Page numbers beginning with 141 refer to notes.
aboriginal Australians, 133
abortion, 127
controversy over, 31, 47, 87
forced, 46
abstinence, 83, 89
acceptability, of health services, 28, 31
accessibility:
of health services, 28, 31, 89
in HIV/AIDS, 53–59
of medications, 101
for women, 128
“Access to Treatment and Human Rights,” 40
accidents, 131
accountability:
and bureaucracy, 16–18, 34
of health organizations, 133–37
of World Bank, 99–100
Achmat, Zackie, 75–77, 82–83
activists, see advocacy groups
adolescent health, 30, 39, 74, 82
advantaged groups, litigation and, 38
Advisory Committee of People with AIDS, 48
advocacy groups, 35–36, 93, 136
accountability of, 133–37
dangers of, 35–36
and HIV/AIDS, 39, 40, 48–51, 58, 59, 80–81, 90–91
social cachet of, 136–37
see also specific groups
Afghanistan, infant mortality in, xiii–xiv
Africa, 94
health brain drain in, 108–11
HIV/AIDS in, 62, 67–85, 91
maternal mortality in, 124
mental health issues in, 131
see also sub-Saharan Africa; specific countries
African Americans:
HIV/AIDS in, 47, 59
in Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 115
AIDES, 48
AIDS, see HIV/AIDS
“AIDS denialism,” 73, 76, 80
“AIDS exceptionalism,” 57
AIDS Support Organization (TASO), 72–73
Alma-Ata conference, see International Conference on Primary Health Care
Alma-Ata declaration, 139
Alzheimer’s, 38
American Anthropological Association, 22, 27
Amisi, Tina, 85–86
Amnesty International, 35, 125–26, 127
Angell, Marcia, 118
Angola, 98, 110, 126
Annan, Kofi, 71
antibiotics, resistance to, 102–4
anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs, 1–2, 53, 73, 77, 80–81, 87, 91
right to, 77–78
see also AZT
apartheid, 69–70
Aristide, Jean Bertrand, 61–62, 65
ARV drugs, see anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs
Ashe, Arthur, 57
Asia, 111
HIV/AIDS in, 67
“Asian values” issue, 23–27, 147
“asset stripping,” 54
attended births, 85
Australia, 110
life expectancy in, 133
reaction to HIV/AIDS in, 46
availability, of health services, 28, 31
AZT (Azidothymidine), 53–58, 73, 77, 82, 117–18
skepticism about, 55
Baldwin, Peter, 45–46, 50, 53
Bangkok conference (1993), 23–27
Bangkok Declaration, 23–27
Bangladesh, 111
Beitz, Charles, 145
Bentham, Jeremy, 19
“best existing standard of care,” 138
vs. “best local standard of care,” 117–19
Big Pharma, 76, 93, 102
black market, 106
blood, transmission of HIV/AIDS through, 42, 45, 56–57, 59, 64, 67
boat people, Haitian, 65
Botswana:
HIV/AIDS containment in, 70, 82–83, 90
“bottom-up” organization, 135–36
Brazil, 102
litigation in, 38
breastfeeding, 79
Bretton Woods Conference, 94
Brink, Anthony, 77
British Empire, 111
British Medical Journal, 92
Brown, Gordon, 127
Brown, Sarah, 127
Buffett, Warren, 133
Burma, 92
Bush, George W., 72
Cambodia, 92
Cameron, Edwin, 75
Canada, 109, 110
cancer, 41, 42
CARE (Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency Act), 56–57
Caribbean, 111
Carrefour, 62
Castro, Fidel, 72
causal vs. moral responsibility, 62–63
Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 65
child mortality, 60, 96, 98, 122
maternal mortality vs., 126–27
children:
health care for, xiv, 8, 30, 31, 78–79, 85, 92
rape of, 74
children’s rights, 24, 122–23, 143
Chile, 17
chimpanzees, 67
China, 126
ancient traditions of, 26
median age of death in, xiv
state vs. individual rights in, 25
Chisholm, George Brock, 131
circumcision, male, 89, 121, 154–55
civil and political rights, 7, 43
civil wars, 126
clinics, 28
Clinton, Bill, 76
COBRA (Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act; 1986), 57
coercive treatments, 29
Cold War, 23
Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 144
General Comment 14 of, 10–11, 27–35, 43, 46–47, 84–85, 128, 139
General Comment 17 of, 12
Commonwealth Code of Practice, 110–12
communicable disease, see epidemic disease
communitarianism, 21
compulsory licensing, 102
condoms, condom use, 84, 87, 89, 108
