Fair Havens, a bay on the south-central coast of Crete, where Paul’s ship put in on his journey to Rome (Acts 27:8); it is still known by the same name in Greek. Weighing anchor there in the fall, Paul’s ship (against his advice), made a run for the safer harbor of Phoenix to the west, but was driven off course by a sudden northeast wind (KJV: “Euroclydon”; NRSV: “northeaster”; Acts 27:9–15). See also Crete; northeaster; Paul; Phoenix.

C.H.M.

faith, in the Bible, trust in or reliance on God, who is trustworthy. The NT and the LXX express the understanding of faith with two terms (pistis, pisteuein), which are related to the Hebrew verb “to be true” or “to be trustworthy” (’aman).

In the Hebrew Bible: The Hebrew verb ’aman means, for the most part, “to be true”; lying behind this is the root meaning “solid,” “firm.” This sense of “to be true” is intensified in the passive form of the verb, so that one can speak of a person as “trustworthy” or “reliable.” The causative form of the verb suggests the acceptance of someone as trustworthy or dependable. Thus, one who has faith in God accepts God as trustworthy and believes God’s word (Deut. 9:23) and promises. This is the case with Abraham in Gen. 15:1–6; he regards God as trustworthy and God counts this trust as righteousness. The primary nouns derived from the verb “to trust” (’aman) are ’emunah (“firmness, stability”), as in God will be “the stability of your times” (Isa. 33:6), and ’emet (“truthfulness, fidelity, faithfulness”), as in “I will also praise you with the harp for your faithfulness, O my God” (Ps. 71:22). Stability results in security, and together these are signs of God’s fidelity.

God stands at the center of all discussions of faith. Faith comes at God’s initiative, for God’s faithfulness is shown in creation, in the exodus event, in the covenant, and in the subsequent history of Israel, and faith is in essence a response to this divine fidelity. For example, “Israel saw the great work that the LORD did against the Egyptians. So the people feared the LORD and they believed in the LORD and in his servant Moses” (Exod. 14:31). God’s mighty acts evoke fear and trust. The paradoxical relationship between faith and fear owes to the mutuality of obligation that defines the covenant relationship between God and God’s people. That covenant results in an exclusive demand (Exod. 20:3; Deut. 6:5; 18:13; 1 Kings 8:61; Isa. 38:3), according to which idols must be totally rejected (Isa. 42:17). In fact, the opposite of faith/faithfulness can be apostasy, as in Deut. 32:20, where the phrase “children in whom there is no faithfulness” is synonymous with idolatry. Thus, the faith of Israel is always reflective of God’s fidelity, but it is expressed “fearfully” with equal response to God’s demand. This fearful but trusting response takes the form of both obedience (Gen. 6:9, 22; 7:5; 22:1–18; Josh. 1:7–8; 24:22–31; 1 Sam. 15:17–33) and praise (Pss. 5:11; 9:10; 13:5; 18:1–3; 22:1–5; 27:14; 62:1, 5–8; 141:8).

The prophets deepen the meaning of faith in several ways. According to Isa. 7:1–9, security does not rest in political power, but in utter trust in God; in fact, the totality of life must be based on such trust (“If you do not stand firm in faith, you will not stand at all,” 7:9). This point is also stressed in Isa. 28:16 (“One who trusts will not panic”). The writings of Second Isaiah (i.e., Isa. 40–55) broaden the concept of faith in the direction of hope and knowledge: faced with difficult predicaments, the energy of faith results, not in despair, but in hope (40:31), and not in speculation, but in certain knowledge of who God is and what God does (43:10). Hab. 2:4 asserts that, unlike those who are proud, “the righteous live by their faith,” trusting God to fulfill divine promises.

Finally, the emphasis throughout the Hebrew Bible is, not on the individual, but on the faith relationship of the people of Israel to God. The faith of individual patriarchs, judges, or kings is significant primarily because it determines the status of the people or nation as a whole. It is only in the Psalms, Second Isaiah, and a few other passages that any attention is given to the individual, personal faith of common people.

In the NT: Throughout the NT, the noun and verb denoting faith (pistis, pisteuein) appear frequently. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith sometimes means believing or trusting in the gospel (Mark 1:15), but more often faith is related to trusting God to provide extraordinary help in desperate circumstances. Only occasionally does faith have God as its explicit object (“Have faith in God,” Mark 11:22), but the same sense is clearly implied in most texts where the word occurs (“Only believe [in God],” Mark 5:36; “All things can be done for the one who believes [in God],” Mark 9:23–24). Accordingly, Jesus often attributes the miraculous works of God done through him to the faith that people have in God (e.g., Matt. 8:13; 9:28; 15:28; Mark 5:34; 10:52; Luke 7:50; 8:12). Lack of faith, on the other hand, can prevent people from experiencing Jesus’s miracles (Matt. 13:58; Mark 6:5–6). It prevents Peter from walking on water (Matt. 14:30–31) and other disciples from casting out a demon (Matt. 17:19–20). Lack of faith is sometimes equated with fear (Matt. 14:30–31; Mark 4:40). Jesus’s disciples are depicted as people of “little faith” (Matt. 6:30; 8:26; 14:31; 16:8; 17:20; Luke 12:28; cf. Mark 4:40), and yet Jesus maintains that one who has only the tiniest speck of faith (“as a mustard seed”) will be able to move mountains (Matt. 17:20; cf. Luke 17:6). In Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus lists “justice, mercy, and faith” as the weightier matters of the law (23:23). In the Gospel of John, the word “faith” is never used as a noun, but the verb (“to believe”) occurs frequently. The author describes his Gospel as intended to produce faith (20:30–31). The view of faith found in the Fourth Gospel is also closely linked to its understanding of Christology, namely, that Jesus is the one sent by the Father as the revealer (“This is the work of God, that you believe in him whom God has sent,” 6:29). In the book of Acts, the term “believer” is used with frequency (e.g., 2:44) and the object of belief is the preaching of the apostles (4:1–4).

The writings of Paul offer the broadest articulation of faith in early Christianity. The object of faith for Paul is not simply God (1 Thess. 1:8), but, specifically, God’s salvific manifestation through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Thess. 4:14). The proclamation of this act of God produces faith (Rom. 10:17), so that the gospel is received through a faith that rests in “the power of God” (1 Cor. 2:5; cf. Rom. 1:16–17; 3:25). Those who have received the good news of God’s act in Christ are therefore called “believers” (1 Thess. 1:7). For Paul, furthermore, the concept of faith is a dynamic one. Thus, he can refer to the “activity of faith” (1 Thess. 1:23), an activity that manifests itself in love (Gal. 5:6). Faith involves “progress” (Phil. 1:25) and “striving” (Phil. 1:27). It increases (2 Cor. 10:15) and is an energy at work in believers (1 Thess. 2:13). Since faith is not a static possession, Paul urges that faith be established (1 Thess. 3:2) and made firm (1 Cor. 16:13; 2 Cor. 1:24), for it is possible, not only to have deficiencies in faith (1 Thess. 3:10; Rom. 14:1), but also to believe in vain (1 Cor. 15:2; Rom. 11:20). Essential for Paul’s understanding of faith is the conviction that God assigns to each person a “measure of faith” (Rom. 12:3, 6; 1 Cor. 12:9). Yet no matter what that measure of faith is, it is sufficient both to make the person right with God and also to sanctify that person by producing in him or her “the obedience of faith” (Rom. 1:5; 16:16). In Galatians and Romans Paul links his concept of faith to terms like the “righteousness of God” and “justification” and to a negative attitude toward the “works of the law”: people are justified by grace through faith in Jesus Christ rather than by doing works of the law (Gal. 2:16; cf. Rom. 10:14). Paul also likes to use formulations that combine the three terms “faith,” “love,” and “hope” (1 Thess. 1:3; 5:8; 1 Cor. 13:13). On the one hand, as noted above, faith must be active in love; without love faith is empty. On the other hand, faith must be grounded in hope, so that it recognizes that the first fruits of God’s promises manifested in the death and resurrection of Christ will be fulfilled on the last day (Rom. 6:8; 15:13; 1 Cor. 15:14, 17; 2 Cor. 4:14; Gal. 5:5). Yet this faith also makes one a part of the body of Christ, the church, which takes the suffering and death of Jesus as its model for behavior. Thus, Paul can say that God “has graciously granted you the privilege not only of believing in Christ but of suffering for him as well” (Phil. 1:29; cf. Rom. 8:18).

Elsewhere in the NT, James 2:14–20 insists that faith without works is useless (probably not a criticism of Paul, but of those who have lost sight of the Pauline relationship between the activity of faith and its expression in and through love). Heb. 11:1 says that faith is “the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen,” and Heb. 12:2 refers to Jesus as “the pioneer and perfecter” of faith. See also hope; justification; love; righteousness.

K.P.D./M.A.P.

fall, the, a Christian doctrine based upon a reading of Gen. 3, a text that narrates the disobedience of Adam and Eve and the results of this disobedience. According to a common Christian interpretation, this disobedience resulted from a desire to be like God and to usurp God’s rightful place as Creator. Further, according to the Christian doctrine of the fall, the positive relationship that humans had with God was broken by the disobedience of the first humans, and all evil and tragedy in the created order can be explained as a result of this rebellion and disobedience. As a result of the fall, humanity was trapped in a sinful state, which issued in death, not simply (or primarily) physical death, but rather spiritual separation from God. This idea of a primordial fall is never worked out in the Hebrew Bible (and there is no comparable doctrine in Judaism), but the doctrine is expressed in some Hellenistic Jewish writings as well as in the NT. Sir. 25:24 identifies Eve as the one who brought sin and death into the world: “From a woman, sin had its beginning, and because of her, we all die” (Sir. 25:24; cf. 2 Enoch 30:17; Apoc. Moses 7:1, 21). Paul alludes to Gen. 3, setting up a parallel between the “first Adam,” through whose disobedience sin and death achieved dominion, and Christ (the second Adam), whose obedience leads to faith, life, and even a new creation (Rom. 5:12–21; 1 Cor. 15:21–22, 45–49; 2 Cor. 5:17). See also Adam; atonement; creation; death; devil; Eden; Eve; redemption; salvation; Satan; serpent; sin.

J.K./M.A.P.

family. The family was the basic social unit in Israel during the biblical period.

The Nuclear Family: The smallest family unit was the nuclear family (Heb. bayit), which usually occupied its own dwelling. The nuclear family normally consisted of parents and their unmarried children, although occasionally slaves, long-term visitors, or others also shared the family’s living quarters. Archaeological evidence suggests that no more than six or seven people occupied the average house on a regular basis. Within the nuclear family children were socialized by being taught the customs and lore of their people (Prov. 1:8; 6:20), including the story of God’s dealings with Israel (Exod. 10:2; 12:26; 13:8; Deut. 4:9; 6:7, 20–25; 32:7, 46). Well into the monarchic period (ca. 1020–587/6 BCE) each nuclear family was also a self-sustaining economic unit. Agricultural products grown by the family were stored in the house, and any animals that the family might own were quartered there. Living arrangements may have been different in the period before Israel’s settlement in Canaan (thirteenth–twelfth centuries BCE), but there is little evidence to determine this one way or another.

Most of the authority in the nuclear family belonged to the father, who exercised legal control over his children and wife, although his power was not absolute (Exod. 21:7–11; Deut. 21:15–21). Children were expected to honor and obey their parents, and failure to do so was considered a serious matter (Exod. 20:12; 21:15, 17; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 27:16; Prov. 30:17). The integrity of the family was further protected by harsh laws against adultery and incest (Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22). Children remained under their father’s control until they were married, when they left home to start a new family unit. Marriages were carefully regulated (Lev. 18). In early Israel polygyny was common (Gen. 4:19; 16:1–2; 22:20–24; 25:1, 6; 29:15–30), but by monarchic times this practice was limited primarily to the royal family. Even after marriage children were expected to honor their parents and were exhorted to care for them in their old age (Prov. 23:22).

The Extended Family: The extended family (“father’s house”) was composed of two or more nuclear families that claimed descent from the same ancestor. The term employed forty-eight times in the NRSV for such an extended family unit is “father’s house,” which translates Heb. bet ’ab and reflects the patriarchal structure for such units (see, e.g., Gen. 12:1; 24:7; 31:30; Lev. 22:13; Judg. 9:5; 1 Sam. 22:1; Luke 16:27; Acts 17:20). Three times, however, the expression “mother’s house(hold)” is used, indicating a female-led counterpart to the normally male-led institution (Gen. 24:28; Ruth 1:8; Song of Sol. 3:4). The story in Genesis about the home to which Rebekah and her brother Laban belong is especially intriguing, for the same social unit is referred to as both the “father’s house” (Gen. 24:23) and the “mother’s household” (Gen. 24:28). In any case, the bonds of such an extended family unit transcended physical proximity and vocation. Members of an extended family might live together in adjoining houses, but this does not seem to have been common. Likewise, they occasionally worked at the same trade or profession (1 Chron. 4:14, 21, 23), but this was not necessary, or even typical. Still, the extended family acted as a corporate entity and was granted certain legal rights in order to maintain its solidarity. When one of its nuclear families was forced to sell property, the extended family had the right to redeem the property in order to keep it from leaving the family (Lev. 25:25; Jer. 32:6–15). Individuals threatened with being sold into slavery could be redeemed by a member of their extended family, and, at least in the early period, the family was allowed to avenge a wrong done to one of its members (Lev. 25:47–49). The unit of an extended family also served as a basic military unit for purposes of defense or warfare (cf. Gen. 41:51; 46:31; Judg. 9:5; 1 Sam. 2:27–31; 2 Chron. 25:5). Power in the extended family was exercised by the ancestor from whom all of its constituent nuclear families were descended. If this individual was not living, then questions of authority were negotiated among the heads of the nuclear families.

