As the natural habitat of butterflies is being drastically altered and in many instances destroyed entirely, there is much that the home gardener can do to take up the slack by providing these creatures with new areas where they can breed, find food, and lay eggs for future generations. In providing for the needs of butterflies, the gardener has not only the satisfaction of contributing to the continuation of the butterfly population but also the truly phenomenal pleasure of having these beautiful insects around. Watching the butterflies around us and trying to give them what they want sharpen our own senses of observation and awareness, so we cannot help learning something new. In such gardening, there is a constant seeking of new ideas, of new ways of doing things, and of offering new plants for the butterflies to try.

Butterfly gardening can be as simple or as complex as you want to make it. For the first time, you will be compelled to look at your garden through the eyes of others—the butterflies—and to consider their needs along with your own. In many instances, you will let their choices be first. To truly garden for butterflies, you must ask what they would prefer and, to the best of your ability, try to provide it. Usually the butterflies’ preferences can be blended in quite nicely with your own garden plans so that the final effect is satisfactory to both.

As with any other type of gardening, planting to attract butterflies is simply understanding and working with the land. Plants selected for your garden should depend upon the interpretation of the land as well as other environmental factors of your locale. These plants should not only do well in your area but also be useful to the butterflies. The purpose of butterfly gardening is to attract the most species in the greatest numbers in a given space. This concept has been referred to as “butterfly production management” and is surely descriptive of what you will be trying to accomplish. Such a management program, if carried out with care and thoughtful planning, should be most gratifying.

A THOUGHTFUL PLAN CAN SATISFY BOTH GARDENERS AND BUTTERFLIES.

To accomplish such intensive site management, you must know which species of butterflies can be attracted to your garden, which larval food plants they prefer, and which nectar plants grow best in your area. From a good field guide, learn everything possible concerning the local species of butterflies, their habits, and their microhabitats. No matter how intensely you want to garden for butterflies, start with the most common species that use the most easily provided food plants; then gradually work toward attracting the rarer and more exotic insects. And no matter how hard you try, you cannot consistently attract breeding butterflies that do not already exist in your part of the state. It will do no good to introduce their food plant—they most likely will not come. It is far better to concentrate on attracting the species already existing in your region. All areas of Texas have several species of big, beautiful butterflies easily enticed to the garden with numerous smaller species just as interesting and intriguing in their own special ways.

UNDERSTANDING PLANT TERMINOLOGY

As with almost all forms of wildlife, food is by far the most significant influence in a butterfly’s life. Two stages in its life require two different types of food: the caterpillar stage when it eats only vegetative growth, and the adult stage when nectar is the primary food source. To provide these needs, consider three types of plants for the garden: “native,” nonnative, and cultivated plants. There is surely nothing wrong in having plants from anywhere in the world, but it is important to understand a plant’s natural range and the correct terminology to describe it.

A BUTTERFLY GARDEN CAN BE PLANTED IN THE FRONT YARD.

In searching for the proper plants for a butterfly garden, you are frequently going to find plants and seeds advertised and sold as “wild, native plants and/or seeds.” These terms are often misleading, for there is a definite difference between a plant being wild and being native, and even more so in being indigenous, which is rarely mentioned or stressed. In selecting plants that will thrive the very best in your garden, choose plants that are both native and indigenous—those that are growing in and well adapted to the exact area in which they will be planted.

A wild plant is any plant that has not been domesticated, meaning not having been developed by genetic manipulation. The problem is the term “native.” A native plant is a wild plant growing within a prescribed area, be it natural or human defined. The borders of Texas are human defined, and if a plant grows within these boundaries, it is classified as a native plant. The term “indigenous” defines a native plant that has become adapted to a particular soil or habitat. This term is no longer accurate when a plant has been taken from the area where it has become environmentally adapted and is placed outside its natural range. For instance, a plant with a natural range west of the Pecos River that has been moved to East Texas is no longer an indigenous plant unless it naturally occurs there as well. When moved, it may still be called a native but, in actuality, becomes the same as a nonnative, no different from a plant from South America or Mexico.

The term “nonnative” is used here to define a native plant that does not naturally occur within the borders of Texas but actually grows quite well here. It is simply a plant that has been brought from its natural distribution and across boundary lines. Some plants from foreign countries, adjacent Mexico, or adjoining states of New Mexico or Louisiana are frequently used in garden plantings and grow beautifully in this state.

Cultivated plants are those that have been genetically manipulated to improve some physical feature, such as more blooms, longer blooming period, or lower growth habit. The relatively new term “cultivar” is often used in the name or description of these plants. Derived from the words cultivated and variety, in its truest sense it means a variation of an already-cultivated plant that has been manipulated and “improved” further, creating a new form or variety.

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

Plants used by the female butterfly for egg deposition and later eaten by the larvae are often different species than the plants used as nectar sources by the adults. During the larval stage, the butterfly eats mostly vegetation. The flowers that will be so important to it for nectar later are totally useless to it now, unless of course, it eats the flowers, which some species do.