Congo, Democratic Republic of, 69, 85, 126
Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA; 1986), 57
Constitution, U.S., 19
Constitutional Court, 79
contraception, 29, 84, 108
controversy over, 31
control arms, in drug testing, 117–19
copyright law, 12
copyrights, see patents, patented medicines
core obligations, 9–12, 27
in poor countries, 70
progressive realization vs., 122–23
of wealthy nations, 11
“corporate social responsibility” programs, 106
corruption, 99–100, 125
Costa Rica, 61
cost-effectiveness, see economics and health care
Cuba, 65
quarantine in, 52
cultural appropriateness, 28
cultural imperialism, 21–23, 73
Dachau, 115
DALY (disability-adjusted life-year), 155–56
death, median age of, xiii–xiv
see also child mortality; infant mortality; maternal mortality
death sentence, 43
Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen (1789), 19
Defert, Daniel, 48
Demand Dignity, 127
democracy, 19
Denver Principles, 48–51, 55, 136
Department of Health, New York City, 64
developed world:
hypocrisy of, 25
median age of death in, xiv
recruitment of medical staff by, 108–14
see also specific countries
developing world:
demand for human rights by, 4
as exploited in research, 117–18
health brain drain in, 108–14
maternal and newborn survival in, 124–28
Western “lifestyle” conditions in, 131
see also specific countries
diabetes, 38, 131
dialysis, 57, 77–78
Diana, Princess of Wales, 88
diarrhea, xiv, 69
disabled:
health care for, 32, 93
disadvantaged people, 34, 59
disempowerment of, 35
disaggregated data, 132
disaster relief, 32
discrimination, 11
freedom from, 43, 52
against Haitians, 62, 64
in HIV/AIDS, 39, 40, 42–44, 46, 50, 58, 88, 91
in maternal mortality, 128
sexual, 48, 68
state-directed, 43
see also non-discrimination
divine right, 18, 147
Dlamini, Gugu, 75
Doha Declaration, 105
Dominican Republic, 60
donors, 93
“Don’t Die of Ignorance” campaign, 47
“DOTS,” 104
drownings, 131
drug abuse and addiction, 42, 45, 47, 59, 68, 93
drug hunger strikes, 75, 76
drugs:
anti-retroviral, see anti-retroviral (ARV) drugs
cost of, 71, 75
donated and free, 76, 79, 82, 107–8, 118, 122
generic, 71, 76, 101
patents on, see patents, patent medicines
pricing of, 2, 89, 102, 105
resistance to, 58, 71, 102–4, 120
unsafe, 29, 75
drug testing:
aftermath of, 117–20, 159
benefits for subjects of, 120–21
“best existing standard of care” in, 117–19
for chronic conditions, 120
control and experimental arms in, 117–19
cost issues in, 120–21
ethics of, 53–54, 114–23
for HIV/AIDS, 117–18
as persuasive, 122
Duesberg, Peter, 55, 73, 153
duty to fulfill, 29, 31–32, 43–44, 59, 86, 87, 89–90, 94
duty to protect, 29, 30–31, 32, 43, 59, 86, 88–90, 94
duty to respect, 29–30, 32, 43, 59, 86–88
Duvalier, François (Papa Doc), 61
Duvalier, Jean-Claude (Baby Doc), 61
earthquakes, 10, 60
Easterly, William, 36–38
Eastern Europe, 111
eclampsia, 124
economic accessibility, 28
economic growth, as purported stimulus for health care, see structural adjustment programs
economics and health care, xiv–xv, 12, 14, 36, 38, 51, 55–56, 58, 66, 68, 71, 75, 85–86, 95–100, 104–5, 126, 155–56
Ecuador, 92, 144
education:
for girls, 97
on health issues, 39, 88
right to, 14
elderly:
chronic diseases of, 41
health care for, 30, 31
elephantiasis, 108
elimination vs. eradication, 135
emergencies, national, 102
employment, discrimination in, 44, 88
endemic disease, 8
environmental hygiene, 8
environmental pollution, 29
epidemic disease, 5, 8, 105
dilemma of, 52–53
presumed conquest of, 41
vulnerable subjects of, 39
see also HIV/AIDS; specific diseases
“epidemiological transition,” 41
eradication vs. elimination, 135
Established Market Economies, xiv
ethical reviews, 116–17
Ethiopia, 113, 126
eugenic policies, 47
Eurocentrism, 25
Europe, HIV/AIDS in, 67, 68
European Court of Human Rights, 144
Evatt, Herbert, 3–4
exclusion, 44
exorcism, 131
extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDRTB), 107
