Gu Yanwu wrote many poems during his lifetime, although poetry was not his major concern, and he was not regarded as a leading poet. As well as writing poems, he expressed views on the technical aspects of writing poetry and the role of poetry in society. These views are recorded in his essays and letters. In addition, his work on phonology is directly relevant to the composition of poetry. His surviving poems, which number over three hundred, are preserved in several works—specifically, the Gu Tinglin Shiwenji and the edition with detailed annotations by Xu Jia 徐嘉, the Gushi Jianzu in seventeen juan, printed in 1897. There are two relatively modern editions of his extant verse that include 332 poems arranged chronologically; in the more recent of the two, there is division according to five periods of his life after 1644. Gu destroyed all his poems written prior to that year as part of his response to the Manchu conquest.
The numbering of the poems is that in the “Shiji” section of the Shiwenji, but the two works just mentioned were used for the translations. The translated poems are grouped under the five periods of his post-1644 life.
These were particularly critical years for Gu Yanwu, as they were for the country as a whole. At a national level, in 1644 the capital fell, first to Li Zicheng, and then to the Manchus, who established the Qing dynasty. The last Ming emperor (Ming Si Zong) took his own life, and following the occupation of the capital, the Manchus continued their advance south. At a personal level, several of Gu’s relatives were either killed or injured during this advance, and his adoptive mother, Wang, so influential in his upbringing, took her own life in 1645 rather than live under the alien regime. During these years the direction of Gu’s life changed dramatically. He devoted himself primarily to attempting to restore the Ming dynasty. His first significant statecraft writings date from this time, while some of his poems from the period have a strong martial flavor.
1.1 LAMENT ON THE DEATH OF AN EMPEROR
If the divine vessel has no center, it will fall,
but brave and brilliant, descendants will follow.
The purple dragon has met his death by the sword,
and under the red sun the royal carriage ascends.
By the great decree the Yin king succeeds,
while the magic tally of Dai Di is received.
Heaven’s majesty respectfully issues a warning.
An ancestor’s traces continue in his virtues.
His place of repose displays the king’s frugality.
His carved bowls are images of his reverent fear.
His favor is like water offered in summer heat.
His cautious heart is like walking on ice in spring.
But the age fell into the path of decline;
so many men, but all just servile followers.
When he sought officers, he found only great rats;
managing the army, he found no hungry vultures.
Manchu invaders are every year more aggressive,
and rebellious peasants every year more numerous.
When closing the door, the iron bolt was lost,
while in the royal chamber bindings were loosed.
Mist rises to cover the Zhaoyang mirror,
as the wind shakes the Jiaguan lantern.
As foretold, the Yi Waters are exhausted,
and the Qi world’s collapse ensues.
The Way is blocked;
no recourse to a benevolent sage.
The times are perilous;
no help from officers and ministers.
The sadness is the same as at Wang Di’s transformation,
while the spirit looks to climb aboard white clouds.
There is a secret prophecy to return to Xinye,
while popular feelings turn toward Youreng.
In the king’s chamber his officers let their tears flow.
No road ahead—just the wailing at Qiaoling.
Note: This poem—the first in his collected verse—is a lament for the last Ming emperor. It is replete with literary and historical allusions. There are three distinct sections, as follows:
1. Optimism surrounding the ascent of Si Zong: The divine utensil or vessel is the emperor or empire (see Daodejing 29). The first two lines refer to Xi Zong’s death and Si Zong’s establishment as emperor in 1628. In 1627 the powerful and scheming eunuch Wei Zhongxian hanged himself and was disemboweled after his death. Dai Di was the son of the first Han emperor, Han Gao Zu, and was enfeoffed as Dai Wang.
2. The catastrophic deterioration that led to the fall of the last Ming emperor, Si Zong, and culminated in the end of the dynasty. Zhaoyang and Jiaguan are references to Han Wu Di’s palace. There is particularly a reference to Li Zicheng’s entering Beijing, which directly led to the emperor’s suicide by hanging.