The female butterfly finds plants on which to lay her eggs by rather complicated and sophisticated chemical detection. She usually flies slowly from plant to plant, hovering around the leaves or stems, “smelling” and “tasting.” Often she scratches the surface of a leaf to get a better smell or taste to determine the chemical content. Scents of some plants such as cabbage (Brassica oleraceae var. capitata), dill (Anethum graveolens), common fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), or cherry (Prunus spp.) are so strong the butterflies can detect them from a great distance and have no problem finding them. Other plants, such as Erect Pipevine (Aristolochia erecta) and the thin, grasslike flax (Linum spp.), must be diligently searched for among the tangled stems of grasses and other plants.

Some butterflies are very specialized in their larval food choices, using only plants within a few closely related families. In other instances, only one genus or species within a plant family is selected as a larval food source. Specialization goes even further in that in many situations the young larvae eat only buds or young fruit; if these are not available, the young hatchlings starve to death. Other species are not so particular: More than seventy-five species of plants have been reportedly used by the Spring/Summer Azure (Celastrina ladon), and more than ninety species are reportedly used by the Gray Hair-streak (Strymon melinus franki). The Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui) prefers thistle (Cirsium spp.) but will use more than one hundred other plants.

Butterflies such as the Blues and Hair-streaks (family Lycaenidae), even though they use a wide assortment of plants, are real stay-at-homes, living and breeding within a few hundred yards from where they were born. They use only the plants available to them in that area. Not straying from their original breeding places, they form small local colonies sometimes with a distance of several miles to the next populated area of the same species.

A BUTTERFLY GARDEN ALONG A WALKWAY

Some species of butterflies, such as the Hackberry Emperor (Asterocampa celtis celtis), Question Mark (Polygonia interrogationis), American Lady (Vanessa virginiensis), and Red Admiral (Vanessa atalanta rubria), breed throughout the state because their food plants are available throughout. Others, such as the Zebra Swallowtail (Eurytides marcellus), will be found breeding only in the eastern portion of Texas because the larvae feed only on pawpaw (Asimina spp.) and that is the only place the plant occurs in the state. The Chisos Metalmark (Apodemia chisosensis) occurs in West Texas because its food plant, Havard’s Plum (Prunus havardii), grows only on the caliche soils of that area. Butterfly species such as these have evolved a very intricate relationship with their food plants.

For egg laying, almost all species of butterflies more readily use native plants, but occasionally the cultivated sorts are chosen—especially if the wild species are not as abundant or in as good condition. Fortunately for the gardener, many of these wild plants are very appealing and add much to the overall scheme of the garden. Wild Black Cherry (Prunus serotina), the food of the Red-spotted Purple (Limenitis arthemis), and willow (Salix spp.) and elm (Ulmus spp.), used by the Viceroy (L. archippus), are all popular landscaping trees. Many trees, shrubs, and vines—such as Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) and Spicebush (Lindera benzoin) for the Spicebush Swallowtail (Pterourus troilus); Wafer-ash (Ptelea trifoliata) for the Eastern Tiger Swallowtail (Papilio glaucus); and the various passionflower vines (Passiflora spp.) used by the Gulf Fritillary (Agraulis vanillae incarnata), Julia Longwing (Dryas iulia), and Zebra Longwing (Heliconius charithonius vazquezae) are attractive in the garden.

THIS SUNNY GARDEN IS PROTECTED FROM THE WIND BY A CHARMING PICKET FENCE.

Some larval food plants are seasonal, flourishing only briefly in the spring. Others may not be available until summer or fall. The most commonly used or most preferred plant may have been killed by an early frost or is not available due to other climatic conditions such as drought or flooding. Both the season and the availability of young, tender growth greatly influence the choice of the female toward egg-laying sites. As a result, eggs may be laid on one species of plant in early spring; then eggs of the second brood may be laid on an entirely different plant as it comes into season. The Common Buckeye (Junonia coenia), for instance, uses toadflax (Nuttallanthus spp.) and paintbrush (Castilleja spp.) for the first spring egg laying, plantain (Plantago spp.) for the summer broods, and agalinis (Agalinis spp.) and Yellow False Foxglove (Aureolaria flava) for the fall broods. Not only are such diverse choices of food plants to be expected within a particular area but some species of butterflies use different food plants in different regions. For example, in East Texas the Mourning Cloak (Nymphalis antiopa) commonly uses elm, but in West Texas the caterpillars are more often found on the leaves of willow, although both trees occur throughout the state.

Some species of butterflies are inconsistent in their breeding areas, and there are times when a species that has previously used a food plant in your area or garden will be conspicuously absent one year. This does not mean this particular species is gone from the area for good. Just give it time and another year—it may be back in even greater numbers. This unpredictable fluctuation is one of the things that makes butterfly gardening exciting. After a while you may begin to refer to time in your garden as “the year we had so many Common Buckeyes,” “the year the Blue-eyed Sailors (Dynamine dyonis) were here,” or “the year the Black Swallowtails ate all the parsley—and the fennel and the dill.”