Clan and Tribe: Several extended families were sometimes linked together to form a larger family group, which the NRSV sometimes calls a “clan” (Heb. mishpakhah). In such a group, the families traced their genealogies to a single ancestor, although at the level of the clan factors other than genuine consanguinity often played a role in establishing group unity. Members usually lived in the same geographic area and sometimes made up an entire village (Judg. 18:11–13). Such groups may have helped to protect their members against outside attack, but otherwise seem to have had few social functions. The family metaphor was also extended beyond the clan to include the tribe and the nation of Israel itself, so that the whole people could be seen as one enormous family represented by a complex segmented or branched genealogy (Gen. 46:8–27; Num. 26:5–62; 1 Chron. 1–9). Because of the large numbers of people involved in these groups, it is difficult to know how effectively they functioned as social units.

Although some of the power of the tribes and clans was taken away by the monarchy, the nuclear and extended families seem to have survived intact throughout Israel’s history. After the exile caused many changes in Israel’s structure, the family played an even greater role in maintaining the people’s stability.

In the NT: Biblical views of the family are both adopted and adapted in the NT. On the one hand, Jesus quotes approvingly the command to honor parents and thus supports the traditional Jewish family structure (Matt. 19:16–22; Luke 18:18–30). On the other hand, some of Jesus’s sayings subordinate family loyalty to loyalty to the gospel (Matt. 10:34–39; 12:46–50; Mark 3:31–35; Luke 12:49–53). In the early church, support of one’s family was seen as a virtue (1 Tim. 5:8), but the traditional view of family was transformed by seeing the Christian community as a new family or “household of faith” (Gal. 6:10; Eph. 2:19; 1 Tim. 3:15; 1 Pet. 4:17). Such imagery may have derived in part from scriptural references to Israel as God’s house (Num. 5:7, cited in Heb. 3:2, 5; Jer. 31:31, cited in Heb. 8:8–10; Amos 5:25–27, cited in Acts 7:42–43; Amos 9:11, cited in Acts 15:16). Employment of this metaphor sometimes had literalistic implications: a primary qualification for leadership in the church could be a demonstrated capacity for keeping one’s children “submissive and respectful” and in other ways managing one’s literal household well (1 Tim. 3:4–5). Several NT letters present “household codes,” listing responsibilities associated with different family roles (husbands, wives, parents, children, masters, slaves); see Eph. 5:21–6:9; Col. 3:18–4:1; 1 Tim. 2:8–15; 5:1–2; 6:1–2; Titus 2:1–10; 1 Pet. 2:13–3:7; cf. two letters by other early church leaders, 1 Clement 1:3; 21:6–9; and Polycarp Philippians 4:1–6:2. See also genealogy; marriage.

R.R.W.

famine. In Ezek. 14:21, famine is listed as one of God’s “four deadly acts of judgment” along with the sword (war), evil beasts, and pestilence. Famine is also mentioned as a divine judgment in Jeremiah, along with the sword (fourteen times) and with the sword and pestilence (fifteen times). In Deut. 28:48, hunger is one of the many curses God will send for disobedience. In the book of Revelation, famine is symbolized by the third horseman of the apocalypse, who announces exorbitant prices for food and precedes the horseman named Death (6:5–8). In the book of Genesis, God enables Joseph to predict a famine by interpreting Pharaoh’s dream (41). Other periods of severe famine are recorded during the days of Abraham (Gen. 12:10), Isaac (Gen. 26:1), Elisha (1 Kings 7; 8:16), and Zedekiah (2 Kings 25:3; cf. Lam. 5:10). Philistia was threatened with famine in an oracle from Isaiah (cf. Isa. 14:30). Famine may lead to disease (Jer. 14:18) and, most gruesome, cannibalism of one’s own offspring (Deut. 28:47–57). Other attendant judgments may be captivity (Jer. 15:2), exile (Ezek. 5:12), nakedness (Deut. 28:47), and earthquakes (Matt. 24:7). Metaphorically, the prophet Amos speaks of a famine, not as a lack of bread or water, but one “of hearing the words of the Lord” (8:11). The NT refers to a worldwide famine at the time of the Roman emperor Claudius, prompting the church in the Roman world to send help to the Christians in Jerusalem at the hands of Barnabas and Saul (Acts 11:27–30). Paul also affirms that famine will not be able to separate believers from the love of God in Christ (Rom. 8:35–38). In the Gospels, a famine contributes to the plight of a prodigal son in a parable told by Jesus (Luke 15:14).

J.G.G.

farming, the process of cultivating land and raising crops, from soil preparation to the storage and transport of crops to market. No human activity is as prevalent in the Bible as farming. Agricultural pursuits are mentioned in the opening pages of Genesis (2:15; 4:2; 9:20), and farming activities were important enough to be regulated by Mosaic law (e.g., Lev. 19:9; 25:3–5; Deut. 22:9–10). The orderly system used in working the land was attributed to God (Isa. 28:26), and Jesus used figures derived from farming to picture the coming of God’s kingdom (Mark 4:3–8, 26–29).

The most important crops were wheat, grapes, and olives (Ps. 104:15; Joel 2:19); other crops included barley, flax, lentils, chickpeas, cucumbers, onions, melons, dates, figs, and spices. Because of variations in soil productivity, temperature, and rainfall, certain areas of the country were better suited than others for specific crops, but a wide range of crops and trading and pastoral activities enabled farmers to provide for their families. Unlike their Egyptian and Mesopotamian counterparts, Israelite farmers were not dependent upon irrigation to water crops; rainfall and dew usually sufficed (Deut. 11:10–11; 1 Kings 17:1). Naturally, ancient farmers contended with the elements, pests, and warfare, but the major enemy was drought (cf. Jer. 14:1–6).

Farmers were occupied throughout the year with animal husbandry, and heavy field work never ended. Land was marked off with boundary stones (Prov. 22:28); ground was cleared of rocks and thorns (Isa. 5:2); fields, vineyards, and orchards were hedged and walled (Isa. 5:5; cf. Mark 12:1); and hillsides were terraced.

Most farming activities, however, were controlled by the seasons. Plowing for winter crops did not begin until after the “early” or “former” rains of autumn (Prov. 20:4); only then could lightweight plows scratch the surface of sun-baked fields. Once the soil had been broken with a plow and team of draft animals, clods were pulverized and the surface flattened with hoes or harrows (Isa. 28:24–25). Sowing, which was usually accomplished by broadcasting seed, could precede or follow plowing. Fields or individual plants were fertilized with dung (Jer. 9:22; Luke 13:8), and the rain and sun brought different crops to maturity at different times.

Following the winter rains and the “latter” rains of March and April, barley was ready to be harvested in April and May, and wheat matured three or four weeks later. Grain was pulled up by the roots or cut with flint-bladed or iron sickles (Deut. 16:9). The harvested sheaves were spread out on a threshing floor (i.e., a rock outcropping or a hard-packed earthen surface), and the stalk, chaff, and grain were cut apart by animal hooves (Deut. 25:4), flails (Ruth 2:17), or threshing sledges (Isa. 41:15). Grain was separated from the chaff by winnowing (Isa. 41:16), and the kernels were sifted to remove bits of straw (Luke 22:31). After a bumper crop, the threshing and winnowing process could last all summer. The finished product was bagged and hauled away for storage or sale, and the chaff was burned (Matt. 3:12). Meanwhile, summer crops had been planted after the winter rains; these plants were cultivated throughout the dry summer months. The harvesting of fruit, including olives and grapes, began in late summer and continued into fall.

The Bible demonstrates that almost every aspect of agricultural work assumed a figurative meaning in the minds of ancient speakers and writers (e.g., Isa. 21:10; Amos 9:13; Mic. 4:12–13; Matt. 9:37–38; 13:3–32; Luke 9:62; 1 Cor. 9:9–11; Gal. 6:7; Rev. 14:14–20). See also plow; sowing; winnowing.

G.L.M.

fasting, abstention from food for intentional, usually religious, reasons. In the Bible, there are two kinds of fasting, private and public. Private fasts were observed as acts of penance (2 Sam. 12:15–23; 1 Kings 21:27; Ps. 69:1–15) or of mourning (Neh. 1:4); fasting could be a means of seeking divine counsel or aid (Ps. 35:13–14; Dan. 9:3), or simply of expressing devotion for God (Luke 18:12). Public fasts were periodically proclaimed for the community as a whole (2 Chron. 20:3; Jer. 36:9). The purposes were essentially the same as with private fasts: to obtain God’s help or protection (Judg. 20:26; 1 Sam. 14:24; Joel 1:14; Esther 4:3; Ezra 8:21–23), to express repentance (1 Sam. 7:6; Jon. 3:5–10), or to mourn the death of leaders (1 Sam. 31:13; 2 Sam. 1:12). Fasting was typically accompanied by prayer and supplication and sometimes by wearing sackcloth as a sign of humility, penance, or mourning (Neh. 9:1; Dan. 9:3; 1 Macc. 3:47). “Denying oneself,” synonymous with “fasting,” was required on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:31–34). Public fasts ordinarily lasted a day, and offerings of various sorts were made (Lev. 16:1–5; Judg. 20:26; Jer. 14:11–12). In the tragic days surrounding the fall of Jerusalem, four fast days were proclaimed (Zech. 7:5; 8:19).The prophetic writings contain warnings related to fasting that circumvents what is truly pleasing to God (e.g., sharing bread with the hungry and bringing the homeless poor into one’s house, Isa. 58:1–9; Jer. 14:11–12; Zech. 7:3–5; 8:18–19). The prophet Joel, however, unhesitatingly calls for a public fast and communal lamentation (1:8–2:17).

In the NT Jesus stresses that fasting be sincere and not merely for show (Matt. 6:16–18). In one of his parables, he contrasts a self-righteous man who brags of fasting twice a week with a humble sinner who begs God for mercy (Luke 18:9–14). Jesus himself fasts at the outset of his ministry (Matt. 4:2) but, in contrast to John the Baptist, he later excuses his disciples from fasting on the grounds that his time with them is like a wedding feast (Mark 2:18–19). The Gospels, however, also record Jesus as saying, “The day will come when the bridegroom is taken away from them, and then they will fast” (Mark 2:20). This offers clear indication that the early church thought the physical absence of Jesus marked the time between his resurrection and Parousia as a period when fasting would be appropriate and expected. In the book of Acts, fasting accompanies prayer prior to the consecration of teachers and elders (13:2–3; 14:23) and during times of severe trial (Acts 27:1–38).

J.G.G.

fat, in sacrificial contexts, the greasy tissue of animals burned on the altar as an offering. The Hebrew word for “fat” (kheleb) specifically refers to the fat covering and surrounding the entrails and the fat on the kidneys (Lev. 3:3–4), but it also has a more general sense that includes the kidneys, liver appendage, and tail (of a sheep; Lev. 4:31; 7:3–4). The fat of sacrificial animals must not be eaten (Lev. 7:23–25; cf. 3:17).

The same word is also used of human fat (Judg. 3:22, 2 Sam. 1:22) or for “fat” in a more generic or figurative sense: the arrogant have hearts that are fat and gross (Ps. 119:70). Sometimes the term is used to mean “best of,” and then it is usually translated as “best” or “finest” in the NRSV (Num. 18:12, 29–32; Pss. 81:16; 147:14). This is also the sense implied by the expression “fat of the land” (Gen. 45:18). In the NT, the word “fat” is used mainly for animals, with a connotation that this makes them desirable for food (Matt. 22:4). In Luke 15:23, a father who is a character in one of Jesus’s parables kills the “fatted calf” to celebrate the return of a prodigal son. Elsewhere, James tells the rich, “You have fattened your hearts in a day of slaughter” (5:5).

D.P.W./M.A.P.

father, in the Bible, a designation used, not only for the immediate male progenitor, but also for the head of a people or tribe (Gen. 19:37), or for the founder of a town (1 Chron. 2:41–52), or of some institution (Gen. 4:20–21; NRSV: “ancestor”). The plural, “fathers” (NRSV: “ancestors”), refers to previous generations (Jer. 31:32; Ps. 22:4; Lam. 5:7). “Father” can also be a name for advisers to the king or high governmental officials (Gen. 45:8; Isa. 22:21) or an honorary title given to prophets and priests (Judg. 17:10; 2 Kings 2:11; 6:21; 13:14). And, of course, “father” is an important appellation for the deity (Exod. 4:22; Deut. 14:1; 32:6; Hos. 11:1; Jer. 3:4, 19; 31:9; Ps. 103:13).

A father was permitted to arrange his daughter’s marriage and receive her bride-price (Gen. 34:12; 1 Sam. 18:25). The Genesis narratives, however, indicate that it was customary to ask the daughter if she agreed to a marriage (Gen. 24:57–58). The father also had the right to cancel his daughter’s vows (Num. 30:4–6). Although the Torah forbade selling one’s daughter into prostitution (Lev. 19:29), it did permit the selling of a daughter into servitude on the condition that she become the wife of her master or his son; if the condition was not met, she would be freed (Exod. 21:7–9). As in the ancient Near East, the father apparently could sell his sons into servitude for his debts (Isa. 50:1; cf. 2 Kings 4:1), but this practice was condemned by Nehemiah (5:1–9). Deut. 24:16 decrees that children may not be punished for the sins of the parents (cf. 2 Kings 14:6) and vice versa; this was upheld by the prophets (Jer. 31:29–30; Ezek. 18:20). The father was obligated to circumcise his sons (Gen. 17:12, 23; 21:4; Lev. 12:3), to redeem his firstborn son (Exod. 13:13), and to educate the children in the Torah (Exod. 13:8; Deut. 4:9; 6:7, 20–25; also Prov. 3:12; 4:1). The children were to revere and obey the father equally with the mother (Exod. 20:12; Lev. 19:3; Deut. 21:18, 20; cf. Exod. 21:15; Lev. 20:9).