3. Reference to previous similar events. Wang Di was the name given to a Shu king, Du Yu, a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, who ruled the territory of Shu under the Zhou. When his territory was saved from the ravages of a severe flood by Bie Ling, who cut a passage through the Wu mountains, Du Yu resigned in favor of the savior and retired to devote himself to study. The legend is that he turned into a nightjar. The second and third lines make reference to Zhuangzi 33 in relation to Si Zong’s dying in the service of the empire. The subsequent two lines refer to events during the restoration of the Han dynasty after Wang Mang’s usurpation. Xinye is the place where Guang Wu Di, first emperor of the Later Han, raised troops, and Youreng Shi was the mother of his son, Shao Kang. Qiaoling refers to the place of burial of the Yellow Emperor.
1.8 AUTUMN HILLS 1
Autumn hills, still more autumn hills,
and autumn rain joins the hills in red.
Yesterday, fighting was at the river mouth;
today, there is fighting on the hillsides.
I hear the right flank is already dispersed,
and see the left driven back and destroyed.
Flags and banners lie buried in the earth,
ladders and battering rams beat against the walls.
In a single morning Changping was lost,
and fallen bodies lie strewn all around.
Three hundred barges have left for the north;
barge after barge bearing fresh-faced girls.
Wu men crowd together with camels,
and pipes sound as they enter the Yan gates.
In an earlier time the men of Yan and Ying
were still to be found south of the city.
Note: In this description of war two eras are referred to: the present, in that the Manchus entered Beijing through the Yan gates and passes and the girls were captives being sent north to the capital; and the past, in that Changping was the site of a particularly bloody battle between the armies of Qin and Zhao in the third century B.C.E. in which a great number of Zhao soldiers were killed, while Yan (different from the previous Yan) and Ying were major cities in the southern state of Chu in ancient times.
Autumn hills, still more autumn rains,
and autumn flowers still retain their red.
A fierce wind blows over hills and mounds,
and flickering fires come to light the town.
The “heavenly dog” sinks behind Wu Gate.
A bright rainbow surrounds the fortifications.
How sad that in a previously prosperous land,
brambles and weeds spring up in a single day.
You can’t return the heads of the worthy men,
for their necks are now forever severed.
The men of Chu certainly set fire to Jun,
perhaps they liked the flavor of old sacrifices.
Gou Jian perched within the mountains,
and his countrymen were all prepared to die.
I breathe a sigh, thinking of men of old.
Survival or death really start from now.
Note: As with the first poem, the focus is on the depredations of war. The final two characters in lines 4 and 5 are taken as indicating Suzhou. The reference to the men of Chu is to events described in the Zuo Zhuan for the fifth year of Duke Ding. Gou Jian was the leader of the Yue forces in an ongoing battle with Wu.
1.31 THE JINGWEI BIRD
So many matters and no peace to be found,
why then do I let myself suffer in vain?
Going on so long with this little body,
bearing wood and stones in my mouth to the end.
My wish is to fill the great Eastern Sea.
Although my body decays,
my mind will never change.
But the great sea will never be leveled,
and my own heart will never find peace.
Ah me! Do you not see in the Western Hills,
the great throng of birds?
Magpies come, swallows depart,
each completing its own nest.
Note: The Jingwei was a mythical bird, said to be like a pheasant, which was the reincarnation of the daughter of the founding father of agriculture, Shen Nong, who perished while traveling by the Eastern Sea. According to the legend, the bird attempted to fill the sea by repeatedly carrying stones and wood in its beak that it dropped into the water. The translation takes Gu to be picturing himself as the Jingwei bird.
2. 1650–1656
During these years, as the prospect of a Ming restoration seemed increasingly remote, Gu started to focus more on how the problems related to the Manchu conquest and the resultant oppression of the Han Chinese majority might be addressed. He was also personally involved in a particularly unpleasant altercation over his family’s land that resulted in an attempt on his life. Gu and his associates killed his would-be assassin. For this, Gu was imprisoned, although he was freed after less than a year.
2.4 THE BOATMEN’S SONG 1
Our dwellings lie on a midriver island;
our oars dip briskly like free-flying birds.
Once Jin soldiers reached the northern bank,
by foot and carriage and surrounded Jin Shan.
2.4 THE BOATMEN’S SONG 2
In Zhenzhou city men are strong and resolute.
At Jingkou on the river there are no concerns.
Mooring my boat at night by the south bank,
I wonder if a leader of the southern court will come.
Note: These two short poems allude to the Manchu invasion and overthrow of the Ming by speaking of the earlier Mongol invasion and overthrow of the Song. Zhenzhou and Jingkou are two relatively southerly places of particular relevance to the earlier invasion.