KEEP THEM GROWING

In order for the entire life cycle of butterflies to progress normally in the garden, the caterpillars must have good-quality food and plenty of it at all times. Even though it is possible to have an abundance of larval food plants and still not have butterflies, there is surely a greater possibility of attracting them to the garden if the food plants are present. Besides the trees, shrubs, and perennials selected and planted in permanent locations, extra seeds or potted plants of some annual species left from spring planting can be kept on hand for continual planting throughout the season. Parsley and dill for Black Swallowtails (Papilio polyxenes) can be planted every two to six weeks during the breeding or flight season by scattering the seeds in open areas throughout the flower beds. Fill planters or pots with young plants, and place them around the porch or patio, rotating the containers as the foliage is eaten down. After the larvae have eaten a large portion of the potted plants, the hungry little creatures can be moved to larger plants, leaving the eaten plants to form new growth. During the summer months there are almost no native plants available that Black Swallowtails can eat, so their summer broods depend almost entirely on cultivated members of the Parsley Family (Apiaceae). For other species of butterflies that need young, tender foliage, Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) or hollyhocks (Alcea spp.), beans (Phaseolus spp.), and even cabbage can be planted at regular intervals.

Occasionally pinch or trim back portions of small shrubs and perennials to ensure continual new growth. Do not trim severely if a plant is less than three years old, for its root system may not be able to tolerate the loss of foliage. Vines such as passionflower and pipevine (Aristolochia spp.) and the Common Balloon-vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum) should be kept well watered and growing, especially during the summer months.

When fertilizing any plant, it is best to use a product applied to the soil. Any liquid fertilizer applied to the plant completely contaminates both the foliage and nectar, making them useless to the butterfly. If the product is purchased, make sure it contains no insecticide, as some fertilizers do.

BECOME A CATERPILLAR LOVER

A “worm” to most folks is an ugly, repulsive creature and something to be squashed immediately upon sight. This attitude is most unfortunate, for none of the caterpillars of North American butterflies bite, sting, or spit in your eye. Not only are they perfectly harmless but when examined closely, they are among the most beautifully and intricately colored of all wild creatures. Many of them rival their final winged stage in markings and coloration.

To develop an appreciation of caterpillars, you need to become familiar with them and be able to recognize them. If plants for the larvae are being provided in your garden, it will certainly be important to distinguish the “good guys” from the “bad guys.” Unfortunately, there is not space in this book to cover thoroughly the caterpillar stage of butterflies, but three new guides to caterpillars have recently been published (see the bibliography) that can be most helpful. These guides have excellent photos along with descriptions of the caterpillars, but there is a drawback. Butterfly larvae go through several molts, or skin changes, and often come out with a totally new look during that particular instar. Most field guides usually describe (or show) only the way the larvae appear in the last instar, which is often completely different from the earlier stages.

THE LUSH, COTTAGE-BORDER APPROACH IN THIS GARDEN ALLOWS THE GARDENER TO “HIDE” LESS ATTRACTIVE FOOD PLANTS AT THE BACK.

It would be good to keep a small notebook with descriptions of the caterpillars you find. Take pictures of them if possible. Identify the plant a caterpillar is feeding on. Then look in the index in this book or indexes in butterfly field guides; nearly always there will be an additional index of plants. See which butterfly larvae feed on the plant where you found the caterpillar. Check the description of the butterfly to see if its range includes your area. If so, then you most likely have something to get excited about.

A number of butterfly larvae are easily identified since they feed only on very specific plants. These plants, such as the milkweeds, passionflowers, pipevine, or members of the Mustard Family (Brassicaceae), contain volatile oils or poisons that are usually totally unacceptable to most other insects. If you find caterpillars eating any of these plants, they are almost certain to be butterfly larvae.

Some literature indicates that all larvae of butterflies are a serious problem of garden ornamentals or forage crops. As a general rule this is not true. Taken as a group, neither the adult butterflies nor their larval stages could be considered pests, and they have become innocent casualties of humankind’s indiscriminate use of pesticides and herbicides in its war against a few noxious insects and unwanted plant growth. In North America only the imported Cabbage White (Pieris rapae) and the native Checkered White (Pontia protodice), whose caterpillars feed on cultivated members of the Mustard Family; Orange Sulphur (Colias eurytheme), which feeds on Alfalfa (Medicago sativa); and the Gray Hair-streak, which feeds on Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), could be considered real offenders.

If nothing seems to match from all the comparisons and if the larva is not doing extensive damage, leave it alone. If not a butterfly larva, it could possibly be the caterpillar of some big, beautiful moth. Keep checking to see what is happening; then one day perhaps it will be in its last instar and recognizable as a really special butterfly you have been trying to attract.

NECTAR PLANTS

Nectar plants, which attract adult butterflies, are found in both the native, nonnative, and cultivated categories. To attract the greatest number of butterflies to your yard, do not hesitate to mix the native with the nursery-obtained plants; in almost all instances they grow happily side by side. Just be sure the moisture, sun, and drainage needs are similar for each bed. Fortunately, cultivated plants have been genetically developed so they have a wide tolerance for differences in soils, amounts of moisture, heat, and the like. They have also built up resistance to pests and diseases that usually mean death to a wild plant out of its native range. You can usually plant this nursery-grown stock with confidence that it will generally perform well in your garden when given proper care.

