Finding Wisdom in East Asian Classics

Kaibara Ekken (1630–1714) was regarded by his contemporaries and by later generations as a major figure in Japanese intellectual history during the Tokugawa period (1603–1868).¹ Well versed in the writings of the Chinese Neo-Confucians, especially Zhu Xi (1130–1200), he strove to transmit their spiritual essence and practical implications to the Japanese of his day. In the teachings of Zhu Xi, he saw a system of personal cultivation, intellectual investigation, political organization, and cosmological orientation that provided a broad context for thought and a functional basis for action that he perceived as essential for his time. Ekken was also deeply influenced by the philosophy of qi of Luo Qinshun (1465–1547), and he developed a vitalistic naturalism based on material force.

His philosophy found expression spiritually in the “learning of the mind-and-heart” (C.: xinxue; J.: shingaku), a form of interior self-discipline that began with reverence and gratitude to Heaven and Earth as the source and sustainer of life. It proceeded to a recognition of one’s personal deficiencies and outlined a program of self-examination and reflection. The ultimate aim of this self-cultivation was to realize one’s unity with the vital energy of Heaven and Earth and all things. Clearly familiar with the earlier expression of xinxue in the Heart Classic of Zhen Dexiu (1178–1235) and with later Chinese and Korean commentaries on this text, Ekken formulated a version of self-cultivation that drew extensively on these earlier writings while trying to make their ideas comprehensible to the Japanese.

Kaibara Ekken’s teachings on spiritual cultivation thus lie within the broad tradition in East Asian Neo-Confucianism of the learning of the mind-and-heart, which has been discussed by Wm. Theodore de Bary. According to de Bary, this learning arose amid the teachings of the Song Neo-Confucians, as efforts to articulate an alternative to Buddhist doctrines of the mind and to develop an appropriate method for the cultivation of the mind-and-heart.² This was a Neo-Confucian response to the intensive methods of disciplining the mind advocated by the Buddhists, particularly within the Chan (Zen) sect. While initially related to the “Learning of the Emperors and Kings” as a means of governance, it was primarily understood as a mode of self-governance. It thus came to have a universal application for both educated leaders and commoners.

Its appeal as a teaching also transcended national and cultural boundaries, extending to the Mongols and other non-Han Chinese as well as to the Koreans and Japanese. Being both traditionalist and reformist, its rich humanistic character and religious tone distinguishes it as an important mode of East Asian moral and spiritual cultivation. Ekken developed his own form of shingaku (The Learning of the Mind-and-Heart) intended for all classes and occupations of people. As the foundation of his system of education, it figures prominently in the Precepts for Daily Life in Japan (Yamato Zokkun) and in his other ethicoreligious treatises (kunmono). Learning of the mind-and-heart was also an important movement for several Tokugawa teachers, including Ishida Baigan.³

Precepts for Daily Life in Japan begins by establishing the context for Neo-Confucian spiritual discipline in an overarching religious context combined with specific moral practices. Ekken outlines the general cosmological framework for his shingaku teachings and suggests the appropriate method of self-cultivation for humans in this framework. These two themes of cosmology and ethical practice are interwoven throughout the text and provide its fundamental unity. Despite Ekken’s rambling and repetitious style, it is well suited to the inculcation of Ekken’s teaching for a wide audience. Similarly, the use of polite conversational Japanese in contrast to the stylized conventions of Chinese-style prose (kanbun) distinguishes his writing from other Confucians of the same period. By their very repetition, certain key ideas can be identified as constituting the principal components of Ekken’s teaching: namely, the religious impetus, the learning imperative,⁴ personal integration, and modes of practice.