2.5 WANDERING ABOUT
I wander between Wu and Gui;
which land is my land?
Climbing high, I gaze over the Nine Regions;
wilderness only as far as the eye can see.
Cold waters rise against the setting sun,
mingling together, fish and shrimps in a frenzy.
Night comes, but the hungry birds don’t rest,
while ever a crescent moon still gives them light.
As dawn breaks I climb Beigu Tower,
and in my sadness tears fall like rain.
Carefully I cut the hair at my temples,
and changed my attire to seem like a merchant.
Looking back five years have come and gone;
staying as I was will only lead to suffering.
There are fearful journeys to go by water and land,
with my enemies lurking always at the gates.
Not a single night have I spent in my village,
wandering far since I left my old home.
Time and again I have crossed passes and bridges,
nor have I avoided cities and townships.
A man of purpose harbors larger concerns,
but is there one single path he can choose?
Let me not be the instrument of lesser men.
Let me not throw rotting meat to hungry tigers.
All my great thoughts are on the central plain,
as I swear a vow on the bank of the great river.
The time will come for merit and reputation.
Then I shall whip my horse and follow Guang Wu.
Note: This poem was written in 1650 and signals Gu’s intention to travel north. There is also reference to his tonsorial modification to conform to the Manchu edict. Guang Wu was Li Tai Wang of the state of Han.
3. 1657–1662
These years saw the beginning of Gu’s extensive travels, which included the northern regions. To all intents and purposes, he left his home in Kunshan and embraced the wandering life from this point on. He had no fixed abode, staying with friends and associates for short periods while he thought, wrote, and gathered material for his various studies.
3.20 I LAUGH AT MYSELF
Another year and I laugh at myself, still I have not returned.
A cup of wine and a book of verse, what else shall I rely on?
As dawn breaks I call the boy and ask him to bring my horse;
before winter comes I must find a woman to mend my clothes.
I have no Yellow Ears to bring me a letter with news from home.
Now I am old and have time to think, I recall the mountains.
Then I am transformed and become a wild goose heading south.
Next I chase the west wind, flying on toward the Li Marshes.
Note: Yellow Ears was the legendary dog belonging to the poet Lu Ji (261–303). It is said to have borne messages between Lu, who had moved to Luoyang after the fall of Wu, and his younger brother Lu Yun, who had remained at home. The Li Marshes in Jiangsu province were the site of a famous ancient battle between the states of Wu and Yue.
3.49 BAIXIA
Fallen leaves invade Baixia, driven by winds from the west.
Again I come to this place, again climb up to look around.
Clear sounds of pipes, a bright moon, autumn drapes the walls.
The wilderness burns as cold stars come forth over the forest.
Rivers and hills go back to ancient times, wild peaks seek a master.
Year after year with weapons of war, we search each other out.
But if we each shed a handful of New Pavilion tears,
we will make the great river rise ten fathoms or more.
Note: Baixia was another name for the old southern capital Nanjing. This was where the alternative Ming government was briefly established after the fall of Beijing in 1644. North of the city was the important Baishi fortification. The New Pavilion (Xin Ting) was a meeting place for scholars.
3.50 AGAIN I VISIT THE SOUTHERN IMPERIAL TOMBS
Eunuchs and monks among my old acquaintances
were much surprised by my wanderings when we met.
They asked me why I would travel three thousand li,
north to the imperial tombs in spring and south in autumn.
4. 1663–1673
Now over fifty, his wandering life continued, as did his prolific writing. He was again in trouble with the law—this time as one of a group of writers and intellectuals accused of anti-Qing activities. He was held in custody for six months but then exonerated.
4.12 IN THE RAIN, SENT TO SHEN HANGUANG
Ten years ago we met at a bend in the river Fen,
new poems still fresh, the sound of the cold jade.
Before Xuanweng Mountain a hundred streams flow,
below Taitai temple a thousand trees stand.
Boarding our carriage we push against the rain,
but the horse neighs in distress,
worried by the silken saddle cloth.
Beyond the city wall at Bingzhou
no travelers to be seen,
so we two, like Liu and Zu,
can hear the night cock crow.