There are some situations, however, where plants bred for largeness of flowers, hardiness, or other special feature have lost in the process their former ability to produce copious nectar. Petunias (Petunia spp.) are a good example. Most petunias available at nurseries today are stocky, variously colored, early flowering, and full of blossoms—but they are also scentless and have practically no nectar. The petunias of fifty years ago were rangy and mostly bluish, pinkish, or white in color, but they were intensely fragrant and bore an abundance of sweet nectar butterflies would fight for.

FLOWER VISITATION

In working out his monumental system of classification, the eighteenth-century Swedish botanist Carl von Linné (Linnaeus) named every plant part in order to describe plants properly and consistently. He discovered that many flowers were endowed with structures not directly associated with the reproductive aspects of the plant, yet the structures were often situated very near the reproductive parts. These structures either produced or contained a wet, sweet fluid. As Linnaeus could determine no purpose for their existence, he gave the fluid the name “nectar”—the drink of the Greek gods—and the parts of the flowers producing or containing the fluid he named “nectaries.”

In most species of plants, this grouping of special cells or nectaries is located within the flower and known as floral nectaries or nuptial nectaries since they aid in pollination. When these cells are situated on parts of the plant other than the flowers, such as stems, leaves, or bracts, they are called extrafloral nectaries or extranuptial nectaries. It is the floral nectaries that are most attractive to butterflies.

Floral nectaries vary widely in their appearance, sometimes very striking in shape and color and also very conspicuous in their placement on the flower. They can be found on all parts of the flower—the pistil or stamen or along any part of the petals or sepals. Some nectaries are very simple in structure; others, more elaborate and in the form of raised or enlarged rings or ridges of tissue, usually at or near the base of the petals.

The nectaries in short-tubed flowers, such as Butterfly Bush (Buddleja davidii) or the lantanas (Lantana spp.) and verbenas (Verbena spp.), are situated at the base of the tube with the nectar readily available. The shorter spurred violets (Viola spp.) also allow usage by a great number of butterflies. Here the nectar is produced by nectaries on stamens that extend into the spur and allow the sweet juice to flow into the spur, which acts as a storage tank or storage jug. Flowers such as columbine (Aquilegia spp.) and larkspur (Delphinium spp.) have nectaries formed in long, conical petals that sometimes taper to a hooked point. Only a butterfly with a very long proboscis can extract nectar from these longer nectaries.

Although there are some instances of openly exposed nectaries, many flowers have evolved protection for the nectar. Some of the more common methods include drooping flowers, narrow basal tubes and passages where water cannot enter, nectaries hidden deep within the flower, and the nectary being covered with thin flaps of tissue or a fringe of hairs. Such arrangements not only protect the nectar against evaporation but also ensure that it does not rapidly thicken or crystallize. They also prevent the nectar from being diluted by dew or washed away by rain. As an added measure of protection, some plants close the petals during cloudy or rainy weather and at night.

NECTAR

The original purpose of nectar production by plants is still not clearly understood, but nectar did not arise in connection with pollination. There is evidence that plants produced a nectarlike substance previous to the evolution of pollination that usually occurred on parts of the plant totally independent of the floral region. The type of nectar we are most familiar with today—the sweet stuff produced by the flowers themselves—is, in evolutionary time, relatively new. Flowers seemingly refined its use and placement, along with the development of pollen, as an added attraction to insects to aid in the reproductive process.

Regardless of what nectar is to a plant, for butterflies it is, in most cases, their major means of nourishment. This celestial beverage is the one thing that will draw the most butterflies to your garden, and the amount and its quality determine whether they keep coming back day after day. And nectar means flowers. So, for the gardener wanting to attract butterflies, it can be put in quite simple terms: flowers equal nectar equals butterflies.

PINK AND PURPLE COLORS ANCHOR THESE BORDERS OF LOW-GROWING PERENNIALS.

What is nectar? Basically, it is sugar water, generally containing from 25 to 40 percent sugar and 60 to 70 percent water. Some nectar, however, may contain as little as 8 percent sugar and some as much as 76 percent. Along with the sugars (the primary ones are glucose, fructose, and sucrose or saccharose) are trace amounts of amino acids, proteins, organic acids, phosphates, vitamins, enzymes, and flavonoids. The flavonoids produce the various scents of nectar.

Nectar is generally colorless but may occasionally have a slight yellowish, amber, or greenish coloring. Often it is noticeably scented or possesses a definite flavor. Anyone who has broken the end from a flower of Old-fashioned Petunia (Petunia axillaris), or honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.) or wild verbena, and licked the sweet juice from along the stamens and pistil and out of the “tube” can attest to the sweetness and distinct flavor of their nectar.

Nectar is such a powerful attractant that in some plants it has replaced visual attractants. Flowers yielding abundant nectar are frequently less showy or conspicuous than flowers with less nectar. For instance, the gaudy-colored, dinner-plate-sized flowers of some hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.) yield less nectar than a one-half-inch pale lavender lilac (Syringa spp.) blossom.