family planning, 30
Farmer, Paul, xiii, 2, 59, 62, 65, 66, 92, 104–5, 122, 136, 138
fatalism, 125
fear, freedom from, 3
female genital mutilation, 30–31, 93
feminism, 21
fifth “H,” 42
financial organizations, as detrimental to health services, 32, 40, 93
first-generation (non-interference) rights, 13–14, 144
First International Health Conference (1946), 5
first-line TB therapy, 104
floods, 131
forced incarceration, 43
Foucault, Michel, 48
“four freedoms,” 3, 142
“four H’s,” 42, 59
France:
and Haiti, 60
national health system in, 56
reaction to HIV/AIDS in, 45
French Revolution, 19
Frisancho, Arial, 127–28
full immediate realization, vs. progressive realization, 10–11
funerals, African, 70
Gambia, 122
Gates, Bill, 133–35
Gates, Melinda, 133
Gates Foundation, 72, 82
criticism of, 133–35
GAVI, 133
gay community, 40
Gay Men’s Health Crisis, 48
“gay plague,” 42
gay rights movement, 48
Gaza, 92
General Comment 14, 10–11, 27–35, 43, 46–47, 84–85, 128, 139
compliance with, 32–35
generic medicines, 71, 76, 101, 105
genital cutting, 30–31
genital herpes, 41
genocide, 77, 83
Germany, reaction to HIV/AIDS in, 45–46
Ghana, 109, 110
GIPA (Greater Involvement of People Living with HIV/AIDS) Principle, 50–51
girls:
education for, 97
health care for, 28
Global Code of Practice, 112
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria, 71, 107, 133
global health governance, 133–37
Global Health Watch Reports, 137
Global Program on AIDS, 70–73
gorillas, 67
governments:
health care responsibilities of, 14, 27, 29–32, 43–44, 59, 86–90, 94, 107
in HIV/AIDS crisis, 43–44
negligence of, 40, 93
privately financed health care vs., 97–98
Greater Involvement of People Living with HIV/AIDS (GIPA) Principle, 50–51
Great Powers, 3
Green Light Committee Initiative, 107
GRID (Gay Related Immune Deficiency), 42
Grover, Anand, 143
Guantánamo Bay, 65
Guatemala, syphilis study in, 115
Guinea, infant mortality in, xiii–xiv
Gulf War, 17
HAART (highly active anti-retroviral therapy), 58, 71, 82, 153
Haiti, Haitians:
background of, 60–62, 110
and causal direction of HIV/AIDS, 62–63
coup of 1991 in, 61, 65
earthquake in, 60
and HIV/AIDS, 42, 59–67
internment of, 65–66
politics in, 61–62
US intervention in, 61–62
health:
definitions of, 6, 8, 9, 16
highest attainable standard of, 6, 9, 117–19, 178
keeping well vs. restoration to, 6–7
lifestyle choice in, 1, 41, 131
as luck, 1
“standard threats” to, 27
vs. medical care, 6–7
health, as human right, xiii–xv, 5–6
accountability in, 16–18, 34
advocacy for, see advocacy groups
areas of concern in, 93
as binding on all nations, 9
coming of age of, 72
as compromised by lack of medical staff, see health brain drain
core obligations in, 9–12, 27, 70, 122–23
court cases on, 77–80, 141
criticisms of, 13–38
cultural conflict in, 21–22, 79, 84–85, 116, 128
decisions detrimental to, 105
declarations, covenants and constitutions for, 5–9; see also specific documents
difficulty of implementation of, 10–11
dilemma of, 137–38
disadvantaged in, 34, 35
discrimination in, see discrimination
drug testing in, see drug testing
economic considerations and, xiv–xv, 12, 14, 36, 38, 51, 55–56, 58, 66, 68, 71, 75, 85–86, 95–100, 104–5, 127, 155–56
education and, 39, 88
emerging campaigns in, 130–32
empowerment and, 15–16, 81, 136
external investors in, 95–96
funding for, 72, 94–100, 114
future of, 130–39
government responsibility in, see governments
HIV/AIDS in development of, 39–91
humanitarianism vs., 15–16
ICESCR statement of, 7–8
idealism in, xv
ideological criticism of, 14
individual liberty vs., 52, 87
of individual vs. community, 67
infectious disease dilemma in, 52–53, 87
as internal vs. international issue, 19
as international law, 12
international responsibility for, 16–18, 32, 70–72, 89–91, 93, 94–100, 106, 123
lack of resources for, xv
marginalized and stigmatized in, 42, 52, 59, 81, 90, 124
monitoring and evaluation of, 33–35, 133