In the NT, “father” can refer to the male progenitor (e.g., Matt. 1:1–16; Mark 1:20; Acts 28:8), but in most instances it is used to refer to God. This Christian practice probably derives from the fact that “Father” was a favorite term that Jesus used for God (Heb., Aramaic abba; Mark 14:36; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). See also family.

J.U.

father’s house. See family.

fear of the Lord (or “fear of the LORD”), the awe that a person ought to have before God (Pss. 33:8; 34:11; Prov. 5:7; Eccles. 12:13). Sometimes such fear is appropriately demonstrated by those who have displeased God: Adam and Eve were afraid of God after they ate the forbidden fruit (Gen. 3:8–10). The threat of judgment ought to produce fear (Amos 3:7), but in a more general sense fear of God can be engendered by a simple awareness of God’s magnificence (Jer. 5:22, 24). In this sense it frequently accompanies theophanies, the appearance of angels, or the occurrence of miraculous events: Moses hid his face and was afraid to look at God when God spoke to him out of the burning bush (Exod. 3:6; cf. Matt. 28:8; Luke 1:30). In wisdom literature, the “fear of the LORD” is presented as a prerequisite for obtaining wisdom or understanding (Ps. 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 9:10; Sir. 1:20); indeed, it can be virtually equated with possession of wisdom or understanding (Job 28:28; Sir. 19:20). It can be taught (Ps. 34:11) or chosen (Prov. 1:29). It is also closely connected with obedience to God’s commandments (Job 25:21; Ps. 19:9; Eccles. 12:13), to hating evil (Prov. 8:13), to trusting God (Ps. 40:3), to enjoying friendship with God (Ps. 25:14), to obtaining deliverance and other benefits from God (Pss. 33:18; 34:7; 145:19; Prov. 10:27; 22:4), and to experiencing life in its fullest (Prov. 19:23). In the NT, Jesus contrasts fearing God, who can destroy body and soul in hell, with fearing humans, who can kill the body only (Matt. 10:25). Fear is also represented by the “fear and trembling” with which Paul exhorts the Philippians to work out their salvation (2:12). It describes the piety of the growing church (Acts 9:31; cf. 5:11; 13:26) and accords with recognition that people will be held accountable by God in the judgment (2 Cor. 5:10–11; 1 Pet. 1:17).

M.A.P.

Felix, Antonius (fee′liks, an-tohn′ee-uhs), Roman procurator of Judea ca. 52–59 CE. According to the historians Josephus, Suetonius, and Tacitus, he was brutal in his rule, instigating the murder of the high priest Jonathan and allowing a violent pogrom against Jews in Caesarea. He owed his position to his influential brother Pallas, but, because of immorality and incompetence, he was eventually replaced. According to Acts 23:23–24:27, Felix became involved with Paul when the apostle was sent to Caesarea for trial upon recommendation of Claudius Lysias, the tribune in Jerusalem. The writer of Acts indicates that Felix followed appropriate judicial procedure during Paul’s hearing. After listening to Paul speak on matters pertaining to faith in Jesus Christ, however, he is pictured in unfavorable terms. Hoping for a bribe, which was not forthcoming, and “desiring to do the Jews a favor,” he allowed Paul to languish in prison for the remainder of his term in office. See also Lysias, Claudius; Paul.

A.J.M.

fellowship, communal association for the mutual benefit of those involved. In the NRSV, the word “fellowship” (Gk. koin–onia) is used only in the NT, as a mark of the early church (Acts 2:42; Gal. 2:9; 1 John 1:7) and as a description of the intimate relationship that believers have with God through Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 1:9; 1 John 1:6). In some respects, this becomes a Christian version of the Jewish concept of “covenant.” In the Bible, the Sinai covenant bound all Israelites together into what was, ideally, a grand fellowship of mutual obligation and concern. Furthermore, covenant images clearly suggest a kind of fellowship between God and the people. For example, Israel is the wife of God (Hos. 1–3; Jer. 2:2; Ezek. 16); God has “known” (chosen) Israel (Amos 3:2); and Israel is to “know” (acknowledge, obey) God. God’s election of Israel is motivated by love (Deut. 7:7), and Israel is to be God’s own possession among all peoples (Exod. 19:5). Such relational language sometimes applies to individuals: Enoch “walked with God” (Gen. 5:24); Abraham is called the “friend” of God (2 Chron. 20:7; Isa. 41:8); and Moses talks with God “face to face” (Exod. 33:11; cf. Deut. 34:10). The prophets’ experience of being commissioned by God suggests a special bond (Isa. 6; Jer. 1; Ezek. 1), and the Davidic king is called God’s son (2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 2:7).

In Paul’s letters, fellowship is the bond among Christians created by their common confession that Jesus is Lord. In Paul’s letters this fellowship is marked by the spiritual oneness effected by baptism and bestowal of the Spirit (Gal. 3:27–28; 1 Cor. 12). It is manifested by the gathered community at the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:17–34) and characterized above all by self-giving love (1 Cor. 13). This fellowship of believers is dependent on—and an expression of—their fellowship with Christ. Fellowship with Christ means that believers share his death and experience the new life that corresponds to his resurrection (Rom. 6:1–11; Phil. 3:8–11), sustained by the hope that at his coming they will forever be with him (1 Thess. 4:13–17). The apostle stresses, further, that communion with Christ excludes other types of fellowship, e.g., with prostitutes or demons (1 Cor. 6:15–17; 10:19–21). Paul’s letter to the Philippians is especially imbued with a sense of commonality: the word koin–onia (translated “sharing” in the NRSV) is used in Phil. 1:5; 2:1; 3:10, and the letter exhibits a prevalence of Greek words that begin with the prefix syn- (meaning “together” or “with,” similar to the English prefix “co-”). Paul emphasizes that he and the Philippians have had common experiences (1:29–30) and that, as fellow citizens of heaven, they share a common hope and destiny (3:20); his joy will only be complete when they come to experience the same level of accord with one another that they have experienced up to now with him (2:2).

In the Johannine writings, Christian fellowship is characterized by a perfect oneness grounded in the closest of relationships with the Father and the Son (17:11, 21–23; see also 1 John 1:3, 6, 7). Jesus is the true vine in which believers must “abide” if they would bear fruit. Those who have fellowship with God walk in the light and love one another (John 15:12–13; 1 John 1:6–7). See also church; covenant; friend, friendship; Lord’s Supper.

S.K.W./M.A.P.

festivals, feasts, and fasts, activities that, in the Bible, are observed to commemorate or emphasize events in the relationship between God and human beings.

Festivals and Feasts: Most religious festivals were occasions of joy. They were times for thanking God for blessings and granting relief to the poor and oppressed. They were often accompanied by singing, instrumental music, dancing, elaborate meals, and sacrifices. Depending on the nature and the requirements of the occasion, they were celebrated either at a sanctuary or at a person’s home. The Pentateuch prescribes the observance of several recurring festivals. On the first day of each lunar month, a special series of sacrifices was to be made (Num. 28:11–15; cf. Ezek. 46:6–7). These new-moon festivals were days of feasting (1 Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27) and apparently days of rest (Amos 8:5). Of the new-moon festivals, that in the seventh month (the Festival of Trumpets) was the most important (Lev. 23:23–25; Num. 29:1–6). Three festivals, called pilgrimage festivals, required the participation of Israelite males at the sanctuary (Exod. 23:14, 17; 34:23; Deut. 16:16–17): (1) Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread, which were celebrated from the sunset of the fourteenth to the twenty-first day of the first month (Exod. 12; 23:15; 34:18, 25; Lev. 23:5–8; Num. 9:1–14; 28:16–25; Deut. 16:1–8; Ezek. 45:21–24); (2) the Festival of Weeks, which occurred at the beginning of the wheat harvest seven weeks after the presentation of the barley omer (Exod. 23:16; 34:22; Lev. 23:15–21; Num. 28:26–31; Deut. 16:9–10); and (3) the Festival of Tabernacles (Booths), which was celebrated on the fifteenth through the twenty-second days of the seventh month when the harvest and produce were gathered in (Exod. 23:16; 34:22; Lev. 23:33–36; Num. 28:12–39; Deut. 16:13–18; Ezek. 45:25). Later festivals not prescribed in the Pentateuch include the Festival of Dedication (Hanukkah), which commemorates the rededication of the temple altar by Judas Maccabeus on the 25th of Chislev (Nov./Dec.) in 164 BCE (1 Macc. 4:36–59; 2 Macc. 10:6–8; cf. John 10:22); and Purim, celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar (Feb./March), which commemorates the deliverance from the persecutions of Haman as described in the book of Esther (9:19–28).

Besides the foregoing prescribed festivals, there are descriptions of other types of festivals and feasts in ancient Israel. Judg. 21:19–24 tells of a yearly festival in Shiloh. This may have been Shiloh’s version of the Festival of Tabernacles (Booths) or it may have been a separate festival celebrating the new vintage. According to 1 Sam. 1–2, Elkanah and his family made yearly visits to the sanctuary at Shiloh to offer sacrifice and worship God. These visits may have been connected with the yearly festival mentioned in Judg. 21, but it seems more likely that they were separate family celebrations in the sanctuary city (cf. 1 Sam. 20:5–6, 24–39).

Public celebrations also accompanied dedication or renovation of temples (1 Kings 8; 2 Chron. 29) and the coronation of kings (1 Kings 1:39–40; 2 Kings 11:12, 13, 20). Military victories were occasions for celebration (1 Sam. 18:6–7; cf. 30:16). Families also celebrated major events in the lives of their members, such as the weaning of children (Gen. 21:8) or marriages (Gen. 29:22; Judg. 14:10–11; Tob. 10:7; Mark 2:19; John 2:1–2). Sheepherders, with families and friends, held festivals when flocks were sheared (1 Sam. 25; 2 Sam. 13:23–29; cf. Gen. 31:19; 38:12). Finally, sharing the sacrifice or offering of well-being with invited guests was a joyful festive occasion (cf. Lev. 3; 7:11–18; Deut. 12:6–7, 11–12, 17–18; 1 Sam. 9:22–24; 16:2–5; Job 1:4).

Fasts: In contrast to feasts and festivals, fasts were times of mourning and self-denial arising from misfortune and sin. The only prescribed annual fast is that on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:29–34; 23:26–32; Num. 29:7). It occurred on the tenth day of the seventh month. The people were to “afflict themselves,” meaning they were to abstain from food and drink and other bodily gratifications (cf. 2 Sam. 12:16–20; Dan. 10:2–3). After the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians (587/6 BCE), fasts were annually held in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn this calamity (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19). A public fast preceded the festival of Purim on the thirteenth of Adar; Esther 9:31 apparently refers to this (cf. 4:16).

In the NT: The Gospels report that Jesus observed Jewish festivals (Matt. 26:17–18; John 5:1; 7:2, 10). Aside from that, however, the NT contains few regulations pertaining either to fasts (cf. Mark 2:20) or to festivals. See also Atonement, Day of; fasting; jubilee; Passover; Pentecost; Purim, Festival of; Tabernacles, Festival of; worship in the Hebrew Bible.

Bibliography

De Vaux, Roland. Ancient Israel. McGraw-Hill, 1965. Pp. 468–517.

D.P.W.

Festus, Porcius (fes′tuhs, pohr′shuhs), the Roman procurator over Judea who replaced Antonius Felix (ca. 59 CE). According to the historian Josephus, he was a competent public official. He died in office several years after his appointment. According to Acts 25:1–26:32, Festus encountered Paul, a prisoner in Caesarea, when he arrived as procurator. He was bewildered by Paul’s religious convictions. After Paul appealed his case to Caesar in Rome, Festus arranged for a hearing in the presence of the visiting King Agrippa II and Bernice, where Paul gave a defense of his belief in Jesus. Although Festus was incapable of perceiving anything worthwhile in Paul’s preaching and declared him mad, he also averred that “this man is doing nothing to deserve death or imprisonment” (26:30–32). Nevertheless, because Paul had appealed to Caesar, he was sent, under guard, to Rome (Acts 27–28). See also Bernice; Felix, Antonius; Herod; Paul.

A.J.M.

fig (Ficus carica), a fruit tree common in both wild and cultivated forms throughout the Near East since ancient times. It is a beautiful shade tree whose large palm-shaped leaves were said to have been used to cover the nakedness of Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:7). The pear-shaped fruit, which is produced more than once during the year, has a high sugar content and is very sweet when ripe. It is eaten fresh or dried into cakes, which, like those made from dates, are storable and thus an ideal food for travelers (1 Sam. 25:18). The fertilization of the fruit is dependent on a tiny wasp, which carries pollen into the inner parts by boring into the center of the fruit. The fig tree therefore will not bear mature fruit if the wasp is absent and may even require hand fertilization by incision. The fig also has medicinal properties as a poultice applied to wounds and boils (2 Kings 20:7; Isa. 38:21). A fig tree that failed in its purpose of bearing figs was cursed by Jesus (Matt. 21:18–19), perhaps as a metaphor for the temple, which he thought had failed to bear proper religious fruit (cf. Mark 11:12–25). See also mulberry; palm; sycamore.