Note: Shen Hanguang (1620–1677) was a noted poet from the northern regions who turned increasingly to philosophy in his later writings. He, like Gu, never served in an official capacity under the Qing. Taitai was the spirit of the Fen River. Bingzhou was the old name for Taiyuan. The reference in the final lines is to Liu Kun and Zu Ti from the third and fourth centuries, who became great friends and strove to outdo each other in resisting foreign incursion.
4.52 HANDAN
In the kingdom of Zhao the land lies untended,
towns crowd together and wilderness fires burn.
In Pingyuan and Mafu,
everything lies buried under withered plants.
Starving birds peck at the winter snow,
a lone wild goose calls at the edge of town.
There may be plans, but what use will they be
to wipe clean a thousand bright swords?
Who will hear the Xiao king come,
leaving the north at Yuyang with brave men?
Lying down by day near Wenming Hall,
while the ordinary people weep and wail.
I sigh—again what is there to say?
All I can do is deal with what I meet!
Note: Handan was the capital of the state of Zhao during the Warring States period (it is a city in present-day Hebei). Pingyuan and Mafu were places within the state. The fourth couplet is a reference to the Zuo Zhuan for the twelfth year of Duke Wen. The Xiao king is Han Guangwu Di, who restored the Han dynasty in 25 C.E.
5. 1674–1682
This was the last decade of Gu’s life, and his writings necessarily reflect the trials of growing old. Although he continued to travel widely, he did establish a study in Shanxi province through the good offices of a friend. He also acquired a concubine. His wife, who had remained in Kunshan throughout Gu’s many years of travel, died during these years. These last years saw him become more involved in family matters generally. In 1682, as he was setting out on yet another journey, he fell while mounting his horse and died from his injuries a few days later.
5.9 HARVESTING MY CROP BELOW CHANGBAI MOUNTAIN
Bearing my plow I reach the eastern state.
Year after year I come and then depart.
The corn droops as the day’s light fails,
fruit falls and wild birds come to rest.
I eat what I grow, retaining my integrity;
to rely on others is a shameful thing.
The road leads away to Yellow Turban city,
and there is only Zheng Gong mountain.
Note: This poem relates to Gu’s agricultural venture late in his life and the wider significance of being able to provide for oneself. Ku Wei-ying, in his dissertation, attaches particular importance to the complex allusion in the final lines. He quotes from the Asahi Shinbun as follows: “The main theme in this poem is Gu’s emphasis on agriculture as the basic occupation and his use of an agricultural economy as the main force for resisting the Manchu regime.” Yellow Turban city is a reference to both the Yellow Turban rebellion in Han times and a city of importance in the Northern Qi period. Zheng Gong refers to the noted Han scholar Zheng Xuan, who was, in many ways, the model for the “Han learning” of the Qing period.
5.59 SENT TO THE MAN OF LETTERS KANG NAIXIN ON RETURNING TO HEYANG
The house where Zixia read his books
is by the riverbank looking out on all sides.
The hills follow Thunder Mountain and depart,
the waves go away from Dragon Gate and return.
Sadly the great Way will be discarded;
abandoning the classics doubles the sorrow.
If there is no prince who truly loves the ancients,
who will there be to clear away moss and lichen?
Note: Kang Naixin (1643–1707) was a scholar who loved the ancients. Zixia is Pu Shang, one of the leading Confucian disciples. He is associated with one of two stone cottages on the banks of a tributary of the Yellow River as described in the Water Classic.
5.60 AN OLD FRIEND COMES AND WE SIT TOGETHER COMPOSING POEMS
Being of no use is what we relied on
to let us live out our allotted spans.
It is what let us perch so long
beside the swift rushing torrent.
We send word to our old friends
that we are happy in ourselves.
Casting off the green and purple—
approaching the world of spirits.
Note: This is a reference to the oft-repeated story from the early Daoist classic the Zhuangzi about an old tree, bent and gnarled, that has been able to avoid the axe of woodman or carpenter because its timber is taken to be useless. “Green and purple” refers to the life of an official.
5.67 MOURNING
I sit alone beside the cold window looking out
at the chopper and block.
What words are there to describe growing old?
Where now are the vows of our young hearts?
Who knows where the wandering man went
when he left you for the edge of heaven?
Who can bear the emptiness
of inner apartments
in the depth of night?
Note: This relates to Gu’s wife, who remained at home in Kunshan during the many years of his travels. The “wandering man” is of course Gu himself.