as moral obligation, xiv, 2, 11, 12, 15, 16–17, 38
neglected groups in, 31
obligations of wealthy nations in, 11
philosophical challenges to, 18–27
poverty in, see poverty
and power, 15–16
in practice, 35–38
problem groups in, 92–93
problems and prospects for, 92–129
progressive realization of, see progressive realization
ranking of countries in, 148
rejection of, xv
resistance to, 3, 7, 13
resource constraints of, 10
rights vs., 16–18
right to be healthy vs., 10, 27
right to medical care vs., 6–7, 27
South Africa crisis in, 73–76
target dates not met in, 8
theoretical vs. practical issues in, xiv–xv
unavailability of data on, 33, 132
as vague, 14
vertical programs in, 36–37
violations to, xiv, 17
Health, Nutrition and Poverty (HNP) projects, 99–100
Health and Human Rights, 92
health brain drain, 85–86, 108–14, 134
attempts to combat, 110–12
“health impact,” 106
Health Impact Fund, 106
health services:
acceptability of, 28, 31
accessibility of, 28, 31, 89
availability of, 28, 31
competition in financing of, 97–98
for prisoners, see prisons, prisoners
privatization of, see structural adjustment programs
quality of, 28
urban vs. rural, 30, 33
health systems, well-functioning, 28
Health Systems: Improving Performance, 148
hearing impaired, 93
heart disease, 41
Hegel, G. W. F., 21
Helsinki Declaration:
of 1964, 116–18
of 2000, 120
hemophiliacs, 42, 56–57
hepatitis, 41
heroin users, 42
highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), 58, 71, 82
Highly Inefficient Laws (HIL), 51
high-risk groups, 64–65
HIL (Highly Inefficient Laws), 51
Hispanics:
HIV/AIDS in, 47
Hispaniola, 60
HIV-1 B virus, 62, 68
HIV-1 C virus, 62, 68
HIV/AIDS, 1–2, 36, 39–91, 136, 139
access to treatment for, 53–59
advocacy for, 39, 40, 48–51, 58, 59, 80–81, 90–91; see also specific groups
in Africa, 62, 67–85, 91
attempts at African solution for, 73–75
blame in, 63
in Brazil, 102
causal direction of, 62–63
cause of, 54–55, 73, 153
containment of, 72–73
Denver Principles recommendations and rights for, 49–50
description of symptoms of, 69
and development of human right to health, 39–91
discovery of, and response, 41–53
discrimination in, 39, 40, 42–44, 46, 50, 58, 88, 91
drug testing in, 117–18
Duesberg controversy over, 55, 73, 153
education as strategy for, 72–73, 81, 83–84, 88–89
“four H’s” of, 42
funding for, 72, 94
global spread of, 67–85
in Haitians, 42, 59–67
health implications in origin of, 63–64
heterosexual transmission of, 64, 68–69, 89, 154
hidden cost of, 85–86
human rights issues exemplified by, 39–40
insurance issues in, 55–57
legal issues in, 51–52
medications for, 53–58
moralistic approach to, 42
mutation of virus in, 57, 63
obstructive government policies in, 73, 76, 80–81
onset in US, 40, 42, 59, 62, 67
origin of, 67–70
precaution strategies for, 45–47
in pregnant women, 78–79
prevention programs for, 83–85, 88–89
recognized as human rights issue, 40, 72
restriction vs. education in, 47
restrictive policies in, 45–47, 51, 64–66, 87–88
scientific/medical response to, 41, 42, 44–45, 53, 71–72
screening programs for, 45
as self-inflicted, 42
as “standard threat,” 58
strains of, 62, 68
testing for preventative interventions for, 121–22
transmission of, 42, 45, 54, 56–57, 59, 64, 67, 68–69, 78–79, 82, 89, 117, 154
and tuberculosis, 104, 119
in wealthy countries, 58–59
HNP (Health, Nutrition and Poverty) projects, 100
homeless, rights for, 52
homosexuality, 42, 48, 75, 93
as illegal, 68
and sex tourism, 60
hookers, 42
“horizontal programs,” 86
Horton, Richard, 135
hospitals, 28
housing, discrimination in, 44, 88
housing conditions, xiv, 10
Hudson, Rock, 57
humanitarian aid, 32
humanitarianism:
vs. empowerment, 15–16
human rights:
assertion of, 21
as branch of international law, 146
cultural differences and, 21–27
denial of, 145
foundations for, 19–20
health as, see health, as human right
history of, 18–19
liberty vs. protection dilemma in, 64
