibid., pp. 119–20, 125–7, 136–7 and 145.
18. J. Amodia, ‘The Spanish Communist Party and Local Government’, in ibid., pp. 30 and 33.
19. G. C. Donno, La Gladio rossa del PCI (1945–1967).
20. C. Andrew and V. Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive, vol. 1: The KGB and the West, p. 501.
34. Last of the Communist Revolutions
1. R. Gott, Cuba: A New History, p. 4.
2. N. Eberstadt, ‘Pyongyang’s Option: “Ordinary” Stalinism’, Far Eastern Economic Review, no. 3 (2005), p. 31.
3. O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times, p. 183.
4. P. Short, Pol Pot: History of a Nightmare, pp. 298–300.
5. Chhang Song, ‘Return to Cambodia, July–August 1989’ (typescript, HIA), p. 9.
6. N. Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War after the War, pp. 71–2 and 80.
7. Short, Pol Pot, pp. 288 and 319–21.
8. Ibid., p. 233.
9. Ibid., p. 346.
10. Ibid., pp. 347 and 353.
11. M. Vickery, Cambodia, 1975–1982, pp. 34–5.
12. The Cambodian Genocide Program, Yale University: www.yale.edu/cgp (p. 1).
13. A. Angell, Chile de Alessandri a Pinochet: en busca de la Utopia, p. 59.
14. Ibid., p. 61.
15. Yu. P. Gavrikov, Fidel’ Kastro: Neistovyi komandante Ostrova svobody, p. 138.
16. Angell, Chile de Alessandri a Pinochet, p. 62.
17. Ibid., p. 72.
18. Ibid., pp. 63–4.
19. Ibid., pp. 72–3.
20. J. Haslam, The Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende’s Chile: A Case of Assisted Suicide, pp. 74, 153 –4 and 157.
21. Ibid., p. 111.
22. Angell, Chile de Alessandri a Pinochet, p. 65.
23. Ibid., p. 67.
24. Ibid., p. 71.
25. Ibid., pp. 76–7 and 79.
26. P. Kornbluh, The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability, p. 37; Haslam, The Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende’s Chile, ch. 7.
27. Westad, The Global Cold War, pp. 212–14.
28. Ibid., pp. 231–5.
29. Ibid., pp. 255–9.
30. Ibid., pp. 277–8.
31. Ibid., pp. 306–20.
35. Roads from Communism
1. R. Nixon, 1999: Victory without War.
2. Among those who emphasised the possibility of an eventual implosion of the USSR, Richard Pipes wrote in 1984, a year before Gorbachëv came to power: ‘While the Soviet government is in no danger of imminent collapse, it cannot forever “muddle through” . . .’: Survival Is Not Enough: Soviet Realities and America’s Future, p. 13.
3. R. Dallek, Ronald Reagan: The Politics of Symbolism, p. 192.
4. Public Papers of the Presidents: Ronald Reagan, 1981, p. 434.
5. J. L. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy, pp. 393–4.
6. The principle, as so often in the Cold War, was that my enemy’s enemy is my friend.
7. See speech of Daniel Ortega to the United Nations Security Council on 25 March 1982: Comunicado de Prensa: Permanent Mission to the U.N., no. 035. On the Sandinistas see below, p. 369.
8. Dallek, Ronald Reagan, pp. 181–2.
9. J. F. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule, pp. 104–5.
10. Ibid., p. 127
11. Testimony of V. A. Alexandrov: Hoover Institution and Gorbachev Foundation Oral History Project (HIA), box 1, folder 2, p. 15.
12. Testimony of E. Meese: ibid., box 2, folder 11, pp. 37 and 71.
13. Testimony of A. L. Adamishin: ibid., box 1, folder 1, p. 5.
14. For rival testimonies of contemporary Soviet reactions to SDI see ibid.: V. A. Kryuchkov (box 2, folder 7, p. 31) and L. B. Shebarshin (box 2, folder 19, p. 18).