P.L.C.

fire. Besides normal domestic uses (cooking, heating, lighting), fire was used in the refining of metals, in various crafts, in the waging of war, and in sending messages. Fire also had specialized uses in worship. A perpetual fire burned in the temple (Lev. 6:12), and fire was used both for roasting sacrifices for human consumption and for burning incense. Fire is a common symbol of holiness and in some cases of protection (cf. Zech. 2:5). It represents divine action: God is called “a consuming fire” (Heb. 12:29; cf. Deut. 4:24). Fire is God’s servant (Ps. 104:4; Heb. 1:7), and God’s word is like fire (Jer. 23:29). In reference to God’s action, fire is often a symbol of destruction associated with divine wrath (Gen. 19:24; Exod. 9:23; Lev. 10:2; Num. 16:35; 2 Kings 1:10–16). This theme is developed prominently in the NT, where it is said that on the coming day of God, the heavens will be set ablaze and “the elements will melt with fire” (2 Pet. 2:12). But fire can also signify a purging or purifying function: the Babylonian exile is described as purification by fire (Ps. 66:12; Isa. 43:2), and the “day of the LORD” will purify Israel (Zech. 13:9; cf. 1 Cor. 3:13–15). Again, this theme is developed in the NT with regard to the sufferings of Christians: their various trials allow the genuineness of their faith to be tested like gold in a refiner’s fire (1 Pet. 1:6–7).

Fire is a central element of theophany throughout biblical literature, e.g., the smoking pot and flaming torch that make a covenant with Abraham (Gen. 15:17), the burning bush that appears to Moses (Exod. 3:2), the pillar of fire that leads Israel by night (Exod. 13:21–22), and the appearance of God in fire on Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:18). Such fiery theophanies continue in the NT as well: Christ’s appearance in the vision of John is with “eyes of fire” (Rev. 1:14; 2:18), and the descent of the Holy Spirit is accompanied by “tongues, as of fire” (Acts 2:3). See also theophany.

D.L.C.

fire, tongues of. See tongues, as of fire.

firebrands, usually pieces of wood set on fire. They were used by Samson in his revenge against the Philistines (Judg. 15:4), and they were sometimes tossed over a city wall in time of military siege. Prov. 26:18 says that one who deceives a neighbor is “like a maniac who shoots deadly firebrands.” Amos 4:11 describes individuals rescued by God as being like “a brand snatched from the fire.”

firepan, a portable metal pan for carrying hot coals on which incense was placed as an offering. Firepans were made for use with the lampstand and the burnt offering altar (Exod. 25:38; 38:3; Num. 4:14).

firmament. See sky.

firstborn, firstling, the first male child born to a father (Exod. 13:12–15; Num. 18:15–16) and the first offspring of domesticated pure and impure animals (Exod. 13:12–13; Lev. 27:26–27; Num. 18:16–18; Deut. 15:19–23). The firstborn male of humans and beasts in Israel was dedicated to God, because God saved the Israelites’ firstborn during the slaughter of the tenth plague in Egypt (Exod. 13:12–15). This plague, in turn, was brought upon the Egyptians for enslaving Israel, God’s own appointed firstborn (Exod. 4:22; cf. Jer. 2:3; 31:9). The firstborn son inherits a double portion of his father’s estate (Deut. 21:15–17; Isa. 61:7), the paternal blessing (Gen. 27), and succession to authority (Gen. 27:29, 37; 37:21–22; 2 Kings 2:9). The Davidic king is also viewed metaphorically as God’s firstborn (Ps. 89:28), an appellation the NT applies to Jesus (Heb. 1:6). See also bless, blessing; curse; priests; sacrifice.

J.U.

first fruits, the seasonal initial produce of agriculture (Exod. 23:19; Lev. 23:10; Num. 15:20–21; Deut. 26:1–11) and food products (Num. 18:12–13; Deut. 18:4; Ezek. 44:30). The first fruits of agriculture are given to God in religious ritual in acknowledgment of God’s ownership of the earth (Ps. 24:1), upon which humans are tenants. This transfer invokes God’s blessing on the rest of the produce (Lev. 19:24–25; Prov. 3:9–10). See also sacrifice.

fir tree, as a general term, coniferous evergreens such as the cypress, juniper, and pine. The NRSV tends to use those more specific designations rather than “fir,” which was used in other English translations in passages such as Isa. 60:13; 2 Sam. 6:5; 2 Kings 5:10; 19:23; 2 Chron. 2:8. Where the NRSV does keep “fir tree,” the reference is probably to the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis). This tree is said to have provided branches for nesting storks (Ps. 104:17) and to have sometimes been cut into planks for shipbuilding (Ezek. 27:5). It was regarded as stately and beautiful but, in the imagery of Ezekiel, could not compare with the “cedar of Lebanon” (31:8). See also cypress; forest; pine; wood.

P.L.C.

fish. The Bible takes fish and fishing for granted and makes no distinction between fresh- and saltwater fish, both of which were readily available. The major saltwater fish sources were the long coast of the Mediterranean Sea (Ezek. 47:10) and the waters of the Gulf of Aqabah. The primary source of freshwater fish was the Sea of Galilee (Luke 5:1–11) and some of the reaches of the Jordan River. Archaeological recovery of both salt- and freshwater fish bones indicates that fish were shipped considerable distances. For instance, both Mediterranean and Red Sea (Gulf of Aqabah) species have been recovered at Tell Hesban in Moabite Transjordan, east of the Dead Sea. The main freshwater species available in the Sea of Galilee included the mouth-breeding Cichlidae, of which two varieties of tilapia (Tilapia galilaea and Tilapia nilotoca) were common: Cypinidae, including two common carp (Barbus canis and Barbus longiceps); and Siluridae, a catfish (Clarias lazera).

According to Gen. 1:20–23, God created fish and other sea creatures on the fifth day of creation and blessed them. But, like other living creatures, the “fish of the sea” were placed under human dominion (Gen. 1:26). The primary use of fish was for food (Luke 11:11; Mark 6:41), preparation of which included broiling (John 21:9). Levitical law deemed fish with fins and scales to be clean, but others unclean (Lev. 11:9–12). Catfish were thus prohibited among the freshwater species, as were saltwater eels, sharks, rays, and lampreys. Methods of catching fish included the dragnet (John 21:8), angling with hook (Job 41:1; Amos 4:2; Matt. 17:27), harpoons and spears (Job 41:7), and thrown hand nets (Matt. 4:18). The presence of fish could symbolize the end of drought (Isa. 50:2). The catching of fish could symbolize untimely death (Eccles. 9:12) or the helplessness of humans before the power of God (Hab. 1:14–16). In the NT, however, the techniques of fishing became a model for the work of Jesus’s disciples, who were called to “fish for people” (Matt. 4:19; Mark 1:17).

R.S.B.

flagon, a vessel for storing and/or serving liquids. The word appears five times in the Bible, in three instances paired with bowls, thus suggesting complete service for food and drink in ritual contexts (Exod. 25:29; 37:16; Num. 4:7). In Esther 1:8, flagons of wine illustrate the lavish nature of the banquets thrown by King Ahasuerus. In Isa. 22:24, flagons are referred to metaphorically for the weight of the responsibility placed on Eliakim as royal vizier to his ancestral house, a house that will perish with his downfall.

flax (Linum usitatissimum), a delicate plant with blue flowers. It has been known since prehistoric times in the Near East. It is the earliest known cultivated fiber plant and was used to make linen of varying quality for temple vestments (Exod. 25:4) as well as for ordinary garments, sails, nets, and even twine. It was also the wrapping cloth used for the dead (Matt. 27:59). The harvested flax plants were soaked in water to separate the fibers and were then spread to dry, often on hot exposed rooftops (Josh. 2:6). Linseed oil is extracted from flax seeds, and the dregs are then given to the animals as fodder. In the Bible, the plague of hail ruined the flax in Egypt (Exod. 9:31), and Isaiah speaks of how workers in flax will despair when the waters of the Nile dry up (19:9). When Samson was delivered to the Philistines, the cords that bound him melted off his hands like flax that has caught fire (Judg. 15:14). Prov. 31:13 describes a capable wife as seeking wool and flax and working with both; Hosea condemns an unfaithful woman who knows not from whom her wool and flax come (2:5–9). See also linen.

P.L.C.

flesh, the soft material of the body (Job 10:11). More narrowly, it can refer to the penis (Exod. 28:42), foreskin (Gen. 17:9–14), and hence sexual union (Gen. 2:24) and generation (John 1:13). More broadly, it refers to a human person as represented by a physical body (John 1:14), to one’s relatives (Rom. 9:3), to humanity (Isa. 40:5; Phil. 3:3–4), or to human and animal life (Gen. 6:17–20). Animal flesh is “meat” (Dan. 10:3) or the meaty part of a sacrifice (Lev. 6:24–27). “Flesh” also connotes sensitivity (Ezek. 11:19), superficiality (John 8:15; NRSV: “human standards”), weakness (2 Chron. 32:8), and mortality (Ps. 78:39). Paul also uses “flesh” for the urge to sin (Gal. 5:19–21). See also body; flesh and spirit; human being, humanity.

R.H.G.

flesh and spirit, complementary and contrastive terms whose meaning must be derived from the context in which they are used. In Hebrew thought (which generally informs both the Hebrew Bible and the NT, even though the latter was written in Greek), flesh and spirit were understood holistically, as different aspects of a human being, which was essentially a single entity; neither could exist apart from the other. In Greek thought, which sometimes influences some of the NT writings, “flesh” and “spirit” were understood dualistically, as separate entities that could be opposed to each other. Indeed, some Greek philosophers (e.g., Plato) even imagined that the spirit (or soul) was immortal and would continue to live after the flesh died.

In the Bible, the phrase “the spirits of all flesh” (Num. 16:22; 27:16) refers to human beings as animated physical bodies. Their spirit, or breath, comes from God, who can withdraw spirit (breath) from flesh so as to produce death (Gen. 6:3) or grant it to flesh so as to produce life (Gen. 2:7), even life after death (Ezek. 37:1–14). Since flesh connotes weakness (Ps. 56:4; Rom. 8:3) and spirit connotes power (Zech. 4:6; Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8), the two stand side by side for the contrast between weak human beings and Almighty God (Isa. 31:3). Similarly, acceptable worship of God in the Spirit contrasts with unacceptable attempts to please God in the flesh (Phil. 3:3). The weakness of flesh (e.g., simple tiredness) can prove ironically strong, however, when it conflicts with the spirit’s willingness to pray or to obey God (Mark 14:38). According to 2 Cor. 7:1, sin may defile both the flesh (in the sense of “body,” as in the NRSV) and the spirit. One can be absent in flesh (again in the sense of “body,” as in the NRSV), but present in spirit (Col. 2:5). At the last day, the spirit may be saved even though the flesh (presumably the present mortal body, though some think the sinful urge) has to be destroyed prematurely in punishment for a heinous and unrepented sin (1 Cor. 5:5).

In Paul’s writings, the contrast between the Holy Spirit and flesh (often as the sinful urge) looms larger than the distinction between the human spirit and the physical flesh it animates (in some Pauline passages, however, it is unclear whether God’s Spirit or the human spirit is intended). Paul associates the Spirit favorably with faith and the flesh unfavorably with the works of the law (Gal. 3:2–3). In Galatians, Isaac, freeborn according to the Spirit, represents God’s gracious promise; Ishmael, slaveborn according to the flesh, represents the law, which brings a curse (4:21–31). The spiritual person lives in a way determined by God’s Spirit; the fleshly person behaves like unbelievers, who do not have the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:12–3:4). Vices (nonphysical as well as physical) are the works of the flesh; virtues are the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:16–25). Fleshly behavior leads to death; behavior according to the Spirit leads to eternal life (Gal. 6:7–8; Rom. 8:1–17). The contrast between divine Spirit and human flesh is present in the Gospel of John as well; here the gift of the divine Spirit makes up for what is lacking in merely human (but not evil) flesh (3:3–8; 6:52–63). See also flesh; Holy Spirit; human being, humanity.

R.H.G.

flint, an impure quartz rock, usually gray, brown, or black, abundant in the Near East. It fractures on conchoidal lines and holds an extremely sharp edge, either smooth or serrated. It was used for a variety of tools, such as awls, axes, knives, picks, scrapers, sickles, and weapons (arrowheads and spear points). Knives used for circumcision were made of flint (Exod. 4:25; Josh. 5:2, 3). It can be manipulated by humans (Job 28:9). Flint serves as a metaphor for sharp-cutting destructive power (Isa. 5:28) and stubborn faithfulness (Isa. 50:7) and is a dubious source of water (Ps. 114:8; Deut. 8:15) or nourishment (Deut. 32:13). It describes Judah’s sinful heart (Zech. 7:12). In Ezek. 3:9, the prophet’s forehead of flint is said to be harder than the people of Israel; i.e., the prophet’s persistence will outlast Israel’s stubbornness.

R.S.B.

flock. See sheep.

flood, the, the catastrophic excess of water described in Gen. 6–8. The biblical story of the flood relates how God destroyed the existing world, but saved Noah and his family and representatives of each animal species in an ark. After the waters subsided and the ark rested on Mount Ararat (8:4), Noah sent out a raven and then a dove (which brought back an olive branch); seven days later he sent out another dove, which did not return (8:6–12). Noah disembarked, offered sacrifices, and formally re-began the world by making a covenant (contract) with God in which God promised not to bring a flood again (8:13–22; 9:8–17), a promise signaled by the appearance of a rainbow (a symbol of God’s “bow” now hung in the sky). The Hebrew word for the cosmic flood is mabbul, which also refers to the heavenly ocean (cf., e.g., Ps. 29:10). The flood was an undoing of creation: the cosmic waters overwhelmed the earth, coming through the windows of the sky and the fountains of the great deep beneath the earth (7:11; cf. 8:2). Thus, return to the primeval watery condition set the stage for a new beginning for the world (cf. Gen. 1:2, 9).