links between health and, 43
litigation in, 37–38
non-interference vs. international cooperation in, 23–25
political sociology of, 35
rights vs., 16–18
sex as, 50
states’ rights vs., 25–26, 145, 147–48
UN commitment to, 3–4
unpopularity of, 123–24
violators of, 93
vs. divine right, 18–19
as Western notion, 21–22
for women, 84
Human Rights Commission, UN, 4
Human Rights Watch, 35
“Human Rights Without Foundations” (Raz), 146
hunger strikes, 66, 75, 76
Hunt, Paul, 34, 143
hygiene, 8
hyperinflation, 2
hypothermia, 115–16
iatrogenic (physician-induced) disease, 55
ICCPR, see International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR, see International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
idealism, xv
illegal immigrants, 52, 59
Illinois, premarital screening in, 51
illiteracy, 60
IMF, see International Monetary Fund
immigration:
Haitian, 62
and national health systems, 56
restrictions on, 46, 47
and rights for illegals, 52, 59
immune systems, compromised, 42
incarceration, 130
see also prisons, prisoners
India, 105, 111, 126
ancient traditions of, 26
court case in, 78
HIV/AIDS in, 62
median age of death in, xiv
indigenous people:
health care for, 31, 92
Indonesia, 23
industrial hygiene, 8
infant health, threats to, xiv
infant mortality, xiii–xiv, 8
in HIV/AIDS testing, 118
infectious disease, see epidemic disease
inflation, 95
influenza, 45
information, patient rights to, 44
information accessibility, 28, 50
informed consent, 116
insurance, discrimination in, 44, 88
intellectual property, right to benefit from, 12
International Conference on Primary Health Care (Alma-Ata conference; 1978), 8–9, 139
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 7, 13
as nonbinding on countries refusing ratification, 9
US ratification of, 25
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR; 1976), 13, 43, 139, 143
Article 12 of, 2, 7–8, 11
progressive realization in, 10–11
US rejection of ratification, 7
International Criminal Court, 76–77
international customary law, 9
International Initiative on Maternal Mortality and Human Rights, 128
international law, 2
human right to health in, 9
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 32, 70
in health issues, 94–95
international reputation, 17, 34, 37
Investing in Health, 94, 96–98
Iraq, invasion of, 37
isolation, forced, 44, 46–47, 52
Israel, 17
Ivory Coast, 69
Jackson, Michael, 56
Japan:
earthquake and tsunami in, 10
life expectancy in, 10
Jean, Yolande, 66
John, Elton, 56–57
Johnson, Judge, 66
Johnson, Magic, 57
Kaleeba, Noerine, 73
Kallings, L. O., 69
Kaposi’s sarcoma, 42
Kazakhstan, 8
kidney failure, 77
King’s Fund, UK, 109
Kirby, Michael, 51
Lancet, 32–34, 92, 135, 139
Latin America, 37–38
HIV/AIDS in, 67
law, international, 2
League of Nations, 3
legalistic culture, recourse to rights in, 21
lesbians, 93
Liberia, 98, 126
licensing, regulations, 30
life, right to, 77–78
life expectancy, 10, 33, 83, 133
lifestyle, 1, 41, 131
Locke, John, 18–19, 147
Lurie, Peter, 118
Lurie and Wolfe critique, 118
Lush, David, 44
MacIntyre, Alasdair, 145
“Magna Carta of Health,” 5
Maïga, Soyata, 128
malaria, 36, 71, 85, 93, 107, 108, 122–23, 135
Gates Foundation initiative on, 135
Malawi, 113
Malaysia, 23
male circumcision, 89, 121, 154–55
Malik, Charles, 4, 17, 147
Mandela, Nelson, 40, 72, 139
Mann, Jonathan, 40–41, 43, 52, 70–71, 87, 92
Maritain, Jacques, 20
“market fundamentalism,” 95
Marx, Karl, 21, 61
mass graves, 17
maternal care, 36
maternal mortality, 93, 123–28
causes of, 125
and newborn survival, 123–28
vs. child mortality, 126–27
Mbeki, Thabo, 73, 76, 80–81, 83
McNamara, Robert, 94
MDRTB (multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis), 104, 107
measles, 45
Medicaid, 56
medical care:
bogus vs. scientific, 73–74, 76
emergency, 77
per capita expenditure on, 33
right to, 2, 6, 8, 10, 77–78, 138
vs. right to health, 6–7, 27
medical ethics, 28, 53–54, 107–8, 114–23