Different plants secrete optimal amounts of nectar at different times of the day, and sugar content can also fluctuate considerably. Concentration of nectar in the early morning is often very low in some plants. As the day advances, the intensity of sunshine, rising temperatures, or reduction of humidity may cause the sugar percentage to increase up to four times. In some cases, the nectar is the sweetest at the same time it is most abundant. In other plants, the sugar quality remains constant throughout the day, with variations in the amount of nectar produced. In still other situations, the amount of nectar produced is constant, while the amount of sugar varies. Usually the best nectar is produced at midday and is the sweetest when the sun is shining, the temperature increasing, and the humidity decreasing.

The variability of the nectar produced and its sugar content are primary reasons butterflies use certain plants in one part of the day, then switch to other plants at other periods. Studies have shown that in general, butterflies seem to prefer nectar with somewhat low sugar concentrations but high in nitrogen-rich amino acids. A butterfly may prefer the more diluted nectar to prevent water loss to the body; also, the thicker nectar may clog the proboscis and make gathering difficult.

Various environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, wind, day length, sunlight, soil, and the health of the plant, greatly affect production or secretion of nectar. These factors vary in importance for different plants and at different times of the year, making for difficulty in determining optimum conditions for good nectar flow for a particular plant at any specific time.

Some plants produce nectar at quite low temperatures, while others do not begin secretion until the temperature is fairly high. Many plants flowering in very early spring produce nectar when the temperature is too cold for butterflies to fly. Other plants do not open blooms until the temperature is well into the eighties or nineties. If all other factors are favorable, a general rule is a cool night followed by a clear, hot day initiates the most abundant nectar flow.

Wind plays an important role in nectar production, depending upon the circumstances. Strong, cold winds are almost always detrimental, but mild, warm, drying winds after periods of rain are usually quite beneficial.

Length of daylight always affects the amount of nectar secretion, since this is an integral factor in the plant’s reproduction cycle. The period of flowering and seed-set are intricately timed with day length, so the production of nectar as an extra pollination attraction during this time is very important.

In most instances, the amount of sunlight plants receive has a direct bearing on the amount of flower nectar produced. To attract the optimal number of butterflies to the garden, place plants in full sun. One of the major reasons butterflies prefer the open, sunny places is that the warmth of the sun promotes greater nectar production in the flowers. Therefore, the more sun and warmth received by the plants, the more nectar produced, providing more food for the butterflies. In almost all situations in which the same species of plants known to be readily used by butterflies are placed with some in sun and some in shade, the plants in the sun will be actively worked by the butterflies and the shaded plants virtually ignored. Butterflies may use the shaded plants to some extent when they are the number-one choice for nectar preference, but the amount of nectar obtained is not nearly as great as if the plants were in the sun. Often the butterflies do not find them worth the effort of exploration.

A BUTTERFLY GARDEN SHELTERED BY BAMBOO FENCING

Type and condition of the soil have a direct bearing on the amount of nectar produced and its sugar content. Such soil conditions as fertility, moisture, and pH may affect not only the growth of the plant, especially if it is a transplanted wilding, but also the secretion of nectar and its quality. A well-grown plant with lush foliage or even adequate blooming does not necessarily mean that maximum nectar secretion is taking place or that the nectar is of the best quality. In many instances, when a wild, ordinarily heavily producing nectar plant is transplanted from one region to another, the nectar production is drastically lowered and the plant hardly used by butterflies. Very little research has been done on the relation of soils to maximum nectar production and quality, so the best thing the gardener can do is use native plants that are from as similar environments as possible, supplemented with cultivated stock such as Pentas (Pentas lanceolata) and Butterfly Bush or the abelias (Abelia spp.) and zinnias (Zinnia spp.), which are known to produce abundant and high-quality nectar under almost any conditions. But if native stock is transplanted, take a sample of soil and try to duplicate it as closely as possible in the garden.

The general health of a plant is important for nectar secretion. If a plant becomes stressed from lack of moisture to the point of even the slightest sign of wilting, nectar production stops immediately. The amount of moisture that perennials, shrubs, and trees have received months before has a direct bearing on nectar production. Often it is the late fall and winter rains that ensure abundant spring and early-summer nectar. Naturally, a good gardening policy is to keep the plants in the best growing condition by proper fertilizing and adequate moisture at all times, even during dry winter months.

COLOR

Although butterflies can see in the full color spectrum, with observation it is quite obvious that some butterflies fly readily to flowers of one color while passing by an entire bed of flowers of another color. Some species of butterflies definitely have favorite colors. Butterflies in general find little attraction in flowers of greenish-blue to blue-green color. Many butterflies use orange flowers, and others fly most often to red flowers, but by far the most favored flower colors (when available) to most species of butterflies occur in the purple, pink, yellow, and white ranges, with true blues next best.