Mesopotamian Flood Stories: The meaning of the flood story is illuminated by examination of the many parallels between the biblical account and other Mesopotamian flood stories. There are three major cuneiform retellings of the flood: the Sumerian flood story (which is somewhat fragmentary), the Gilgamesh epic, and the Atrahasis epic. These epics feature, first, an interest in immortality. In the Gilgamesh epic, the survivor of the flood, Utnapishtim, tells Gilgamesh about the flood to show him how his own attainment of immortality was unique. In the Gilgamesh epic and the Sumerian flood story (Atrahasis is broken at this point), the hero/survivor is rewarded with immortality. In the Bible, by contrast, Noah has a more human fate: he becomes drunk, is sexually embarrassed, and ultimately dies (9:20–28). Second, the Atrahasis Epic seems to present the flood as a divine response to overpopulation. In this story, the spread of humanity prompted Enlil and the gods to send plague, drought, saline soil, famine, and ultimately a flood to destroy humankind. One god, Enki, helped people escape the early problems and then had Atrahasis build an ark; after the flood Enki created barrenness, miscarriage, and stillbirth, in addition to celibate women, in order to solve the problem of overpopulation without resorting to natural disasters. The biblical story, by contrast, is emphatically not about overpopulation, for people are commanded to be fruitful, multiply, and fill the earth (Gen. 8:1). As in the Atrahasis Epic, however, the biblical flood was a divine attempt to deal with a problem for which God provided an alternative remedy after the flood. In the Bible, the problem was the progressive corruption of the human race (Gen. 6:5–7). Immediately after the flood, therefore, God gave Noah and his sons several laws. The difference between the ante- and postdiluvian worlds is in these laws, for laws are considered the sine qua non of humanity’s ability to continue to live on the earth (Gen. 9:2–7).

The Meaning of the Biblical Story: The flood is presented as a means of getting rid of a defiled world and starting again with a well-washed one. The idea that moral misdeeds can defile the earth is an important idea in biblical thought, for Israel believed that it had inherited the land after the previous inhabitants had defiled it and the land had “vomited” them out; Israel could lose the land for the same reason (Lev. 18:24–28). Israel worried that it could defile the land through unsolved murders (Deut. 21:7–8), through failure to execute murderers (Num. 35:31–34), or through sexual impropriety (Jer. 3:1). Ultimately, the prophets came to believe that Israel had indeed defiled its land (Jer. 2:7) and was therefore exiled (Ezek. 36:18). Thus, Israel’s retelling of the flood story showed a cosmic parallel to this pattern of corruption, purgation, and ultimate restoration. There are several allusive references to the flood in the first nine chapters of Ezekiel, which portray Israel just before the Babylonian exile, and one finds another striking allusion in Zeph. 1:2–3. The one explicit reference to the flood in the Hebrew Bible outside of Genesis (Isa. 54:9) promises that Israel’s exile, like the flood, was a unique occurrence, not to be repeated. In the NT, Jesus says that the coming of the Son of Man will be like the days before the flood when people carried on with life, oblivious to the disaster about to befall them (Matt. 24:37–39). In 2 Pet. 2:5 the flood is referred to as one among many examples that prove destruction comes to those deserving God’s judgment.

Despite numerous attempts to find archaeological evidence for a universal deluge, no evidence for such an occurrence has been found. Localized flood levels, however, have been discovered in various Mesopotamian cities.

Bibliography

Dundes, Alan, ed. The Flood Myth. University of California Press, 1988.

Lambert, Wilfred G., and A. Millard. Atrahasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood. Oxford University Press, 1969.

T.S.F.

floor, in biblical usage primarily the “threshing floor” (Gen. 50:10; Judg. 6:37; Ruth 3:14; 2 Sam. 24:21; Hos. 13:3; Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). This was usually a flat rock surface large enough to accommodate piles of grain from individual farmers with sufficient space to allow each farmer to drive a threshing sledge over the grain at the edge of a harvested pile in order to shred it prior to winnowing. It was usually a communal installation, although individual farmers may have had their own spots for personal operations.

In the more common sense of the word, floors of structures mentioned in the Bible include the tabernacle (Num. 5:17, evidently an earthen floor), a roof chamber (Judg. 3:25, possibly a rolled earthen or plastered floor), Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 6:15, described as partly overlaid with gold [6:30]), and the floor of the temple in Ezekiel’s specifications (41:16, 20). Archaeological evidence indicates that floors were built of various materials, from plain tamped or rolled earth, to pebble, cobble, and slab stone paving (see John 19:13); in terms of design, they varied from plain to geometric and elaborately decorated or inscribed mosaic tile. Floors and the artifacts associated with their construction and use form part of the data most helpful to archaeologists for dating the construction and use of a building.

R.S.B.

flour. See bread; mill.

flowers. In modern Israel, flowers may be found throughout most of the year, and this was probably the case in biblical times as well. The pink, white, and lilac blossoms of the cyclamen appear as early as January. By spring, various shades of red and pink of the crown anemones, poppies, and mountain tulips successively dominate the landscape. Next to appear are the diverse tuberous plants of the lily family. As the summer progresses, the short-lived blossoms of spring are replaced by fields of yellow and white daisylike flowers of chamomile and chrysanthemums. The less showy yellow, blue, white, pink, and purple flowers of various thorny shrubs and plants remain throughout the summer to decorate the dry hills, rocky terrain, and waste places (Hos. 10:8).

Since flowers are referred to in general terms in the Bible, the specific identity of individual species is difficult to ascertain. Although context may sometimes elucidate which general type of flower is indicated, such information is not usually sufficient to identify a specific species. Furthermore, references in the Bible to such flowers as lilies or roses are not botanically precise and may not correspond to the sense in which such terms are used today. In general, the term “lily” applies to the family of plants that have bulbs, tubers, or rhizomes as roots (Liliaceae). Such plants commonly found in the Near East include the true lilies, such as the white Madonna lily and the deep red Martagon lily. The tulip, asphodel, Star of Bethlehem, hyacinth, and related narcissus, daffodil, crocus, and iris inhabit the rocky ground and dry places of the hill country. Lilies are mentioned in 1 Kings 7:26; Ps. 60:1; Hos. 14:5; and Sir. 39:14. The “lily of the valleys” of the Song of Sol. 2:1–2 is probably the blue hyacinth. The “lilies of the field” of Matt. 6:28–30 are probably not true lilies, but one of the numerous showy spring flowers such as the crown anemone.

True roses of the region, such as the wild Phoenician rose, may be referred to in Sir. 24:14 (the “rose plants in Jericho”). Otherwise, the term “rose” is used as a generic word for any showy, colorful flower. These would include the flowers found on such fruit-bearing shrubs as raspberry and blackberry, which blossom along watercourses, and on such fruit trees as apple, plum, cherry, apricot, and almond. The “rose of Sharon” (Song of Sol. 2:1) may have been one of these; or one of the more common flowers such as the tulip or narcissus, both of which grow profusely on the plains of Sharon; or one of the roselike flowers of the woody shrubs of the “rock rose” family (Cistaceae), which adorn the rocky and dry areas in the spring and early summer.

Flowers figured in many aspects of life in biblical times. The flowering trees and shrubs, the flowers of the fields, and the less showy blossoms of various herbaceous plants such as mints and mustards provided nectar for bees (Isa. 7:22; Num. 13:37). The fragrances of many flowers were extracted as essential oils for perfumes and unguents. The form or shape of flowers provided inspiration for decorative motifs: the columns of King Solomon’s temple were capped by lilies (1 Kings 7:19, 26).

Some biblical references to flowers are symbolic. The flowers of spring signify renewal (Song of Sol. 2:12) as well as the fragility and transience of life (Job 14:2; Ps. 103:16; Isa. 40:6–7; James 1:10–11; 1 Pet. 1:24). The qualities of beauty, purity, and sweetness are also likened to flowers (Song of Sol. 2:1–5; 5:13; Isa. 28:4). In Matt. 6:28–30, Jesus refers to fields of wildflowers (lilies) as signs of God’s care for creation: the God who clothes the grasses of the field can be trusted to care for people as well. See also almond; fig; flax; lily; mustard; rose.

P.L.C.

flute. See music.

fly. Many species of flies are known in the Near East. In the Bible two Hebrew words are translated “fly” or “flies” in the NRSV. First, ‘arob is used for the flies visited on the Egyptians as the fourth plague (Exod. 8:20–32; alluded to in Pss. 78:45; 105:31). The species of fly intended in these references is uncertain; it may have been the Tabanid fly (Stomoxys calcitrans). A second word, zebub, probably refers to the ordinary housefly (Musca domestica); this is the word used in Eccles. 10:1; Isa. 7:18. Baal-zebub, “lord of flies,” was a deity worshiped at Ekron, whom King Ahaziah wanted to ask about recovery from his final illness (2 Kings 1:2–6, 16). It is not certain, however, that he was called Baal-zebub by his followers; that name might be an intentional corruption of Baal-zebul, meaning “lord of the lofty abode.” See also plagues.

J.M.W.

food. The chief staple in biblical times was bread, as suggested by the fact that the Hebrew word for bread (lekhem) can also designate food in general (e.g., Gen. 3:19). Barley, wheat, and emmer were the most common varieties of grain from which bread was made. Besides their use in flour, these cereals were also eaten in roasted form, either whole or crushed (Josh. 5:11; Lev. 2:14). Fruits, vegetables, and dairy products were also important staples of the Israelite diet. Common fruits were grapes, olives (used mostly in the form of oil), figs, dates, apples, and pomegranates. Among the vegetables, beans, cucumbers, lentils, onions, leeks, and garlic were commonly grown. Dairy products, derived more from goats than cows, were consumed chiefly in the form of cheese, curds, and butter. Meat was also part of the diet, but for ordinary Israelites only on special occasions, since it was too expensive for daily fare. Both domesticated and wild animals, such as deer, gazelle, fish, and fowl, were used for food. Boiling or roasting were the preferred methods of preparing meat, from which all blood had to be drained carefully, since blood was considered sacred as the seat of life and it belonged to God alone (Gen. 9:4–6; Lev. 17:10–11; Deut. 12:23–25; Acts 15:19). Certain animals considered ritually unclean could not be consumed (see Lev. 11:1–47). The Israelite diet was rounded out by spices and other natural products such as salt and honey.

Although the food supply was generally adequate, famines, caused either by natural calamities, such as drought and locusts, or by human warfare, were not infrequent in biblical times (Gen. 26:1; 43:1; Amos 4:6–9; Luke 15:14; Acts 11:28). Some regions of the country were more fertile and productive than others. Thus, for instance, the tribe of Asher, situated on the northern coast, was known for its abundance of food (Gen. 49:20); and the Transjordanian region of Bashan was blessed with very fertile soil, which made possible the raising of herds of cattle known for their sleekness (Amos 4:1). The adequacy of one’s diet also depended to a large extent upon one’s wealth and social status. Kings and nobles usually ate better than peasants. The quantity of food consumed at Solomon’s court was enormous, as suggested by the following list of daily provisions: “And Solomon’s provision for one day was thirty cors [ca. 330 bushels] of fine flour, and sixty cors [ca. 660 bushels] of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty pasture-fed cattle, a hundred sheep, besides harts, gazelles, roebucks, and fatted fowl” (1 Kings 4:22–23). Divine or miraculous provision of food is also a common motif in the Bible: God provides the Israelites with manna and quail in the wilderness (Exod. 16:13–14, 31); both Elijah and Elisha enable a cruse of oil to endure long after it should have run out (1 Kings 17:14–16; 2 Kings 4:1–7); Jesus feeds multitudes with a pittance of provisions (Mark 6:35–44; 8:1–9) and facilitates an abundant catch of fish (Luke 5:1–11; cf. John 21:4–14).

Besides its obvious function for the maintenance of physical life, food had other functions and uses in the Bible. It was offered as a gift or as tribute (Gen. 32:13–18; 1 Sam. 25:18; 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Kings 14:1–3). It was also used for making loans (Deut. 23:19) or as wages or payments for goods and services rendered (1 Sam. 2:5; 1 Kings 5:9–11; Ezra 3:7; Matt. 10:10). Scant rations were a means of punishment (1 Kings 22:27; Amos 4:6), and feasting on an abundance of food was a sign of joy and celebration (Isa. 25:6; Luke 15:23). Food was also used for religious purposes, such as the bringing of offerings (Lev. 1–7; 1 Sam. 2:12–17; 1 Cor. 8) and in sacred communal meals (Exod. 12; 1 Sam. 1:4–5; Matt. 26:17–29; Acts 2:46). Meals were often a means of cementing social relationships and, due to their social significance, Jesus was criticized for eating with tax collectors and sinners (Mark 2:15–17; Luke 15:2). Likewise, the early Christian church became embroiled in controversies over whether Jewish and Gentile believers could share community meals at the same table (Gal. 2:11–14).

Because food was of such fundamental significance, it could easily be misused or given undue importance. Consequently, the Bible says that God is the ultimate source of all food (Pss. 104:14; 136:25; 147:9; cf. 2 Cor. 9:10) and that human beings do not live by bread alone (Deut. 8:3; Luke 4:1–4). The absence of God’s life-giving word may cause a famine as severe as any lack of food (Amos 8:11–12). Fasting or abstention from eating for religious reasons (e.g., prayer, repentance) was common. Jesus taught his disciples that life consists of more than food (Matt. 6:25) and that God can be trusted to provide food (Matt. 6:25–28). Paul maintains that the kingdom of God does not consist of food and drink, but of righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit (Rom. 14:17).