“medicalization,” 55
medical profession:
as detrimental to health care, 93
health brain drain in, 85–86, 108–14, 134
in HIV/AIDS crisis, 41, 42, 44–45, 53, 71–72
“medicalization” and, 55
responsibilities of, 44
medical staff:
international recruitment of, 109
licensing and regulation of, 30
shortage of, 85–86, 108–14, 134
medicines:
access to patented, 12, 39
embargos on, 32
expensive, 39
for HIV/AIDS, 53–58
TRIPS and price of, 100
see also drugs
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), 17, 71, 86, 107
mental health, 130–31
coercive treatments and, 29
Merck foundation, 82
Mexico, 92
midwives, xiv
military action, 17
Millennium Development Goals, UN, 125
Ministry of Health, Gambian, 122
Mongolia, 144
mosquito netting test, 122–23
mother-to-child HIV/AIDS transmission, 54, 78–79, 82
movement and association, freedom of, 43, 87
Mozambique, 96, 110
infant mortality in, xiii–xiv
MSF (Médecins Sans Frontières), 17, 71, 86, 107
Mudimu, Moleen, 1–2
Mugabe, Robert, 2, 145
multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB), 104, 107
multiple sclerosis, 38
mumps, 45
Museveni, Yoweri, 72
Muzorewa, Abel, 145
Namibia, 44, 87, 144
“naming and shaming,” 17, 37
national health policies, 31
indicators for international compliance with, 33–35
National Health Service (NHS), UK, 111
national health systems, 55–56
competition in financing of, 97–98
Natsios, Andrew, 71
natural disasters, 10
natural rights, 18–19
Nature, 73
Nazi regime, 3, 145
unethical research by, 115–16
Nepal, 92
Netherlands, 92
Nevirapine, 78–79, 82
newborns, maternal mortality and, 123–28
New England Journal of Medicine, 92, 118
New York Review of Books, 135
New Zealand, 110
NGOs, see nongovernmental organizations
Niger, 124
Nigeria, 109, 111, 126
Nobel Prizes, xiii, 125
Nolen, Stephanie, 85–86
non-discrimination, 28, 29, 30
as intrinsic to public health, 52
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 35–36, 93, 107, 131
see also advocacy groups
Norway, 112
nuclear weapons testing, 29
Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 107–8, 120–22
four ethical issues of, 116–17
Nuremberg, trials, 115
nurses, recruitment of, 109, 111
nutrition, xiv, 40
occupational disease, 8
Odinkalu, Chidi Anselm, 136–37
opportunistic infections, 58, 66
opportunity cost, 129
“overlapping consensus,” 20
Pakistan, 111, 126
Paris, 103
Paris Aids Summit (1994), 50
Partners in Health, 104
Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity and others v. State of West Bengal and another, 78
“passenger virus,” 73
patents, patented medicines:
access to, 12, 39
donor support in, 106
dual strategy for, 106–8
price differentiation in, 106–7
proposed new approach to, 106
regulations on, 2, 12, 76
and research and development, 101
see also TRIPS
Pathologies of Power (Farmer), xiii
patients, as victims, 48–49, 55
penicillin, 115
pensions, in UK, 17–18
People’s Health Charter, 137
People’s Health Movement, 137
“people’s health movements,” 40
“People With AIDS,” 49
PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief), 72, 82, 133
Peru, 104
pharmaceutical companies, patent rights and, 76
Philippines, 111
physical accessibility, of health services, 28
Physicians for Human Rights, 17, 43
Piot, Peter, 48, 71
Pisani, Elizabeth, 134
placebos, 54, 116, 117
Pogge, Thomas, 106
polio, 45, 93
Gates Foundation initiative on, 134–35
Port-au-Prince, 62
Porter, Roy, 102–3
post-natal care, 30
poverty:
accessibility of health care and, 28
in Africa, 83
failure of health programs for, 100
financial institutions’ programs for, 95–100
in Haiti, 60–62
and health, 2, 11, 24, 43, 97
and health brain drain, 109–10
human rights and, 52
maternal death and, 125, 126
SAPs and, 96
pre-eclampsia, 127
pregnancy:
HIV/AIDS in, 78–79, 82
premarital screening, 51
prenatal care, 30, 125
President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), 72, 82, 133
prisons, prisoners, 29–30, 93, 124