SUMMER PHLOX (Phlox paniculata)

However, there are factors other than color that may influence a butterfly’s choice of where it will dine. Many flowers possess visual guide marks or lines called nectar guides, which show insect visitors the direct route to the food. In looking over a patch of flowers, the butterfly naturally chooses the ones most clearly marked. It is much the same as if we had a choice of two places to go with the same objective at the end, but with a map drawn to one location and with just an address for the other. If our reward was to be exactly the same upon arrival at either location, we would most likely choose the one with the easy-to-follow map. Butterflies are no different, and many flowers have developed such maps. Sometimes these markings are very conspicuous to our own eyes, but in other cases they are marked in the ultraviolet range of colors and are visible only to the butterfly.

The guide marks used by some flowers are in the form of a ring of a lighter or darker color at the base of the petals, such as seen in morning glories (Ipomoea spp.), frogfruits (Phyla spp.), blue-eyed grasses (Sisyrinchium spp.), phlox (Phlox spp.), and verbenas. Other flowers, especially the tubular ones like Desert Willow (Chilopsis linearis), Lemon-mint (Monarda citriodora), Fragrant Devil’s-claw (Proboscidea louisianica fragrans), and most salvias (Salvia spp.), penstemons (Penstemon spp.), and agalinis, have developed elaborate patterns of dots, splashes, or large solid patches of contrasting colors on the lower portion of the corollas that point to the nectar source. Still others are conspicuously marked with contrasting lines, as in the Spring Beauty (Claytonia virginica) and violets.

In many instances, flowers that appear solidly colored to us are distinctively patterned to a butterfly. Again, as in the patterns on a butterfly’s wing, ultraviolet light plays a role. These ultraviolet markings are more common on the flowers than the patterns we can see. A number of flowers have a combination of nectar guides, both ultraviolet absorbing and visible to us.

The large blotches at the base of petals and on the lip of some tubular flowers also act as a visible landing platform for the butterfly. For the insect, this mark is an attraction, but it must be investigated a little further. With the scent-sensitive tips of the antennae the butterfly probes, and with the feet it taps the petals, until all senses tell it, “I am standing near sugar.” Out rolls the proboscis, and the butterfly begins to imbibe the sweet juices.

BUTTERFLIES FLY MOST OFTEN TO FLOWERS IN THE PURPLE, PINK, AND YELLOW RANGES. RED FLOWERS ARE ALSO POPULAR.

FRAGRANT DEVIL’S-CLAW (Proboscidea louisianica fragrans). A FLOWER’S GUIDE MARKS AFFECT NECTAR GATHERING.

FRAGRANCE

In locating nectar, butterflies use the fragrance and scent markings of flowers as much as or more than the visual markings. The ultraviolet and other visual marks are specially scented, and even flowers that bear no visual nectar guides at all usually have the approach to the nectar marked by a fragrance guide. Often these scent marks smell quite different from the other parts of the flower. Even the food source itself, nectar, as well as the nectaries, is also usually distinguished by a stronger or entirely different scent.

After a certain length of time, both the fragrance and the color of the nectar guide change. This can easily be observed by comparing a freshly opened Red Buckeye (Aesculus pavia) flower or a bluebonnet (Lupinus spp.) flower with one that has been open long enough to be pollinated. The once strongly aromatic guide becomes almost scentless and changes from a striking yellow to a dullish red. These scent and color changes act almost as warnings to insects that either the flower has been pollinated or the pollen is aged and no longer viable and the nectar production diminished. It does not want to be bothered anymore. It is now withering or making fruit—not nectar.

FLOWER SHAPE

One important factor to a butterfly selecting flowers on which to feed is the flower shape. Some flowers may be abundant nectar producers, but because the nectar is situated at the bottom of long tubes or covered by stiff flaps or hairs, the nectar remains unavailable to all except butterflies possessing a very long proboscis. This inaccessibility definitely limits the number of species that can make use of such flowers.

The actual size of the flower, in most instances, is also important, as is its placement on the stem. The large trumpets of morning glories are usually worked by the larger, longer-tongued Swallowtails (family Papilionidae) and Fritillaries (family Nymphalidae). However, because the flower throat is widely spreading, some of the longer-tongued Skippers (family Hesperiidae) alight on the rim, then crawl deep within the blossom until the proboscis can reach the nectar. Long-tubed flowers of Salvia and Penstemon, which are arranged vertically along the plant stem, make nectar gathering difficult and are mostly used by larger butterflies that do not alight but feed while continually beating their wings.

The size of the flower clump is also significant in a butterfly’s nectaring choice. A few solitary flowers, no matter how rich in nectar, are rarely as attractive as a cluster of numerous smaller flowers. Although butterflies are forced to take nectar where they can get it, their preference is a large supply easily obtained. Small, short-tubed flowers with wide, flat rims, with the flowers grouped in clusters, and with many clusters on the plant are ideal. Flowers in the Phlox Family (Polemoniaceae) and Verbena Family (Verbenaceae) are good examples, and almost any species from either group never fails to attract the butterflies. Many members of the Aster Family (Asteraceae) are excellent, as are most species of the Mint Family (Lamiaceae). Such a flower arrangement provides a good perch for the insects while taking nectar, and the close clustering of the flowers saves much-needed energy that would otherwise be spent in flying from one solitary flower to another.