In the preface and throughout the Precepts for Daily Life in Japan, the religious motivation for self-cultivation is clearly expressed. Ekken believes that the special quality of human life is due to the fact that all human beings receive the mind-and-heart of Heaven and Earth. Given a capacity for reflective moral behavior, humans have a Heaven-bestowed nature that sets them apart from the plant and animal world and marks them in a special way as children of Heaven and Earth. This unique status of humans brings with it both privileges and responsibilities. The human being is extremely fortunate to have been born a human and must develop his or her Heaven-bestowed nature by serving Heaven and Earth. To this end, an individual practices filiality and reverence toward Heaven and Earth, considering them as one’s great parents and the source of all life and blessings. This religious sense of profound indebtedness to the cosmos for the gift of life, sustenance, and support is at the root of Neo-Confucian spiritual practice as seen in the Precepts for Daily Life in Japan.⁵ Moreover, it is also part of the larger process of Neo-Confucian cultivation, namely, the attainment of sagehood through the realization of one’s moral nature as linked to Heaven and Earth and all things. The recognition of this potential for a profound experience of identity with ultimate reality becomes both the impetus and the goal of cultivation.

By receiving the mind-and-heart of Heaven and Earth, the human becomes a natural vessel for nurturing virtue. As such, one is the “spirit of the universe,” or the “soul of creation” (banbutsu no rei). Through human beings the great consciousness and compassion of the heavenly mind-and-heart may be expressed in the creative and nurturing capacities of moral practice. Humans receive with their Heaven-bestowed nature a rational, moral sense, expressed through the primary virtue of humaneness (C.: ren; J.: jin), that gives them a capacity for nourishing life in the same way as does the vast heavenly mind-and-heart. For humans, this implies an extension outward in concentric circles of a profound love for other people as well as a compassion for birds and beasts, trees and plants.

This fundamental virtue of humaneness encompasses the other principal virtues or constants, namely rightness, decorum, wisdom, and trustworthiness. In order to avoid too general and diffuse a sense of morality, this virtue is particularly emphasized in the context of the “five relationships”: between lord and retainer, parent and child, husband and wife, older and younger siblings, and friends. These establish a model for interpersonal relations through a mutual bonding of human emotions to a sense of reciprocal obligation as a guide to human behavior.

In order to realize their responsibilities as human beings, Ekken believes that people must know the “Way of the human” and adopt it. Guidelines exist for following this path, and they should be sought out. There arises, then, an overriding need to know the Way so as to discover and discern the most authentic mode of human behavior. This can be called the “learning imperative” of Neo-Confucian spirituality. It is the source of the constant emphasis on learning and on education in the Confucian tradition. In Precepts for Daily Life in Japan, this is the subject of the first two chapters on the “Pursuit of Learning.”

Here the pursuit of learning becomes the transformation of the self through moral and spiritual cultivation, the subject of chapters 3 and 4, on the “The Discipline of the Mind-and-Heart” (shinjutsu). The last four chapters of the text are principally concerned with modes of practice based on the steps of internal cultivation outlined in the first four chapters.

As these titles indicate, Ekken’s first two chapters are primarily concerned with the “Pursuit of Learning” through a method of education and self-cultivation based on the essential teachings of the Great Learning and later Neo-Confucian texts and commentaries on the same subject. This substructure emphasizes the importance placed in Neo-Confucian education on the need for sequence and method in learning, as does Zhu Xi’s preface to the Great Learning.

For Ekken, the basis of learning is in establishing a dynamic balance between subjective and objective knowledge. Overemphasis on one or the other poles of knowledge can lead to a distortion of learning as a moral process. For this reason, while Ekken is critical of the subjective tendencies of Buddhism, Daoism, and of the Lu-Wang School of the Mind, he does not believe that a purely rational or empirical approach is satisfactory either. Those who are overly subjective tend to sink into quietistic or solipsistic practices, while those who stress rationality and objectivity are inclined to become technically adept at external investigation while ignoring the process of inner cultivation. Instead, Ekken emphasizes a balancing of subjective and objective knowledge, leading to an expression of that knowledge in action.

With regard to subjectivity in knowing, Ekken, following Zhu Xi before him, states that learning begins with things close at hand. There is no need to search for an abstract wisdom when one can rely on one’s own innate knowledge of the good in trying to understand the teachings of the sages—their subjective capacity for “good knowing” (C.: liangzhi; J.: ryochi). This affirmation of the potential of all humans for discernment and the confirmation of the goodness of that innate nature are at the heart of Neo-Confucian learning and self-cultivation.