inhumane conditions of, 43
TB outbreak in, 104–5
private health care, 30
progressive realization, 10–12, 27, 34
core obligations vs., 122–23
as excuse for limited progress, 11, 89
full immediate realization vs., 10–11
international assistance in, 11
prostitution, 42, 52, 59, 62
protease inhibitors, 58
public health initiatives, vs. high-tech hospitals, 97
Public Health Service, U.S., 115
public safety, vs. individual freedom, 39
punitive measures, 29–30, 51
quarantine, 52
ineffectiveness of, 5
racial segregation, 3
racism, 68
rape, 74, 126, 131
Rawls, John, 20
Raz, Joseph, 146
Reagan, Ronald, 95
refugees, 65–66, 92, 124
remittances, 110
reproductive freedom, 87
research and development, 102
ethics of, 114–23
resource constraints, 10, 78, 89, 122
responsibility, causal vs. moral, 63
restrictions, in HIV/AIDS crisis, 42, 45–47, 51, 64–66, 87–88
Retrovir, 53
retrovirus, 45
rights, human rights vs., 16–18
rights inflation, 14
right-to-health movement, 9, 72
river blindness, 94, 108
Rockwell, Norman, 142
Rómulo, Carlos, 3–4
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 4
Roosevelt, Franklin, 3
rubella, 45
Russia, TB outbreak in prisons of, 104–5
Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency Act (CARE), 56–57
safe sex, 45, 48, 49–50, 74
San Francisco AIDS Foundation, 48
sanitation, xiv, 28, 40, 134
in tuberculosis, 102–3
SAP, see structural adjustment programs
Saudi Arabia, 4
scientific progress, right to benefit from, 12
screening, for HIV/AIDS, 51–52
secondary infections, 44
second-generation (social and economic) rights, 13–14, 144
second-line TB therapy, 104
self-advocacy, 35–36
Sen, Amartya, xiii, 25–26
seroconversion, 121
sexism, 1215
sex tourists, American, 60, 62
sexual assault, 28
sexual behavior:
dangerous, 39, 155
in HIV/AIDS, 45–46, 48, 49–50, 83, 87, 89
sexually transmitted diseases, 46, 84
see also HIV/AIDS
sexual predation, 74
sex workers, 62
human rights for, 52, 59
Shore, Bill, 135
Shue, Henry, 27, 144
Sierra Leone, 110, 126
infant mortality in, xiii–xiv
Singapore, 23, 25
single-issue advocacy, see vertical programs
slave rebellion, Haitian, 60
“slim disease,” 69
smallpox, 45
Somalia, 143
Soobramoney, Thiagraj, 77–78
Soobramoney v. Minister of Health, 77–80
sooty mangabey, 67
South Africa, 4, 23, 37
Botswana vs., 82
constitution of, 77
health brain drain in, 109–11
HIV/AIDS in, 69–70, 73–81, 87, 89, 136
national treatment plan of, 80–81
South Pacific, 111
Soviet Union, 8, 147
human rights violations by, 3, 4
schoolchildren’s charity campaign in, 15
Spain, 111, 144
Special Rapporteur on Human Right to Health, 32, 139, 143
Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Women in Africa, 128
speech and expression, freedom of, 3, 13, 14
“standard threats,” 27
states’ rights, 25–26
sterilization, forced, 46, 47, 87
Stiglitz, Joseph, 94
stillbirths, 8
Stonewall riots, 48
structural adjustment programs (SAPs), 95–100
“structural violence,” 2
sub-Saharan Africa:
HIV/AIDS in, 36, 67, 94
infant mortality in, xiii
shortage of medical staff in, 108, 109
in UDHR, 23
surgery, 93
Swaziland, 70, 83, 84
Sweden, 124
national health system in, 56
reaction to HIV/AIDS in, 45–46
SwissAir crash (1988), 41
syphilis, 115
taboo subjects, 39
TAC (Treatment Action Campaign), 75–78, 136
Tanzania, 69
TASO (AIDS Support Organization), 72–73
TB, see tuberculosis
technological solutions, 134
temporary monopolies, for patented medicines, 101–2
Tenofovir, 84
Terrence Higgins Trust, 48
terrorism, 66
Thatcher, Margaret, 95
therapeutic violence, 131
“3 x 5” initiative, 72
Tonton Macoutes, 61
“top-down” organization, 135
torture, 9, 13, 26, 43, 66, 131
tourism, in Haiti, 64
trachoma, 108
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), see TRIPS
traditional medicine, 29
harmful, 30
traffic accidents, 131
“transactional sex,” 74
transfusion, 45
treatment:
forced, 46
right to, 43
unintended consequences of, 40