CHERRIES (Prunus spp.) ATTRACT THIS GOATWEED LEAFWING (Anaea andria).

OTHER ATTRACTANTS

Not all butterflies are attracted solely to flower nectar and readily partake of liquid from such things as tree sap, honeydew, overripe or rotting fruit, dung, carrion, urine, and mud. Natural nectar, sap, and overripe fruit contribute much-needed protein to their diets, while dung, urine, and carrion provide amino acids. Salts, especially necessary to the males of some species, are usually obtained from mud puddles or the edges of streams, bogs, or seeps.

In order to get the species more attracted to these types of fluids into a chosen location, you must garden a little differently. Fortunately, it is not costly and can be quite easy. Since a tree that exudes sap is generally an injured or diseased tree, trying to deliberately furnish this particular substance as an attractant is not recommended. The butterflies that feed on tree sap readily take other liquids that the gardener can more easily provide.

In place of natural tree sap, try the process called sugaring. Make an elixir absolutely irresistible to butterflies by combining in a blender one pound of brown sugar, approximately one-half cup of dark, strong molasses, very old fruit of some sort, and a can of beer. Overripe bananas (Musa spp.)—the mushy kind with black skins—and very soft, squashy, even fermented peaches (Prunus spp.) are good choices. Instead of (or in addition to) the beer, some rum can be added; if neither of these is available, add a dash of artificial rum, banana, or peach flavoring. Leave this mixture thick enough to spread but with as much liquid as possible—remember that butterflies are after the liquid. Let the concoction ferment for half a day or overnight in an uncovered container; then brush it onto tree trunks or posts, placing it from ground level to shoulder height. Even better, pour it out into a large, shallow dish and place it on the ground. Goatweed Leafwings (Anaea andria), Hackberry Emperors, Common Buckeyes, Question Marks, Red-spotted Purples, and Mourning Cloaks generally go crazy over this mixture. If there is a wooded area near or adjacent to the flower garden, spread some of the bait on a log or stump in an opening with dappled shade. Then watch some of the less common species such as the Large Wood-Nymph and various Satyrs gather in mixed groups to sample the feast.

To attract the fruit-drink lovers who prefer the “real thing,” place fruit on mulched ground or in a shallow dish in a spot in the sun or a semishaded area of the garden. Overripe or damaged fruit can often be obtained quite cheaply or for free from grocery stores or fruit stands. Peaches, bananas, pears (Pyrus spp.), and both wild and cultivated plums (Prunus americana) and persimmons (Diospyros spp.), will be considered quite tasty. Hackberry Emperors, Question Marks, Goatweed Leafwings, and Mourning Cloaks especially love pears and persimmons and often congregate by the dozens on the ground to feed on the fallen fruit. Occasionally, Monarchs (Danaus plexippus) and Gulf Fritillaries can even be found enjoying the juice. Outer rinds of watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) and cantaloupe (Cucumis melo cantalupensis) along with the juices are well liked by several species. Place thick sections or halves in dishes, or bore holes in the sides and hang the fruit by wires or strings from low limbs of trees.

PLACE FRUIT BOWLS AT THE OPEN EDGE OF A FLOWER BORDER.

Crushed black grapes (Vitis spp.) or various berries mixed with a small amount of honey or old molasses and allowed to begin fermentation are readily imbibed. A bit of added beer or rum draws an even larger crowd. The sippers apparently cannot get enough of this tasty brew and will crawl around the fruit, fluttering their wings erratically.

An excessively juicy mixture is best piled in a shallow, earth-colored pottery dish and placed at the edge of a flower border. Have several dishes scattered about the garden for best results. If some of the dishes are not being used, move them to other locations until the butterflies find them.

If fruit is to be placed in the flower border, be sure the area is sufficiently large for the butterflies to feed. Since they are eating on the ground, the feeding space needs to be large enough and clear enough to allow a quick takeoff in case of danger. Provide an area no smaller than three feet by five feet and completely free of plants. If a basking area has been provided, one end of this should do quite nicely as a feeding area.

Some butterflies do not regularly use the true nectar produced by flowers yet commonly feed on a substance that greatly resembles nectar in appearance. Known as “honeydew” or “leaf honey,” this sweet, sticky substance is often found covering the surfaces of tree leaves, your car, and lawn furniture during summer months. It is a tree sap by-product excreted by aphids, scale insects, and leafhoppers. Butterflies such as the Snout (Libytheana carinenta), Hackberry Emperor, Mourning Cloak, and Painted Lady feed on this “false nectar.”

If space permits, manure to be used in the flower beds can be piled in a sunny, out-of-the-way corner of the garden for the nourishment of certain species. Try to put the pile where it can be watered frequently, as it is only the liquid the insects seek. The amino acids produced by manure sometimes draw butterflies by the dozens. Raw meat that is too old for table use works very well.