Along with this dynamic reliance on subjectivity, there is a recognition of the need for objectivity so as to avoid the danger of depending exclusively on one’s own perceptions or opinions. Ekken stresses the importance of learning from teachers, friends, and the sages of the past. It is difficult to master even small arts without a teacher. Even the sages learned by studying with a teacher. It is essential to select good teachers and to respect them fully. In addition to teachers, people should learn and consult with trusted friends who will objectively point out their shortcomings and correct their mistakes. The biases of one’s own disposition can thus be rectified. Ekken is, however, aware of the need for a constant reevaluation of Confucian scholarship, for he wishes to avoid an uncritical acceptance of its ideas.

For Ekken, establishing a goal is essential for all later progress. Within the context of Neo-Confucian self-cultivation, the ultimate goal for Ekken was understood to be the attainment of sagehood, namely the full realization of one’s own nature and the experience of oneness with Heaven, Earth, and all things. Perhaps in an effort to maintain a sense of the accessibility of such a goal and to stress the availability of Neo-Confucian practice for all classes of people, he speaks less about this ultimate goal than simply about the transformation of one’s nature through moral cultivation. Human nature is weak, and thus consciousness of a larger goal is essential. Without such a goal one may waver, become lazy, or be distracted by ephemeral things. For Ekken, establishing a goal means having a resolute aim and being constantly diligent toward this end. Thus he calls for a firm will, which is single minded and not divided or faltering. Dedicated effort of the will is the basis of study and the dynamic motive behind the learning imperative.

Lest a person become self-absorbed in this resolute drive toward a goal, Ekken advocates humility as a correlative principle for the learning process. Thus a person should take pleasure in questioning others, listening carefully to instructions, and welcoming admonishment. People should be modest about their knowledge or accomplishments and be quick to correct their errors when necessary. Ultimately, Ekken follows the important directive of Confucius to learn for oneself, not to impress others. This was a cornerstone of Zhu Xi’s teachings and was continually cited by Neo-Confucians in China, Korea, and Japan.

Ekken urges those involved in learning to avoid illiterate people who dislike all forms of scholarly endeavor and thus err in their subjective prejudices. He says scholars should not argue angrily with such people, as it will only intensify their antagonism toward all scholarly endeavor. Many uneducated people dislike learning because frequently scholars are arrogant and disdainful of them. He makes a special plea for sincerity and humility in learning so that Japan may become an enlightened nation of Noble persons. Ekken continually returns to these two principles of resoluteness and constant humility as the basis of all learning.

The essential method of the learning imperative involves steps for integrating knowledge and action. These are the fundamental principles originally stated in the Mean (Zhongyong) and emphasized by Zhu Xi, namely, study widely, question thoroughly, think carefully, judge clearly, and act seriously. “By first delving into the Way and its principles in our own hearts, and then widely searching out the principles in all things, we will apprehend a truth in the center of our own being.” This requires an investigation of both the past and the present by a reliance on the books of the sages and on the teachings of other people. Similarly, questioning thoroughly serves as a method for resolving doubts and clarifying principles. Thinking carefully means reflecting with discretion so that one will acquire knowledge for oneself. Judging clearly means investigating right and wrong and distinguishing between good and evil. The first two steps involve the specific “external” activities of studying and questioning, while the latter two revolve around the more reflective internal activities of assimilating what one is learning through dispassionate reflection. This involves “getting it for oneself” (C.: zide; J.: jitoku), so essential to Neo-Confucian self-cultivation, which has its natural culmination in the fifth directive, to act seriously by being sincere in words and careful in action.

More specifically, Ekken outlines the proper method of daily study as learning with a teacher in the morning, reviewing in the afternoon, studying again in the evening, and reflecting on mistakes at night. Referring back to a passage from the Record of Rites that was often stressed by Zhu Xi, he encourages the student to be conscientious through daily renewal. This means trying to eliminate the mistakes of the previous day through examination, thereby facilitating a return to goodness.