Numerous symbolic references to food are also found. Ps. 19:10 says the “law of the LORD” is “sweeter than honey.” In John’s Gospel, Jesus says that his food is to do the will of God (4:34; 6:27), and he compares himself to the “living bread” come down from heaven (6:35, 41, 51). He frequently uses banquets as a favorite image for the kingdom of God (Matt. 22:2–14; 25:1–10; cf. 8:11–12). Spiritual teaching is sometimes likened to food: basic teaching is like milk for newborn infants (1 Pet. 2:2), while deeper teaching is like solid food for mature disciples (1 Cor. 3:2; Heb. 5:12–14). See also bread; festivals, feasts, and fasts; meals.

W.E.L.

food offered to idols, meat from animals used in pagan cultic observances. In sacrificial offerings, only a portion of the animal was burned on the altar; what was left was sold in the public market. Many Jews would refuse to purchase or consume this meat; some Christians also refused to partake of it, but others did not.

According to Acts, when a special Jerusalem meeting of apostles and elders agreed to admit Gentiles to the church without requiring them to be circumcised, several restrictive provisions were laid down. One was that the Gentile Christians should abstain from eating anything that had been offered in sacrifice to idols (15:29; cf. 21:25). In Revelation, the Nicolaitans (2:14–15; cf. Num. 25:1–2; 31:16) and a female Christian prophet (perhaps their leader, 2:20) are accused of laxity in exactly this regard. The issue also comes up in Paul’s letters. Some members of Paul’s Corinthian congregation saw nothing wrong with Christians eating such food. They apparently reasoned that, because the only true God is the one known in Jesus Christ, other “so-called gods” had no real existence and sacrifices made to them had no real significance (1 Cor. 8:4–6). Perhaps these people occasionally ate the sacrificial food in pagan temples (see 1 Cor. 8:10), at the quasi-religious dinners of fraternal associations, or at meals hosted by pagan friends or relatives who had offered some special sacrifice. Whatever the particular setting, they seem to have participated with a certain bravado, alleging their possession of a superior “knowledge” (1 Cor. 8:1) and criticizing those brothers and sisters who declined to participate in such meals as “weak” in conscience (1 Cor. 8:7).

In 1 Cor. 8:1–11:1, Paul responds to this situation without mentioning the prohibition reported in Acts 15:29 (though Acts 15:22–35 says that he was one of the ones entrusted with the responsibility of promulgating that decision). Instead, Paul insists that neither eating nor abstaining from food offered to idols is in itself consequential (8:8). Thus, he thinks it unnecessary that Christians inquire about the origin of the meat they purchase in the market or that pagan friends serve at a private dinner (10:25–27). Paul also insists, however, that this Christian freedom must always be exercised in love (1 Cor. 8:1; 10:23–24) and in a manner that does not endanger one’s partnership in the body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 10:18–22). He understands this to exclude a Christian’s participation in any pagan sacrificial meals (10:14–22) and to require abstention from “food offered to idols” whenever eating that food might be injurious to other Christians or confusing to nonbelievers (8:7–13; 10:28–29a). It may be that Rom. 14 refers to the same problem, although the reference to “meat” in that chapter is more general.

V.P.F.

foolishness, folly, a lack of wisdom. Since wisdom, however, has many different nuances in the Bible, folly also takes on a number of different connotations. In a fundamental sense, folly or foolishness is a failure to recognize the significance of God and God’s will. A “fool” is virtually by definition a person who lives life as though God and God’s will were of no consequence (Pss. 14:1; 53:1; cf. Prov. 1:7). Any number of specific characteristics might exemplify this: lack of knowledge or understanding (Prov. 12:15; Eccles. 5:1); an inability to be cautious in speech (Prov. 18:6–7); a tendency to be indiscreet (Prov. 1:23; 13:16) or hot-tempered (Prov. 14:29; 17:12) or obtuse (Prov. 2:2) or gullible (2 Sam. 3:31–33); a predilection for pursuing conduct that proves harmful (2 Sam. 24:10); deliberate disregard for God’s laws (Jer. 29:23; Deut. 22:21; 2 Sam. 13:11–14). Thus, Balaam is a fool when he beats his donkey (ironically claiming that it is making a fool of him) for refusing to take him on a path that would bring him certain death (Num. 22:29). Saul repents (momentarily) of trying to kill David and says, “I have been a fool, and made a great mistake” (1 Sam. 26:21). Joab takes Abner aside for a private conversation, then murders him, prompting David to lament, “Should Abner die as a fool dies?” (2 Sam. 3:33). A man identified as a fool by Jesus plans to build bigger barns to store his crops, not knowing that he will die that very night (Luke 12:20). In Matt. 5:22, however, Jesus expands upon the commandment against murder to warn that anyone who calls a brother or sister a “fool” is in danger of eternal punishment.

In the NT, the concept of foolishness is developed by the apostle Paul in a very different sense: what the world at large calls foolishness may accord with the wisdom of God; God’s foolishness is wiser than human wisdom (1 Cor. 1:25). In articulating this point, Paul draws heavily on the prophets who insisted on the inscrutability of God’s ways and lamented the arrogance of human claims (e.g., Isa. 29:14, cited in 1 Cor. 1:19; Isa. 40:13, cited in 1 Cor. 2:16; cf. Isa. 55:8–9; Ps. 33:10). But Paul develops the point in specifically christological terms: the “foolishness” of God is displayed in the cross of Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 1:18). Thus, Paul says that he and his companions are “fools for the sake of Christ” (1 Cor. 4:10). In a somewhat different vein, Paul engages opponents (whom he calls “the super-apostles,” 2 Cor. 12:11) at Corinth by speaking to them “as a fool,” that is, on their own terms, comparing notes as to which of them is the greatest and ironically concluding that inadequacies and failings determine who is truly being used of God (2 Cor. 11:16–12:10). See also wisdom.

J.M.E./M.A.P.

foot, a body part used in a variety of figurative ways in the Bible. God required Moses to go barefoot on the holy ground of Horeb (Exod. 3:5). Barefootedness was part of David’s mourning (2 Sam. 15:30). God commanded Isaiah to walk barefoot as a symbol of future exile (Isa. 20:2–4). Placing the foot on the neck of the vanquished enemy indicated victory (Josh. 10:24; Ps. 110:1; Matt. 22:44); God’s placing all things “under the feet” expresses absolute dominion (Ps. 8:7; 1 Cor. 15:27; Eph. 1:22; Heb. 2:8). Listeners and pupils sat at their master’s feet; Mary sat at Jesus’s feet (Luke 10:39); Paul, at Gamaliel’s (Acts 22:3). Love is shown Jesus by the washing, kissing, and anointing of his feet (Luke 7:38, 44–47; John 12:3). Jesus washed his disciples’ feet as an example of humble service (John 13:5–17). Homage is shown Jesus by falling down at his feet (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41). Jesus heals those placed at his feet (Matt. 15:30). The disciples are to shake the dust from their feet to reject inhospitality (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5; 10:11).

J.P.H.

footstool. The only literal footstool in the Bible is part of a royal throne: Solomon’s ivory throne had “six steps and a footstool of gold, which were attached to the throne” (see 2 Chron. 9:18). The term is usually used figuratively. Thus, God promises to make vanquished enemies the “footstool” of a king (Ps. 110:1; cf. Matt. 22:44; Acts 2:35; Heb. 10:13). Elsewhere, the ark (1 Chron. 28:2), the temple (Isa. 60:13), or even Zion (Lam. 2:1) is identified as God’s footstool, i.e., as part of God’s royal throne. To emphasize God’s sovereignty, the entire earth may be described as God’s footstool (Isa. 66:1; cf. Matt. 5:35; Acts 7:49).

forbearance, restraint with regard to punishment or vengeance. Though this could be a human virtue (akin to showing mercy), in the NRSV forbearance is attributed only to God. In Jer. 15:15 it describes God’s allowing a prophet added life to complete his mission. In Rom. 2:4, Paul says that God’s forbearance, patience, and kindness are intended to lead to repentance. In Rom. 3:25, he specifies that Christ’s atoning work is the result of divine forbearance, according to which God has passed over former human sins.

ford, shallow crossing place in a marsh, river, or stream where firm footing is available. Until Roman occupiers built the first bridges in the Levant, all crossings of water were by boat or through available fords. Bridges and fords had been constructed by the Persians in much of Asia Minor in their control of territories from the sixth through the fourth centuries BCE. Such ford crossing points mentioned in the biblical stories include one on the Jabbok, an eastern tributary of the Jordan (Gen. 32:22), crossed by Jacob and his family. There were also fords on the Jordan itself, crossed by various groups (Josh. 2:7; Judg. 3:28; 12:5, 6; 1 Sam. 13:7); fords “of the wilderness” (2 Sam. 15:28; 17:16); the ford of the Anion, an eastern river draining into the Dead Sea (Isa. 16:2); and fords leading to Babylon (presumably through the Euphrates River; Jer. 51:32).

R.S.B.

forehead, the portion of the face between eyebrows and hairline. The Bible depicts the forehead or brow as a significant spot due to its location and visibility. As represented in ancient Near Eastern art, the upper portion of the forehead was often covered by hair, a headband, or some type of head covering; but the lower portion was generally visible. Even soldiers’ helmets sometimes left the lower brow somewhat vulnerable (which is evident from the story of Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:49). The following passages illustrate the visual prominence of the forehead. The phrase “Holy to the Lord” was to appear over the high priest’s forehead (Exod. 28:36–38). God struck Uzziah with leprosy on his forehead (2 Chron. 26:19, 20; cf. Lev. 13:41–43). A frontlet or phylactery was to be worn “between the eyes,” a phrase referring to the forehead (Exod. 13:9, 16; Deut. 6:8). In visions of the future, allegiance to God was often represented by a mark or seal on the forehead (Ezek. 9:4; Rev. 7:3; 9:4; 14:1; 22:4); association with “the beast” in the end times was likewise depicted in such a manner (Rev. 13:16; 14:9; cf. 20:4). The term “forehead” was also used figuratively to represent persistent obstinacy: to have a “hard forehead” was synonymous with having a “stubborn heart” (Isa. 48:4; Ezek. 3:7–9). Jeremiah uses a different figure, telling Judah that she has “the forehead of a whore” (3:3); this probably refers to some sort of jewelry worn as an identifying sign by prostitutes (cf. Rev. 17:5). See also phylacteries.

D.M.P.

foreigner, in the Hebrew Bible, any non-Israelite having temporary contact with Israel; if friendly, foreigners were entitled to hospitable treatment. In contrast, “resident aliens” enjoyed some social and religious privileges (Exod. 12:49). Israelites were frequently warned that extended contact with foreigners would lead to religious corruption (Exod. 23:31–33; Isa. 2:6–8); thus the directive against foreign wives (1 Kings 11:1–4; Neh. 13:26–27). Also, foreigners were not permitted to participate in ritual festivities (Exod. 12:43; Neh. 9:1–3), nor could their animals be used for Israelite sacrifices (Lev. 22:25). In economic dealings, interest was chargeable on loans to foreigners, but not on those to fellow Israelites (Deut. 23:19, 20), and a foreigner’s debt was not remitted in a year of release (Deut. 15:2, 3). References to foreigners as enemies occur in passages such as Obad. 11 and Lam. 5:2 (NRSV: “aliens”; NEB and NIV: “foreigners”). The NT writings make occasional references to foreigners (the Samaritan leper in Luke 17:18; cf. Matt. 27:7), but, as the church spread out into the Mediterranean world, the term lost its primary reference to “non-Israelites”; thus there are “foreigners” in Athens, who were probably non-Athenians (Acts 17:21). The concept of being a foreigner, stranger, or sojourner was also employed with figurative and theological meaning. On the one hand, Eph. 2:19 states that those accepting Jesus as Christ are “no longer strangers and sojourners, but . . . fellow citizens with the saints”; on the other hand, Heb. 11:13 identifies saints as people who confess that they are “strangers and foreigners on the earth.” See also alien; Gentile; stranger.

D.M.P.

forerunner, in antiquity a military term for soldiers who ran ahead of the regular army either as scouts or to announce or prepare for its arrival (Wis. 12:8). The image of a forerunner (though not the actual term) seems to be applied to John the Baptist in the Gospels: he comes in advance of Jesus to announce and prepare the way for the Lord (Matt. 3:1–12; 11:10; Mark 1:2–8; Luke 3:1–18; 7:27; John 1:6–8, 19–34; cf. Isa. 40:3–11; Mal. 3:1). Elsewhere, Heb. 6:20 refers to Jesus entering the Holy of Holies as forerunner, thereby preparing for others to have access to God’s presence. See also John the Baptist.

foreskin, a portion of loose skin, also called the prepuce, located at the end of the human male penis. Hebrew ritual law specified that it should be surgically removed from every male child belonging to the covenant people of Israel, normally on the eighth day after birth (Lev. 12:3). This act of circumcision was first practiced by Abraham (Gen. 17:11, 14, 24–25). When God intended to kill Moses, Zipporah, his wife, saved his life by cutting off their son’s foreskin and touching her husband’s feet with it, proclaiming “Truly, you are a bridegroom of blood to me!” (Exod. 4:24–26). When arranging David’s marriage to his daughter Michal, King Saul demanded a bride-price of a hundred Philistine foreskins, which was delivered (1 Sam. 18:25, 27; 2 Sam. 3:14). Removal of the foreskin can be viewed symbolically, as when the people are admonished to circumcise the foreskin of their heart (Deut. 10:16; Jer. 4:4); likewise, those whose devotion to God is superficial are said to be “circumcised only in the foreskin” (Jer. 9:25). See also circumcision. R.S.B

forest. In Israel, forests were a source of timber for both local use and foreign export. Wood was important for a wide range of uses, such as domestic and industrial fuels, the construction of buildings, and the manufacture of furniture and household items. The highlands of Lebanon boasted forests of majestic cedars, while oak and pistachio, the characteristic trees of the Mediterranean region, were especially common in the northern hill country. Stands of Aleppo pine, mixed with components of the oak forest, existed in Galilee, Samaria, and Judea. Scrub forests in the foothills, composed of mixed evergreens, once provided shelter for wild animals such as boar and lions (Ps. 80:13; Amos 3:4). Biblical references to specific stands of trees such as the forest of Hereth (1 Sam. 22:5), the forests of the south (Negev; Ezek. 20:46–47), the forests of Arabia (Isa. 21:13), the king’s forest (Neh. 2:8), and the forest (wood) of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:6) indicate the importance of these natural resource areas. See also wood.