Groups of butterflies are often seen feeding at the margins of small puddles or excessively moist areas. Sometimes they congregate in large numbers; sometimes there will be only two or three. The grouping may be of only one species or a mixture of several species. In almost all instances, the group contains only males. Occasionally, a female will join the group but usually neither stays as long nor appears very interested in the available liquid. The communal gathering of butterflies at such areas is aptly referred to as a “drinking club” or “puddling club.” When a butterfly discovers an especially attractive site, others passing by notice the action and stop to join. Once the insects begin their drinking, they become so absorbed in the process they can be easily approached.

The habit of feeding at puddle margins is not necessarily related to water requirements; the insects are seeking salts or amino acids. Frequently, the puddles or moist areas are from water contaminated or polluted by dung, urine, or dead animals, which provide the nutrients needed by the insects. The importance of these salts to butterflies is evident in their continuing to probe certain puddles long after the soil has become almost dry, instead of visiting areas of fresh, uncontaminated water.

To provide these salts that the butterflies seem to love so much, a simple salt and sand area can be constructed. Begin, as with placing fruit, by choosing an open area of the flower border or an area close by. Be sure to position the area where it can be kept moist. If the puddling area is to be within a border, provide an area large enough and open enough for quick flight takeoff. The next step is to construct a form of short one- by two-inch boards in whatever shape desired to form a corral-type area approximately two by two feet square. The boards may be laid on top of the ground, or the soil may be scooped out and the top of the boards placed flush with the ground. The boards do not have to be nailed together if placed in the ground.

Line the form with heavy plastic, cutting to fit the top of the frame. White plastic is less unsightly in case rain should expose the edges. The plastic helps keep the sand moist as well as keeps the salt out of the soil around nearby plants. Fill the form with sand, the kind sold at lumberyards or businesses that mix concrete. After placing the sand in the form, water it down; add more sand if needed after settling. Next, sprinkle sea salt over the top of the sand, mixing it in well; then barely wet it down again. Rock salt may be sprinkled on the sand before the form is completely filled and then another inch or so of sand sprinkled over the salt. Do not make the area overly salty: a ratio of approximately one-half to three-fourths cup of salt to one gallon of sand should be about right. A bit of manure, urine, or beer sprinkled over the top will make it even more attractive. Top it off with a thin layer of pea-sized gravel if desired.

ZEBRA SWALLOWTAILS (Eurytides marcellus) PUDDLING

For the salts and minerals to be used by the butterflies, they must be available in the form of liquid. Therefore, the sand bed must be kept moist at all times. If you have a drip system in your garden, the ideal placement of the sand bed is with the bed near one of the drip emitters. Instead of the usual emitter, insert a length of small tubing that reaches the center of the sand bed. Attach the emitter to the free end of the tubing and place near the center of the sand. Cover the tubing and emitter with sand, if desired. Also, the sand bed can be built under or around a barely dripping faucet in a sunny area.

BASKING

Butterflies spend a lot of time basking in the sun, and they bask more often in early spring and fall. Especially in the morning, butterflies can be seen resting with wings outspread, soaking in the warmth. The smaller butterflies frequently sit perfectly still with wings outspread on the flowers from which they are feeding. Larger butterflies usually choose an exposed area in the sun for basking, such as a leaf, stick, log, or open ground.

To provide basking areas in the garden, place a decorative log or rock in a more open area of the border among the plants. Pine needles (Pinus spp.) or other freshly fallen leaves spread thickly over a three- by five-foot area, with a rock or log added, also work quite well. The dark-colored leaves rapidly soak up the sun’s rays, providing warmth to the butterfly from below as the sunlight does from above. In placing the basking material, whether leaves, rocks, or logs, be sure that it fully catches the early-morning sun. Another basking area facing west will be welcomed by butterflies flying late in the day, especially during the cooler fall months. A convenient place for warming up will allow them a few more minutes for feeding—much needed to see them through the lengthening, cooler nights.

CRACKS IN FENCE POSTS PROVIDE HIBERNATION AREAS FOR BUTTERFLIES.

HIBERNATION

Some species of butterflies, such as the Red Admiral, Mourning Cloak, and Goatweed Leafwing, pass the winter in hibernation as adults. Cracks in logs, fence posts, loose boards, or tree bark are all potential hibernating sites. Remember the use of such places by insects when tidying up the garden in the fall; leave them in place if not too unsightly. If your garden does not already have such sites, construct special places for overwintering butterflies. Simply tack rough cedar boards or large slabs of bark in protected places on fences or on the side of the house or garage. Place the boards or slabs vertically, leaving one side not completely nailed down, with a crack where the butterfly can wedge itself inside. Place the bark at various heights, beginning a few inches off the ground.

Brush piles or a shelter of stacked logs can be built. Lay the logs in layers, with each layer of logs pointing in a different direction, forming a crisscross design. Leave the bark on the logs—the loosened edges will make ideal hibernating sites.

A WELL-PLANNED GARDEN PROVIDES FOOD FOR CATERPILLARS AND BUTTERFLIES AS WELL AS ROOM TO FLY.