He continually urges students to make an effort in their youth to use time wisely, giving careful attention when one is young to learning characters and to understanding the meaning of words so that one’s education will progress steadily. At the same time, one should have a calm, natural approach in order to know how to wait and be open to wisdom. If students are conscientious in their youth yet are patient with gradual progress, anyone can succeed in achieving the goal of intellectual and moral development, which applies to all classes of people and all walks of life.

What they were taught was to have filial piety toward their parents, respect their seniors, and serve their lord; the way to receive guests, sweep the rooms, prepare food and drink, advance and withdraw in the presence of notable people, and respond to questions and requests; and they were also taught the skills of the six arts for daily use, namely, ritual, music, archery, driving [a horse or chariot], reading, and arithmetic.

While the Elementary Learning is concerned with two essential virtues (filiality and respect), with external decorum (serving, sweeping, preparing, etc.), and with basic skills (six arts), the Great Learning concentrates on the truths of governing the people through self-discipline.

Ekken is especially concerned with explicating the method of the Great Learning, namely, the three guiding principles and eight steps, so that their essentials can be understood and practiced by most Japanese people. The eight steps embrace a comprehensive program of social-political involvement (bringing peace to all under Heaven, effecting order in the state, and regulating the family), moral and spiritual discipline (cultivating oneself, rectifying the mind, and making the will sincere), and intellectual realization (extending knowledge and investigating things). These are the essence of the method of Neo-Confucian education and are discussed throughout the text as the core elements underlying both the pursuit of learning and the “Discipline of the Mind-and-Heart” (shinjutsu).

After outlining the basis and method or program of learning, Ekken discusses the importance of the extension of knowledge through the investigation of things. Here he elaborates on both his general directives and his more specific instructions for a curriculum of study. Investigating things means examining the truth of objects and events, beginning with moral virtues and relations close at hand and moving outward. Extending knowledge implies a careful examination of the mind-and-heart so that one will arrive at an authentic self-knowledge. These two poles, then, of internal reflection and external investigation are the pivotal points of the process of the Great Learning and are essential to all Neo-Confucian spiritual practice. While Ekken is primarily concerned in this text with moral and spiritual cultivation, he observes that merely investigating human relations or virtue as a separate entity is not sufficient. It must be seen in relation to the dynamic life process of nature itself. People must also study the Way of Heaven and Earth as the basis of the human Way. The cosmological context and the role of principle (li) within material force (qi) is, for Ekken, essential to an understanding of the root from which truth emerges. Without understanding the cosmology, one cannot recognize the natural principles inherent in human beings. This connection becomes the metaphysical basis for Ekken’s efforts to investigate objects in the natural world. He thus extends the idea of investigating principles from a primarily ethical concern to an empirical and naturalist enterprise as well.

Ekken further notes that one should take an open-minded approach to investigation. To do so, one should realize that there is no one way to investigate principles (ethically or empirically). Rather, there are a variety of approaches and numerous layers to be examined in one’s studies. Taking up Confucius’s directive to study for oneself rather than for others, Ekken urges the reader not to be concerned with impressing people or with seeking honor or fame through learning but to investigate principle with vigor, perseverance, and sincerity.

Following these general directives, Ekken gives more specific instructions on investigating things and extending knowledge through a curriculum of study. He suggests which books should be read by beginning students and which ones should be used for more advanced studies. The Four Books and the Five Classics naturally form the heart of a Neo-Confucian program for learning. Reading the Four Books is like listening to the teachings of the sages directly. To fully understand their meaning, he urges the student to consult the commentaries on the Four Books as well as those on the Five Classics. Next he suggests reading the books of the Song Neo-Confucians: Zhou Dunyi and especially the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi.

After these have been read thoroughly, Ekken urges the student to look at the histories, especially the Zuozhuan (Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals), Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), and Zhu Xi’s Tongjiangangmu (Outline and Details of the Comprehensive Mirror). These serve as guides to government by helping one understand the past so as to lead intelligently in the present. The historical records of Japan are similarly of assistance in this respect. Ekken also includes collected works and literature in his list of books to be consulted. He warns against dilettantism, however, saying that merely trying to read widely is not enough. Rather, people should keep in mind the overarching concern to understand moral principles in order to extend knowledge and practice it in daily life. Thus, as in all Neo-Confucian programs of education, breadth should be balanced by selectivity and restraint.