15. Sergei Tarasenko in W. C. Wohlforth (ed.), Witnesses to the End of the Cold War, p. 70.
16. R. Reagan, An American Life, pp. 585 and 588–9.
17. J. Matlock, Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended, pp. 97–105.
18. See below, pp. 449–53.
19. See below, pp. 428–9.
20. M. Marrese and J. Vanous, Soviet Subsidization of Trade with Eastern Europe: A Soviet Perspective, p. 3.
21. H. Friedmann, ‘Warsaw Pact Socialism’, in A. Hunter (ed.), Rethinking the Cold War, p. 220.
22. R. Service, A History of Modern Russia from Nicholas II to Putin, p. 465.
23. O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times, pp. 366, 382, 383 and 391.
24. Anatoli Chernyaev in Wohlforth (ed.), Witnesses to the End of the Cold War, p. 95.
25. P. Robinson, How Ronald Reagan Changed my Life, pp. 92–3.
26. J. Douglas-Home, Once upon Another Time: Ventures behind the Iron Curtain, pp. 17 and 25.
27. Pavel Palazchenko in Wohlforth (ed.), Witnesses to the End of the Cold War, p. 159.
28. D. H. Chollet and J. M. Goldgeier, ‘Once Burned, Twice Shy? The Pause of 1989’, in W. C. Wohlforth (ed.), Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, Debates, p. 149.
29. V. M. Zubok, ‘Different Perspectives on the Historical Personality’, in ibid., p. 226, quoting A. S. Chernyaev’s notes deposited with the Gorbachev Foundation in Moscow.
30. See the account in Chapter 36.
31. M. R. Beschloss and S. Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War, p. 132.
32. See, for example, Politburo meeting of 9 March 1990: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 8, d. 78, p. 1. The proposal to withdraw troops from Hungary was made by Zaikov, Shevardnadze and Yazov (Minister of Defence).
33. Dmitri Yazov in Wohlforth (ed.), Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, Debates, pp. 193 and 201
34. A. S. Chernyaev, Shest’ let s Gorbachëvym: po dnevnikovym zapisyam, p. 57.
35. RGASPI, f. 89, op. 9, d. 124, p. 2.
36. Record of meeting between Castro and the Soviet ambassador, 20 June 1990: ibid., op. 8, d. 60, pp. 2–3.
37. Ibid., op. 11, d. 188, p. 5.
38. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, pp. 377 and 388–92.
39. See p. 457–8.
36. Anti-communism in Eastern Europe
1. Politburo meeting, 12 March 1981: RGASPI, f. 89, op. 42, d. 37, p. 3.
2. M. Kramer, ‘Poland 1980–81: Soviet Policy during the Polish Crisis’, Cold War International History Papers Bulletin, no. 5 (1995), pp. 116–23.
3. A. Paczkowski, The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom, pp. 454–5.
4. Ibid., pp. 476–7.
5. M. Gorba
ov and Z. Mlyná, Reformátoy Nebývachí Stastní, p. 69
6. Hoover Institution and Gorbachev Foundation Oral History Project (HIA): testimonies of A. S. Chernyaev (who talked to Kádár’s interpreter), box 1, folder 12, pp. 69–70, and V. A. Medvedev, box 2, folder 10, pp. 45–6 and 47–8.
7. Ibid.: testimony of V. A. Medvedev, box 2, folder 10, p. 35.
8. T. Zhivkov, Memoary, pp. 356–60. This was a Kremlin conversation of 16 October 1987.
9. Paczkowski, The Spring Will Be Ours, pp. 485–6.
10. Ibid., pp. 492–500.
11. Ibid., pp. 507–9.
12. J. L. Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History, p. 206.
13. I. Banac, ‘Post-Communism as Post-Yugoslavism: The Yugoslav Non-Revolutions of 1989–1990’, in I. Banac, Eastern Europe in Europe, p. 182.
14. See below, p. 465–6.
15. On the break-up of Yugoslavia see below, pp. 465–6.
16. E. Biberaj, ‘Albania: The Last Domino’, in I. Banac, Eastern Europe in Europe, pp. 189 and 195–9.
17. See below, pp. 466–7.
37. China’s Capitalist Communism
1. R. MacFarquhar, ‘The Succession to Mao and the End of Maoism, 1969–1982’, in R. MacFarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China, 1949–1989, p. 300.
2. Ibid., p. 309.
3. Deng Rong, Deng Xiaoping and the Cultural Revolution, pp. 445–9; Deng Xiaoping, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (1975–1982), p. 154: speech of 13 December 1978.