P.L.C.

forgiveness. The Bible develops the motif of forgiveness through a variety of terms and images: sins or debts or transgressions may be sent away, wiped clean, covered, removed, released, or passed over. In Genesis, God agrees with Abraham’s request to forgive the entire city of Sodom if ten righteous people can be found there (18:20–32). The book of Leviticus explicates a system of sacrifices for expiating the guilt of those who have sinned unwittingly or who have repented of their sins (Lev. 4–5), but sacrifice must always be accompanied by a proper disposition (1 Sam. 15:22; Hos. 6:6). Joshua tells the people at Shechem that God is a holy and jealous God who will not forgive their transgressions if they serve foreign gods (Josh. 24:1), but King Solomon later expounds in prayer upon God’s willingness to forgive those who pray in or toward the temple as the seat of God’s dwelling with Israel (1 Kings 8:30–50). Many of the psalms contain prayers for forgiveness (Pss. 25:18; 51:1–17; 65:3; 79:9) or testimonies to God as the one who forgives (Pss. 103:3; 130:4). The prophets testify repeatedly that God desires to forgive human sins, but asks for repentance as a prerequisite for a renewed relationship between God and Israel (Isa. 1:18–19; Hos. 12:2–3; Joel 2:13). The book of Nehemiah describes God as “ready to forgive, gracious and merciful, slow to anger and abounding in steadfast love” (9:17). Although most references in the Hebrew Bible are to divine forgiveness, there are also occasional references to forgiveness between human beings. Thus, Abigail intercedes for her foolish husband, Nabal, begging David to forgive him for his churlish behavior (1 Sam. 25:14–28). The story of the reconciliation of Esau and Jacob (Gen. 32–33) also testifies to human forgiveness, although the term is not used.

The NT continues the tradition of God’s mercy shown in forgiveness of sins. God initiates contact with humans (Rom. 9:23–26; 2 Cor. 5:19; Gal. 1:4) and forgives sins through the death of Jesus (Acts 13:38; Rom. 3:21–26; 4:25; Gal. 1:4). God’s forgiveness is variously described as justification, salvation, and reconciliation. It is associated with the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (Matt. 26:28), and in some passages Jesus himself forgives sins (Mark 2:5–6; Acts 5:31). This offer of divine forgiveness, however, is emphatically connected with the need for humans to forgive each other. Jesus teaches his disciples to pray, “Forgive us our debts, as we have forgiven our debtors” (Matt. 6:12), adding, “If you do not forgive others, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses” (Matt. 6:15). This latter point is underscored in his parable of the Unforgiving Servant (Matt. 18:23–35). Such forgiveness, furthermore, is to be limitless: not seven times, but “seventy-seven times” (Matt. 18:22). Indeed, members of the community are told to confess their sins to one another (James 5:15–16), and spirit-filled leaders are authorized to forgive or retain sins on Christ’s behalf (John 20:23). See also justification; mercy; repentance; salvation; sin.

A.J.S.

forks, implements used by priests for sacrifices (Num. 4:14; 1 Sam. 2:13–14, which speak of them as having three prongs). Those in use at the Jerusalem temple were made of gold (1 Chron. 28:17) and bronze (2 Chron. 4:16).

fornication, a generic term for illicit sexual activity. In the Hebrew Bible, sexual misconduct includes seduction of a virgin, rape, sodomy, bestiality, incest, prostitution, and homosexual acts (cf. Lev. 18; 19:20–22, 29; 20:10–21). The specific sin of adultery tends to be treated separately from these offenses, perhaps because it related to marriage and was considered more serious, or at least in need of special legislation. Similarly, in the NT, almost any form of sexual activity outside the marriage relationship can be designated as fornication or “immorality” (cf. 1 Cor. 6:9; 2 Cor. 12:21; Eph. 5:5; Col. 3:5; 1 Thess. 4:3; 1 Tim. 1:10; Heb. 13:4; Jude 7). See also adultery; homosexuality; marriage; prostitute.

J.M.E.

fortification. See cities; defense, public; fort, fortress; walls.

fort, fortress. In biblical times, forts were often constructed along borders or trade routes, and cities were typically walled so as to become fortresses themselves (cf. the expression “fortress city” in Neh. 9:5). Already at the time of the exodus, Deut. 3:5 mentions “fortress towns with high walls, double gates and bars” in the kingdom of Og. At the time of David, a “fortress of Tyre” is mentioned (2 Sam. 24:7). David is also said to have garrisoned troops in outlying areas to ensure his political control (2 Sam. 8:6). Solomon likewise had cities for his chariots (1 Kings 9:19). Rehoboam is said to have built fifteen fortified cities and to have made their fortresses strong (2 Chron. 11:11). Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 17:12) and Jotham (2 Chron. 27:4) are likewise credited with building forts and towers. Nahum calls sarcastically for Assyria to strengthen its forts in preparation for the siege and devastation to come (3:14; cf. 3:12). Isaiah refers to fortresses in Tarshish and Sidon (23:1, 4, 14). Nehemiah makes reference to a “temple fortress” (2:8). The term “fortress” is also used metaphorically for God in prayers and hymns of praise (2 Sam. 22:2; Pss. 18:2; 31:3; 59:9; 62:2; 71:3; 91:2; 144:2).

Archaeological investigations have dated several forts to the period of the monarchy. The fortress of Arad, constructed at the time of Solomon’s rule, guarded the southern approach to Jerusalem and was used for regional control and administration. An imposing fortress at Lachish guarded an approach into the Judean hill country from the southwest. The northern kingdom, Israel, also possessed several highly fortified sites, including Megiddo and Hazor. Megiddo guarded the western entrance into the Jezreel Valley, and Hazor guarded the approach from southern Syria into Israelite territory. In the Transjordanian kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom, archaeologists have discovered various fort systems ranging from watchtowers and what could be termed police outposts to regional garrisons and even double-walled fortresses. Because of the trade routes running north–south through these kingdoms and the agrarian, pastoral nature of their economies, these different types of forts were necessary for what little security they could ensure. During the Roman period, Herod the Great is noted for building a number of fortresses throughout Judea (including Masada, Machaerus, and the Herodium). None of these are mentioned in the NT. Paul was probably kept in the fortress (NRSV: “barracks”) of the Antonia (Acts 21:34–37; 22:24; 23:10), but it is not mentioned as such either.

J.A.D./M.A.P.

Fortunatus (for′chuh-nay′tuhs), one of the three men who brought information to Paul in Ephesus about troubles in the church at Corinth (1 Cor. 16:17). The three individuals (Fortunatus, Achaicus, and Stephanas) may have been emissaries, bearing a letter from some in the Corinthian church (1 Cor. 7:1). See also Achaicus; Stephanas.

forum. See architecture.

foundations, a base for construction of any superstructure. Translating a variety of biblical terms, the word is used both literally and figuratively. It refers to both natural formations (Deut. 32:32) and humanly prepared anchorages for different kinds of structures (Solomon’s temple, 1 Kings 5:17; the second temple, Ezra 3:10; a house, Luke 6:48; a prison, Acts 16:26; the new Jerusalem, Heb. 11:10; Rev. 21:19). Such foundations could be elaborate and costly (1 Kings 7:10–11). Archaeological evidence shows that bedrock was preferred for major construction, but if such was not available the next best foundation was a solid stone platform constructed of layers of blocks of closely fitted stone. Such a foundation could be leveled by the use of trenches filled with gravel or small rock.

A cornerstone was important to all wall foundations and frequently served as a repository for inscriptions or other commemorative goods. To improve a foundation’s stability, the cornerstone would frequently be a worked stone, even in a wall of unworked stone. For storage buildings, foundations were made rodent tight by use of plaster in the chinks. For more modest housing, stone foundations one course high and one or two courses thick were minimal.

The image of a foundation lent itself to a variety of metaphorical applications. God, as Creator, is often identified as one who laid the foundations of the earth (2 Sam. 22:16; Job 38:4; Pss. 18:15; 82:5); for this reason the phrase “the foundation of the world” refers to the moment of Creation or to the beginning of all things (Matt. 13:35; John 17:44; Eph. 1:4; Heb. 4:3; 9:26; 1 Pet. 1:20; Rev. 13:8; 17:8). The righteousness and justice of God (Ps. 89:14) and God’s redemption (Isa. 28:16) form a stable foundation for life. Similarly, in one of his parables, Jesus likens the person who obeys his teaching to a wise man who builds his house upon a rock (cf. 1 Tim. 6:19), while the person who does not keep his words is like a foolish man who builds a house upon the sand (Matt. 7:24–27; cf. Job 4:19; 22:16). Paul speaks of initial missionary activity as laying a foundation and says that he does not build upon another’s foundation (i.e., work in areas where people have already heard the gospel from other missionaries), but prefers to go where Christ has not yet been named (Rom. 15:20; cf. 1 Cor. 3:10). Sticking with this basic metaphor, he also insists that though the missionary lays the foundation, the foundation itself is Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 3:11; cf. Eph. 2:20, where it is “the apostles and prophets,” with Christ Jesus as the cornerstone). See also 2 Tim. 2:19; Heb. 11:10. See also cornerstone.

R.S.B./M.A.P.

fountain, a spring or source of flowing water. The NRSV uses “spring” and “fountain” to translate a number of Hebrew and Greek terms without distinguishing between a natural outflow of water, an artificial water-storage system (i.e., cisterns and reservoirs), or a well dug by human hands. Though all of these were common, the Levant’s geological structure is conducive to the formation of natural springs (Deut. 8:7), and settlements were often located in close proximity to such springs. This reality is sometimes reflected in place-names that begin with the syllable en, a prefix derived from a Hebrew word for “fountain” or “spring” (e.g., En-gedi). Natural springs represent divinely bestowed security and bounty (Ps. 104:10–13; Isa. 41:17–18; Ezek. 34:13), especially when the water is taken as symbolic of eschatological blessings (e.g., Ezek. 47:1–12; Joel 3:18; Zech. 14:8; Rev. 21:6; 22:1–2). Thus, the “fountain [or source] of life” may be variously identified as the “fear of the LORD” (Prov. 14:27), the mouth of the righteous (10:11), the teaching of the wise (13:14), or wisdom itself (16:22). God is praised as the “fountain of life” (Ps. 36:9). God is also described as a “fountain of living waters” (Jer. 2:13), a symbol that Jesus later applied to himself (John 4:10–15).The image of a fountain is also used to symbolize an abundant source of things besides water, e.g., descendants (Deut. 33:28), wisdom (Prov. 18:4), or forgiveness (Zech. 13:1). In love poetry, a fountain (like a garden) is sometimes used as a euphemistic image for feminine sexuality (Prov. 5:15–17; Song of Sol. 4:12–15). See also cisterns; water.

G.L.M.

Fountain Gate, a city gate in the southeast sector of Jerusalem opening either to Gihon or to the En-rogel spring (Neh. 2:14; 3:15; 12:47). It was repaired by Nehemiah. It may be identical to the “gate between the two walls” (2 Kings 25:4).

fowler, a person who hunts birds. Such hunting was done by bait, lure, or snare, and it was done for food or sport. Biblical usage sees it as a metaphor for danger (Prov. 6:5; Pss. 91:3; 124:7), even from fellow humans (Jer. 5:26).

fowls, a collective term for edible birds. In the NRSV, the word is used only in 1 Kings 4:23 and Neh. 5:18, though fowlers, who hunted such birds, are mentioned in Pss. 91:3; 124:7; Prov. 6:5; Jer. 5:26; Hos. 9:8. Domesticated poultry are more common in the NT, where Jesus refers to a hen gathering her young (Matt. 23:37) and to the crowing of a cock (Mark 13:35; 14:30, 68, 72). When the chicken first appeared in the Near East is unknown, but a Hebrew seal from Tell en Nasbeh from the sixth century BCE depicts a fighting cock. Prov. 30:31 refers to a strutting rooster.

fox. Three species of fox live in the Near East: the European fox (Vulpes vulpes) dwells in temperate zones, and the desert fox (Vulpes rüppeli) and the fenek (Fennecus zerda) are desert-adapted species; any one or all three may have been there in biblical times as well. Samson tied torches to the tails of three hundred foxes and turned them loose in Philistine grain fields (Judg. 15:4–5). Tobiah the Ammonite mocked the Jews who were rebuilding their walls by saying, “That stone wall they are building—any fox going up on it would break it down!” (Neh. 4:3). In the NT the fox is mentioned in connection with its habit of burrowing holes (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58): foxes have holes, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head. Figurative references to foxes are also found, though their meaning is somewhat elusive. The Song of Solomon refers to catching little foxes that ruin the vineyards that are in blossom (2:15)—perhaps the foxes are lusty youth and the blossoming vineyards nubile girls. Jesus calls Herod Antipas, the ruler of Galilee, a fox (Luke 13:32)—perhaps the reference draws upon a reputation for foxes as rapacious animals given to indiscriminate violence (particularly against chickens, cf. Luke 13:34–35).

frankincense, a fragrant gum resin exuded in large, light yellowish brown tears from boswellia trees (Boswellia carterii, Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia thurifera). These grow in South Arabia, Ethiopia, Somalia, and India. Frankincense was imported into Judah by camel caravan from Sheba (Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20), a trade connection illustrated by the queen of Sheba’s visit to Jerusalem during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 10:10; 2 Chron. 9:9). Frankincense could be used for secular purposes as a perfume (Song of Sol. 3:6; 4:6, 14), but in the Bible it usually appears in religious contexts. Exod. 30:34–38 contains the recipe for a frankincense-based incense dedicated for ritual use. No other incense was permitted on the altar (Exod. 30:9), and secular use of the sacred recipe was absolutely forbidden (30:38). Frankincense was set beside the bread of the Presence (Lev. 24:7), and it accompanied cereal offerings (Lev. 2:1–2, 14–16; 6:14–18), but was prohibited with a sin offering (Lev. 5:11) or a cereal offering in the case of a suspected impurity (Num. 5:15). Offerings of frankincense were made at the temple (Isa. 43:23; 66:3; Jer. 17:26; 41:5) and stored for later use (Neh. 13:5, 9; 1 Chron. 9:29). Frankincense was among the gifts offered to the infant Jesus by the magi (Matt. 2:11). Rev. 18:13 lists frankincense as part of the cargo of the merchants who weep for the fallen city. See also Sheba, queen of; worship in the Hebrew Bible.