Chapters 3 and 4 describe the purpose and the method of moral and spiritual cultivation involved in the learning of the mind-and-heart. To rectify the mind-and-heart, one must first make one’s will sincere in loving good and disliking evil. Then a person will be able to maintain and express the seven emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, enjoyment, love, hate, desire) in correct proportion. With a balancing of emotions, an effective social-political activity can be undertaken while maintaining a deep spiritual harmony.

At the core of Neo-Confucian moral and spiritual cultivation is the learning of the mind-and-heart that arose among the Song masters and was formulated in the Heart Classic of Zhen Dexiu. Ekken relies on the first quotation in the Heart Classic, which was originally taken from the Classic of History and attributed to the sage king Yu: “The human mind is precarious, the Way mind is barely perceptible. Be discerning and unified in mind; hold to the Mean.” He begins his discussion, as does Zhu Xi, by advocating a method that combines intellectual discernment, volitional effort, and emotional and aesthetic balance.

Ekken first notes the importance of distinguishing between the human mind and the Way mind. The human mind is seen as the seat of emotions and desires, while the mind of the Way is the root of moral principles and virtues. Recognizing the difference between the two is the beginning of moral and spiritual cultivation. This process of discernment is difficult both because of the unstable nature of the human mind, which is connected to physical forms and precariously balanced between selfish and unselfish desires and because the subtle nature of the mind of the Way is hidden in the depths of the heart.

In discerning between the two, one can begin to learn how to control the human mind and preserve the Way mind. This is the fundamental basis of moral and spiritual discipline. This process of distinguishing between the human mind and the moral mind is what is referred to by the phrase “having utmost refinement.” The next phrase, “singleness of mind,” indicates the resolution to unify the will so that the Way mind is dominant and the human mind does not run rampant (that is, so that selfish desires do not dominate the human mind). Finally, “holding fast to the Mean” implies achieving a balance of the emotions and the senses so that they are neither excessive nor deficient.

Ekken cites three major obstacles to the practice of the learning of mind-and-heart: selfish desires and evil thoughts, a biased disposition, and faults. All of these obstacles must be carefully eliminated in order to progress in virtue. Selfish desires he describes as pleasures of the senses, namely, greed for fame, profit, sex, or possessions. Evil thoughts he sees as oppressing people, arguing angrily with others, boasting about ourselves, criticizing or slandering others, and flattering or deceiving people. A biased disposition means the partiality with which one is born, namely, having a rough and boisterous nature, a soft or weak nature, a dull or greedy nature. Faults refer to unwitting mistakes or habits that one should reform quickly. He emphasizes that it is extremely important to purify oneself of these deficiencies, or attempts at spiritual cultivation will be useless.

In connection with moral purification, Ekken concerns himself with the question of how one controls the emotions yet expresses them so as to live morally but also humanely. He aims at an authentic integration of the person so that the emotions are not suppressed or eliminated but are restrained when appropriate and expressed when appropriate. He wishes to avoid the extremes of puritanism or libertarianism. Specifically, he cites the directive in the Classic of Changes to restrain anger and contain the desires, considering these two to be the deadliest of the emotions. The will must act as the master of the emotions so that it can control them rather than be controlled by them. When such control is achieved, a person will be better able to practice virtue with a sense of ease and with the assurance that his emotions will be expressed naturally and spontaneously in response to specific circumstances.

After purification and emotional balancing, one can then effectively practice virtue, beginning with love and respect toward others. Ekken identifies the virtue of humaneness with the life-principle in the universe. Compassion is the great virtue of Heaven and Earth as well as the principle of life. He also says that humaneness is a heart that loves and sympathizes with others; in other words, a heart that gives life to things as do Heaven and Earth. He speaks of an order and sequence in extending humaneness, namely, from family outward to relatives, retainers, and friends but also to animals, fish, birds, insects, trees, and vegetation. From the lower forms to the higher forms of life all are worthy of love, respect, care, and nourishment, which allows for no separation between ourselves and others. He also discusses the importance of reciprocity, which is the ability to imagine others as ourselves and to treat them accordingly.