see also specific treatments and diseases
Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), 75–78, 136
“treatment literacy,” 81
treatment partners, 104
triple therapy, 58, 75
TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights), 76, 100–108
tropical diseases, 93
Truman, Harry, 5
Tshabalala-Msimang, Manto “Dr. Beetroot,” 73, 81
tsunamis, 10, 131
tuberculosis (TB), 66, 71, 85, 119
drug-resistant, 102–4, 107
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, (1932–1972), 115–16
28 Stories of Aids in Africa (Nolen), 85–86
UDHR, see Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Uganda, 68, 69, 111, 118–19
HIV/AIDS containment in, 72–74, 81, 90
UNAIDS, 71
UN Charter (1945), 3–4
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 143
UNESCO, French National Commission of, 20
UNFPA, 124
UNICEF, 96, 124, 143
United Kingdom (UK):
human rights violations by, 3
in international recruitment of medical staff, 109–12
national health system in, 56
United Nations (UN):
commitment to universal access by, 72
endorsement of UDHR by, 4
formation of, 2–3
on maternal death, 125
Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Health of, 32, 139, 143
United States (US):
abstinence programs of, 83
in Haiti, 61–62
health insurance coverage in, 56–57
HIV/AIDS in Haitians in, 59–67
human rights violations by, 3, 26, 115–16
ICCPR as unenforceable toward US, 25
and international recruitment of medical staff, 109–10
reaction to HIV/AIDS in, 41, 45–47
resistance to health as human right by, 3, 7, 13, 25, 102
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR; 1948), 1–12, 13, 19–20, 138, 147
Article 25, 1, 2, 6
background of, 1–5
cultural values in, 22–27
moral obligation and accountability in, 16–17
multiple interpretations of, 20
origin and drafting of, 142
philosophers’ committee for, 147
UN endorsement of, 4
Western vs. Asian values in, 23–27
unsafe drugs, 29, 75
USAID, 71
USSR, see Soviet Union
vaccines, 45, 57, 84, 85, 93, 134
for HIV/AIDS, 63
values, Western vs. Asian, 23–27
vertical programs:
detrimental effects of, 112–13, 134
narrow focus of, 36–37, 85
Vienna conference, see World Congress on Human Rights
viral diseases, 45
“virgin cleansing,” 74
Virodene, 75, 80, 87
Vision 2030, 144
voodoo, 42, 59
want, freedom from, 3
“Washington Consensus,” 95
water:
accessibility of, 28
clean, xiv, 33, 134
wealthy, in advocacy, 36, 136–37
weight loss, 69
West Bank, 17
Western lifestyle conditions, 131
White, Ryan, 56–57, 88
White Ribbon Alliance for Safe Motherhood, 127
WHO, see World Health Organization
“Why More Africans Don’t Use Human Rights Language,” 136–37
Wolfe, Sidney, 118
women:
and contraception, 84
employment for, 109
forced sterilization of, 87
health care for, 28, 30, 31
HIV/AIDS in, 46–47, 59, 68–69
in informed consent, 116
maternal mortality of, 123–28
mother-to-child HIV/AIDS transmission by, 78–79, 82, 117
poor, 125, 126
as property, 84
and rape, 74
violence against, 33, 84, 91
women’s rights, 24, 92
working conditions, xiv, 10
“working poor,” 56
World AIDS Day 2010, 40
World Bank, 32, 70
accountability of, 99–100
in health issues, 94–100, 105, 124
three-pronged program of, 96–98
World Bank Development Report:
of 1980, 94
of 1993, xiii, 94, 96–98
World Congress on Human Rights (Vienna; 1993), 23, 25, 26
World Health Assembly, 116
World Health Authority, 112
World Health Organization (WHO), 5–9, 33, 67, 72, 79, 124, 126, 133, 135, 142
as detrimental to health care, 113–14
funding by, 107
in health brain drain, 108, 110, 113
list of essential medicines of, 100–101
on mental health, 130–31
World Health Report:
of 2000, 146
of 2006, 108, 112
World Mental Health Day, 131
World Trade Organization, 76
World War I, 3
World War II, 2, 4, 5, 94, 145
worship, freedom of, 3
XDRTB (extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis), 107
Zambia, 69
“zero grazing,” 72
Zidovudine, 53, 117
Zimbabwe, 1–2, 69, 145
health system collapse in, 2