4. Deng Maomao, Deng Xiaoping, my Father, pp. 50–1, 71, 95 and 102–3.
5. Ibid., p. 104.
6. Ibid., p. 95; Deng Rong, Deng Xiaoping and the Cultural Revolution, pp. 84–7 and 125–7; D. S. G. Goodman, Deng Xiaoping and the Chinese Revolution, p. 78.
7. J.-L. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, p. 331.
8. R. MacFarquhar, ‘The Succession to Mao and the End of Maoism, 1969–1982’, p. 312.
9. Deng Xiaoping, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (1975–1982), p. 280.
10. Ibid., p. 172: speech of 30 March 1979, ‘Uphold the Four Cardinal Principles’.
11. See pp. 451–2. I am grateful to Steve Tsang for his insights into these aspects of Chinese political history.
12. L. T. White, Unstately Power, vol. 1: Local Causes of China’s Economic Reforms, pp. 14–15 and 123–4; vol. 2: Local Causes of China’s Intellectual, Legal and Governmental Reforms, p. 145.
13. White, Unstately Power, vol. 1: Local Causes of China’s Economic Reforms, p. 10.
14. Deng Xiaoping, Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (1975–1982), p. 155: speech at closing session of the Central Working Conference preparing the third plenary meeting of the Central Committee, 13 December 1978.
15. This was at a dinner in 1986 for former President Carter’s National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski: see Z. Brzezinski, The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century, pp. 160–1.
16. Tenzin Gyatso, Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama, p. 231.
17. J.-C. Tournebrise and L. MacDonald, Le Dragon et la souris, p. 169.
18. Domenach, Chine: l’archipel oublié, pp. 332–4.
19. Ibid., p. 489. See also H. H. Wu, Laogai – The Chinese Gulag, ch. 1.
20. Tianjian Shi, Political Participation in Beijing, p. 252.
21. Brzezinski, The Grand Failure, p. 162.
22. Conversation with G. P. Shultz, Hoover Institution, 8 March 2005.
23. R. Baum, ‘The Road to Tiananmen: Chinese Politics in the 1980s’, in R. MacFarquhar (ed.), The Politics of China, 1949–1989, pp. 449–50.
24. Tiananmen Square, 1989: The Classified History, doc. 14.
25. Xin Liu, In One’s Shadow: An Ethnographic Account of the Condition of Post-Reform Rural Russia, p. 182.
26. J. P. Burns, Political Participation in Rural China, p. 154.
27. P. J. Seybolt, Throwing the Emperor from his Horse: Portrait of a Village Leader in China, 1923–1995, pp. 82–3 and 85.
28. Laogai Research Foundation: report, 14 April 2004.
29. Gu Mingyan, ‘Development and Reform of Education for Minority Nationalities in China’ (typescript, HIA), 26 June 1989.
30. ‘The Cauldron Boils’, Economist, 29 September 2005.
31. ‘Human Rights in China: Briefing Memo’, submitted to President George W. Bush, 16 November 2005.
38. Perestroika
1. The Politburo minute is quoted by V. Bukovskii, Moskovskii protsess, p. 88.
2. M. S. Gorbachëv, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 1, p. 265.
3. R. Service, ‘Gorbachev’s Reforms: The Future in the Past’, Journal of Communist Studies, no. 3 (1987).
4. Ibid.
5. I am grateful to George Shultz and Martin Anderson for sharing with me their thoughts on the counterfactual possibilities in relation to the mid-1980s.
6. A. Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 186–7.
39. The Comrades Depart
1. O. A. Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times, p. 390.
2. See pp. 440–7.
3. See pp. 403–4 for the politics of Vietnam after the communist military victory.
4. See pp. 351–2.
5. Personal information from Laurence Rees, 4 October 2005.
6. J. Watts, ‘North Korea Turns Away Western Aid’, Observer, 2 October 2005.
7. F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man.
8. T. Hofnung, Georges Marchais: l’inconnu du Parti Communiste Français, chs 7 and 8.
9. P. M. La Ramée and Erica G. Polakoff, ‘The Evolution of the Popular Organizations in Nicaragua’, in G. Prevost and H. E. Vanden (eds), The Undermining of the Sandinista Revolution, pp. 42–3; C. M. Vilas, Perfiles de la Revolución Sandinista, pp. 359–64.
10. El Nuevo Diario (Managua), 22 February 1990.
11. Ortega’s editorial: La Prensa (Managua), 26 February 1990.
12. El Nuevo Diario (Managua), 22 February 1990.