In order to have compassion and kindness toward others, grieving with their sorrows and rejoicing in their happiness, we should give priority to the widowed, orphaned, and childless, bring relief to the hungry, give clothes to those who are cold, help the tired and sick, repair roads and bridges, eliminate things which harm people, and do things which benefit them—making peace among people; praising their goodness; concealing their faults; overlooking their small mistakes; developing and utilizing their talents; not being angry at people indiscriminately; not having resentments against them; stopping the angry disputes of others; not slandering people even slightly; not despising, depriving, or hindering others; fostering their virtue; reproving their errors; not injuring birds, animals, insects, or fish; not killing recklessly; not cutting plants and trees wantonly. All this is hidden virtue.

If people choose such a generous and public-spirited path, they will be in accord with reason, with the will of Heaven, and with the human heart. In so doing they will have a broad tolerance toward others and will not harbor resentments or agonize over mistakes. Instead, they will move with an inner calm in the rigorous practice of hidden virtue and humaneness.

Consequently, Ekken emphasizes the virtue of reverent mindfulness as something that should be constantly cultivated. He notes how this virtue, which implies both moral seriousness and religious reverence, had consistently been the touchstone of the learning of the mind-and-heart of the sages. Rulers should have hearts that are morally serious and sympathetic toward others. They should give people what they need and not selfishly indulge their own pleasures. If the rulers love the people with sincerity, the people will definitely sense this and be happy.

Ekken also speaks of reverence as a constant state of mindful respect, while he sees harmony as a calm enjoyment. By reverence he means that people should be mindful of themselves and others in relation to Heaven and Earth. By harmony he suggests that people be content with their position in life, make an effort at their vocation, and avoid striving after external goals or seeking trivial satisfactions. Ekken speaks of this state of reverent, joyful contentment as a natural quality that is enriched by harmony with external things.

Thus he says that by contact with the wind and the flowers, the snow and the moon, the original contentment of the heart is deepened. That is because the reverent contentment of the heart reflects the natural harmony of the universe. Birds fly, fish leap, birds chirp, animals cry out, vegetation flourishes, flowers bloom, fruit is produced—these are all expressions of the will of Heaven and the natural delight of all things. Appreciating this, the Noble person is not led astray by desires but reverently nurtures the natural contentment of the heart, which is part of the ceaseless fecundity of the universe.

For Ekken, when a person comes to this stage of integration, the mind-and-heart will be illuminated, clear, and not vacillating in discerning right from wrong. Through the acquisition of true knowledge, the mind will indeed be the master of the body and the controller of the emotions and senses. Heavenly principles will grow within, as human desires decrease; thus a person’s nature will become fully realized. The result will be an inner calm that reflects the peaceful harmony of the workings of Heaven. Microcosm and macrocosm will mirror each other in the inner harmony of the individual. In Neo-Confucianism, this can be expressed as attaining sagehood. Through an arduous effort at discernment, purification, and practice, the individual can experience himself as a vital part of the larger, cosmic processes. It is toward this end that Ekken advocates his “Discipline of the Mind-and-Heart,” based on a dynamic naturalism articulated as a philosophy of qi.

Ekken’s Precepts for Daily Life in Japan, as the most developed of his ethicoreligious treatises, serves as an appropriate summary of Ekken’s teachings. When considered in conjunction with his philosophical treatise, the Taigiroku (Record of Great Doubts), one can see how his naturalist metaphysics provides a dynamic basis for his ideas on cultivating the self in relation to change in the natural order. Finally, one can appreciate, as an example of Tokugawa Neo-Confucianism, Ekken’s considerable efforts to spread the education of the mind-and-heart among the people at large.

1. See also my Moral and Spiritual Cultivation in Japanese Neo-Confucianism: The Life and Thought of Kaibara Ekken (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1989). For further information on Kaibara Ekken, see my The Philosophy of Qi: The Record of Great Doubts (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007). See also Olaf Graf, Kaibara Ekken (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1942), 284–330.