M.A.S.

freedman, freedwoman, a person in the Greco-Roman world who had been a slave, but had secured release from that status by purchasing freedom or working to achieve it. Freedmen and -women remained bound to their former masters in certain respects (see 1 Cor. 7:22). For example, if they died without an heir, their property was given to the master. They were not eligible for the higher ranks in the army, nor were they free to embark upon an official career of public office. A synagogue in Jerusalem had apparently been established for or by former slaves; Acts 6:9 reports that “some of those who belonged to the synagogue of the Freedmen” argued with Stephen. See also freeman, freewoman; liberation; slavery in the New Testament; Stephen.

freeman, freewoman, a person who had been born free. One of the fundamental distinctions of status in the Roman world was that of slave or free. Free persons might be either free by birth (Lat. ingenui), i.e., freemen or freewomen, or free because they had received a grant of freedom from slavery, i.e., freedmen or freedwomen (liberati). Children born after a slave had been freed were considered to be freeborn. Paul declared that in Christ the significance of such differences was nullified (Gal. 3:28), but he did not challenge the institution of slavery as such (1 Cor. 7:21–24). See also freedman, freedwoman.

P.P.

freewill offering. See sacrifice.

friend, friendship. In the Bible, friendship is primarily a relationship of mutual trust and congeniality. In many instances, friends are simply people who are allies, supporting each other in areas of mutual interest. Thus the “elders of Judah” and King Hiram of Tyre are listed among David’s friends (1 Sam. 30:26; 1 Kings 5:1; cf. 1 Chron. 12:7). In other cases, however, friendship seems to imply a more intimate bond, such as that exemplified by David and Jonathan (cf. 1 Sam. 18:1; 19:1; 20:17; 2 Sam. 1:26). Deut. 13:6–8 recognizes the danger of an “intimate friend” enticing one to worship foreign gods, implying that such an associate might have at least as much influence as one’s closest family members. Judah had a friend called Hirah the Adullamite, who was his only confidante in dealing with a potentially embarrassing sexual exploit (Gen. 38:12, 20). Amnon had a crafty friend named Jonadab, who, when he learned Amnon was in love with Tamar, arranged a way for him to seduce (or, as it turned out, rape) her. In a more positive vein, David’s friend Hushai the Archite remained loyal to him after Absalom’s rebellion and risked his own life to obtain information that would help David escape (2 Sam. 16:16–18; 17:5–22).

The benefits and requirements of friendship are among the subjects addressed in Proverbs and Sirach. Loyalty and steadfastness are marks of the true friend (Prov. 17:17; 18:24; Sir. 6:14–16), but poverty or adversity often reveals people to be friends in name only (Prov. 19:4, 6–7; Sir. 12:9; 13:21; 37:4–5). To be shunned or betrayed by one’s friends is a cause for shame and a mark of deep tragedy (Pss. 38:11; 41:9; 88:18; cf. Luke 21:16). One irony of the book of Job, however, is that his concerned friends, in frenetic attempts to effect his repentance, intensify rather than relieve his suffering. Friends are often depicted as people with whom one celebrates (Luke 15:5, 9, 29). Typically, friends are also expected to do favors for each other (Luke 11:5–8), so Jesus taught that instead of inviting one’s friends to a luncheon or banquet, one should invite those who will not be able to return the favor—the poor, crippled, lame, or blind (Luke 14:12–14).

The special bond between God and a person chosen as God’s instrument is occasionally described as friendship. God spoke to Moses face-to-face, “as one speaks to a friend” (Exod. 33:11), and Abraham is called God’s friend (2 Chron. 20:7; Isa. 41:8). Ps. 25:14 speaks of “friendship with the LORD” as an option for all who fear God (cf. James 2:23). In the NT, Jesus’s effort to demonstrate God’s mercy for social outcasts earns him the epithet “friend of tax collectors and sinners” (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:34). In the Gospel of John, two persons, Lazarus and the unnamed Beloved Disciple, are listed as persons for whom Jesus has special affection (11:3, 36; 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20). Jesus says that his disciples are his friends if they do what he commands; he calls them friends because he has revealed to them what he heard from his Father (15:14–15), and he tells them that the supreme manifestation of love is a person’s willingness to give his life for his friends (15:13).

S.K.W. /M.A.P.

fringes, or tassels, a common decoration on ancient Near Eastern garments. Deut. 22:12 states simply: “You shall make tassels on the four corners of the cloak with which you cover yourself.” This is elaborated in Num. 15:38–40, which says that the tassels—now called fringes—shall be of blue cord and function as a reminder to obey the commandments. In the Synoptic Gospels a woman with a hemorrhage touches the fringe of Jesus’s garment (Matt. 9:20; Luke 8:44), and other sick people wish to do likewise (Matt. 14:36; Mark 6:56). Jesus criticizes Pharisees for hypocrisy in wearing what he regards as ostentatious fringes (Matt. 23:5).

A.J.S.

frog. Although frogs were common in the lands of the Bible, they are only mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in one particular context: as a plague upon the Egyptians. God sent hoards of frogs out of the water and into their homes, even into Pharaoh’s bedroom (Exod. 8:1–15; alluded to in Pss. 78:45; 105:30). Pharaoh appealed to Moses and Aaron and promised to let the Israelite slaves go if the frogs were removed. However, after the frogs died, Pharaoh refused to let the Israelites leave. In the NT, frogs are mentioned in the book of Revelation: John sees “three foul spirits like frogs coming from the mouth of the dragon, from the mouth of the beast, and from the mouth of the false prophet” (16:13). See also plagues.

frontlet. See phylacteries.

fruit. According to Genesis, God created fruit trees on the third day (1:11). The Bible mentions grapes, figs, pomegranates, and olives as favorable produce of the promised land (Deut. 8:8). Melons, peaches, apricots, dates, and berries were also available to the Israelites. All of these may have been found in the wild, but orchards were also planted for the cultivation of popular fruit. Fruit could also be offered as a sacrifice to God (Lev. 27:30). See also apple; fig; food; pomegranate.

fuels, materials used to start and maintain fires. Wood and charcoal were the most common fuels in antiquity, the latter of which became more important with the advent of metallurgy and other crafts because of its higher burning temperature. Other fuels were thorny shrubs (Nah. 1:10), sticks, twigs, straw or stubble from the fields (Exod. 15:7), fat remains, date kernels, dung of cattle, bones of fishes, birds, and animals (Ezek. 24:5–10), logs (Gen. 22:3; Lev. 1:7), and chips from the carpenter’s shop (Wis. 13:12). Isaiah graphically describes the wrath of God and the horrors of an impending battle by indicating that blood-soaked boots and garments—and even people—will be used as fuel for the fires (9:5, 19). Ezekiel can likewise describe Israel as fuel for the fire (21:32) and compare the inhabitants of Jerusalem to a vine that has been used for fuel and is now charred and worthless (15:2–6). Elsewhere, Isaiah notes the irony of a person using half of a tree for fuel and worshiping an idol made from the other half (44:13–17). The NT knows braziers with charcoal or charcoal fires on the ground (John 18:18; 21:9).

R.A.C.

fuller, a person whose occupation it is to clean, whiten, bleach, thicken, shrink, or dye cloth. The fuller cared for newly shorn wool or woven garments. The process varied but generally included washing with lye (“fuller’s soap,” Mal. 3:2) and cleansing by pressure, usually the treading of feet (Exod. 19:10; 2 Sam. 19:24). The cloth was then spread out on the ground to be bleached by the sun. There was an area outside Jerusalem called the Fuller’s Field (2 Kings 18:17; Isa. 7:3; 36:2), designated for these professional laundering and cleaning services. Biblical writers found the fuller’s profession to be an apt metaphor for purity (Ps. 51:7; Jer. 2:22; 4:14; Zech. 3:3; Rev. 4:4). When Jesus was transfigured, his garments were whiter than anyone on earth could bleach them (Mark 9:3).

S.R.

funeral. See burial.

furnace, an installation for containing fire, whether for domestic or industrial purposes. The word is used in the Bible for various installations employed in daily life. The most common term for a furnace in the Bible is the Hebrew word tannur, which refers to an oven, used most often for baking bread (Ps. 21:9; Dan. 3:6). Other terms refer to a pottery or lime kiln (Gen. 19:28; Exod. 9:8; 18:18) or a smelter or refining installation for metals (Prov. 17:3; 27:21; Ezek. 22:20). Archaeological and metallurgical researchers in the Near East have uncovered numerous furnaces from the Chalcolithic period (fourth millennium BCE) at Teleilat et-Ghassul in the southeast Jordan rift, across the valley from Jericho, and at Abu Matar near Beer-sheba (ca. 3500 BCE), to the late medieval period (1450 CE) at Mugharat Warden in the Gilead mountains (Ajlun district) of Jordan. Perhaps the best examples of early copper furnaces are from Timna in the southern Negev. Iron-smelting furnaces were used in the Near East in the twelfth and eleventh centuries BCE. The furnace site at modern Tell el-Kheleifeh excavated by Nelson Glueck and once thought to be “the Pittsburgh of ancient Palestine” is now known to have been used as early as the Chalcolithic period (4000–3000 BCE) and as late as the Roman (63 BCE–324 CE), but is not likely to be Solomonic in origin. A number of smithing furnaces dating from twelfth century to 870 BCE were found at Gerar (modern Tell Jemmeh).

After Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by God, Abraham saw smoke rising from the land like a furnace (Gen. 19:28). In Dan. 3, King Nebuchadnezzar has three Jews who will not worship a golden statue thrown into a furnace of blazing fire; they are not burned, however, because they are protected by a fourth person in the fire who “has the appearance of a god” (3:25). Figuratively, furnaces are used with regard to two themes: destruction and refinement. With regard to the first, furnaces often symbolize God’s judgment (Ps. 21:9; Isa. 31:9; 33:14). In this sense, in the NT, they may represent the fires of hell (Matt. 13:42, 50; Rev. 9:2). In other contexts, though, furnace imagery is used to describe something that is pure or the process of purification itself. God tests the heart in the same way that a refiner purifies precious metals in a furnace (Prov. 17:3). Ps. 12:6 describes God’s promises as pure, like silver refined in a furnace. Likewise, 1 Pet. 1:7 likens faith that has been tested through suffering to gold that has been refined in a fire, picking up, perhaps, on Isaiah’s reference to the “furnace of adversity” (28:10; according to Prov. 27:21, being praised can have the same effect). A vision of Christ in Revelation describes his feet as being like burnished bronze refined in a furnace (1:15). See also metals.

R.A.C.

furnishings. See furniture.

furniture. In the Bible, references to furniture usually describe what the NRSV also calls the “equipment” or “furnishings” of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:9; 40:9; Num. 1:50; 3:8; 4:15, 26, 32; 7:1). These include “the table and its utensils, and the pure lampstand with all its utensils, and the altar of incense, and the altar of burnt offering with all its utensils, and the basin with its stand” (Exod. 31:8–9; cf. 35:14). In a similar vein, 1 Chron. 9:29 refers to the furniture of the temple.

Biblical references to furniture for private dwellings, however, are scant. Num. 19:18 notes that when a person becomes unclean through contact with a corpse or grave, all the furnishings of that person’s tent are to be sprinkled with water from the purification offering. Nehemiah says that when he became angry, he threw all the household furniture of Tobiah out of the room (Neh. 13:8), but he does not say what items of furniture this entailed. Likewise, Judith plundered the tent of Holofernes and took “all his silver dinnerware, his beds, his bowls, and all his furniture,” but the items of furniture are not mentioned (Jth. 15:11).

Archaeological and artistic evidence indicates that the most common furnishings in wealthy homes were tables, beds, chairs, and storage chests. Royal tomb fittings from Ur in Mesopotamia and from Egypt show that such items of wood were frequently inlaid, carved, gilded, and otherwise embellished with ivory, precious metal, and precious stones. That such opulence was imitated by Solomon may be reflected in the records concerning his palace (1 Kings 7:1–11; see also Amos 6:4a). The ordinary family furniture that would have been found in a typical home is less evident. Such a room as Jesus directed the disciples to locate (Mark 14:15; Luke 22:12) may have had a table and some stools, or it may have had only mats for seating, a lamp, and serving vessels for bread and wine. Other contexts suggest that furnishings in such a home included sleeping mats or rolls (Mark 2:9) and a niche or stand for a lamp (Matt. 5:15). Special accommodations for a guest might include a bed, table, chair, and lamp (2 Kings 4:10).

R.S.B.

future life. See eschatology; eternal life; Hades; heaven; hell.