Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, known as Mahatma Gandhi, led India in the struggle for racial equality. His belief in social change through nonviolence has served as inspiration to many civil rights movements throughout the world.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town in India. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was a high-ranking government official, called a diwan. His mother, Putlibai, was his father’s fourth wife. Mohandas’s family was of a distinguished social class.
Gandhi’s mother and father read him many books. Among his favorites were a series of epic narratives about two characters, Shravana and King Harishchandra, whose adventures promoted the values of truth and love. These characters had a lasting impact on Mohandas. He sometimes pretended to be the king, often memorizing some of his favorite quotations from the stories.
Oldest known picture of Gandhi, at the age of seven in 1876
When Gandhi was thirteen years old, his parents arranged for him to marry a fourteen-year-old girl named Kasturbai Makhanji. Friends called her Kasturba for short. Family members and Gandhi lovingly called her “Ba.”
It was a common custom that wealthy parents chose wives and husbands for their children, and saw to it that the children married at a young age to ensure these unions. When Gandhi was grown up, he once recalled his and Ba’s wedding, which took place in May 1883. He said, “As we didn’t know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives.”
Two years after they married, Gandhi and Ba’s first child was born. Gandhi became a father at fifteen. Sadly, the baby only lived a few days. Gandhi’s father also died in 1885.
Gandhi, his wife, Ba, and an unknown child in 1913
Gandhi was an average student in school. One of his report cards said he was good at English, fair in math, weak in geography. And he was known by his teachers to have bad handwriting. One area in which Gandhi excelled was in his conduct. Teachers valued the boy’s demeanor and manners.
When Gandhi had completed much of his primary education, he and Ba began to have more children. Gandhi was the proud patriarch of four boys by the age of thirty-one. His sons’ names were Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas, and Devdas.
Gandhi attended Samaldas College in Bhavnagar, a city in the Indian state of Gujarat. Academics did not come easily to him, though he managed to pass the required exam at Samaldas, enabling him to attend law school. Despite Gandhi’s academic struggles, his family wanted him to get an education that would enable him to become a barrister, so that he could follow in his father’s footsteps as a government official.
Gandhi studied law at the University of Bombay for one year. He then went to London to continue his studies at the University College of London. Before leaving India, Gandhi made a vow to his mother that he would adhere to the values set forth in Hinduism. This meant he would not eat meat or drink alcohol. While a law student, Gandhi joined the Vegetarian Society and was later elected to its executive committee. At that time, London had only a few vegetarian restaurants, which Gandhi visited frequently.
As a member of the Vegetarian Society, Gandhi met others who shared his values. Some of these men and women belonged to the Theosophical Society, an organization committed to unity among people of different races. Members of the Society invited Gandhi to read a book of scripture called the Bhagavad Gita. The book further sparked Gandhi’s interest in religious ideals.
The Bhagavad Gita
In 1891, Gandhi graduated from law school and was admitted to the bar. Gandhi returned to Bombay, where he received bad news. His mother had died. It was around this time that Gandhi read an essay entitled “Civil Disobedience” by the philosopher Henry David Thoreau. The essay’s emphasis on the principles of peaceful resistance inspired Gandhi. Shortly after his return from London, Gandhi met a man named Raychandbhai Ravajibhai Mehta. Mehta was a prominent philosopher and scholar who stayed calm, even when others’ tempers flared. Gandhi and Mehta became good friends. As Gandhi’s role as a spiritual leader grew, Mehta served as Gandhi’s mentor.
In 1893, Gandhi went to South Africa to practice law at an Indian firm in the region of Natal. Ba and their sons stayed behind while Gandhi established himself in his law career. In Natal, Gandhi suffered several experiences with racism.
Once, even though he had a first-class train ticket, he was thrown off that train because of his skin color. Soon after that, Gandhi was brutally beaten by a stagecoach driver when he refused to leave his seat so that a white passenger could ride. While traveling, Gandhi was often turned away from hotels that would not admit Indian customers.
Gandhi couldn’t even dress as he wished. One day, when he was in court conducting legal business, a magistrate ordered Gandhi to take off his turban. The turban was part of Gandhi’s traditional Indian dress. He refused to remove it.
These injustices encouraged Gandhi to take action. He wasn’t the only Indian person in South Africa to suffer the slights of prejudice. Indians were constantly ridiculed because of their skin color and customs, and were not permitted to vote in South Africa’s elections.
Gandhi had had enough. In 1894, he helped found the Natal Indian Congress, an organization that galvanized Indian people throughout South Africa, with the purpose of raising awareness of discriminatory practices against Indian people, and seeking ways to end them.
Gandhi (standing, center) with cofounders of the Natal Indian Congress in 1895
Not long after Gandhi arrived in South Africa, he was attacked by a mob of racist men who tried to lynch him! Calling upon the ideals set forth in Henry David Thoreau’s writings, Gandhi did not press charges against the people who had wronged him. It was around this time that Gandhi developed the philosophy of satyagraha, a term that means “devotion to truth” and draws its strength from the force of love. Gandhi wrote, “The force of love by peace always wins over violence.” By not striking back at those who had abused him, Gandhi was making one of his first bold moves toward addressing violence through nonviolence.
Gandhi often looked to Raychandbhai for guidance in the face of troubling times. Raychandbhai served as a great source of wisdom by reminding Gandhi about the importance of nonviolent resistance.
In 1907, the South African government issued the Black Act, which required all Indians living in South Africa to register their citizenship, get fingerprinted, and keep registration documents on them at all times. Under the act, Indian marriages were not recognized.
In response to this unfair treatment, hundreds of Indian people gathered in Johannesburg, South Africa, to protest. Gandhi encouraged the Indian people to defy the act, but to do so without violence. He told them of his philosophy called satyagraha. For Indians who chose to adopt satyagraha, this meant willingly accepting the government’s punishments while not striking back in a violent fashion. Gandhi and thousands of followers of satyagraha organized strikes, refused to get fingerprinted, and burned their registration cards. In adhering to satyagraha, they never brought physical harm to their oppressors.
Even with peace leading their actions, these people were jailed, flogged, and, in some instances, killed for refusing to follow the government’s orders. These events went on for several years.
The violent acts served to repress peaceful Indian protesters. At the same time, though, there was a public outcry for help to put a stop to this struggle. Jan Christian Smuts, a South African government leader, was forced to negotiate a compromise with Gandhi and his followers. The compromise included the recognition of Indian marriages and the end of an existing poll tax for Indians.
For Gandhi, this was a small victory. It showed him and those who believed in satyagraha that nonviolence could bring about positive changes.
A meeting in Verulam where he was called “Mahatma,” 1914
Gandhi lived in South Africa for twenty-one years. His experiences strengthened his ideals and helped him develop strong leadership abilities. Life in South Africa also underscored the power of “Indianness” for Gandhi. He came to see that, despite differing religious beliefs and social classes, Indian people could be united under a common cause. This understanding encouraged Gandhi to return to India around 1915.
In India, Gandhi put his satyagraha beliefs into practice, proving that his commitment to the peaceful resolution of conflicts worked. Gandhi encouraged Indians to seek independence from British rule. Gandhi also wanted to abolish India’s strict social class hierarchy, known as the “caste system.” Under the caste system, priests were considered to be the highest social level, princes and soldiers came next, then laborers, and at the very bottom were the poorest Indians, who were considered the “untouchables.” To Gandhi, the untouchables were “children of God.” He wanted to get rid of the prejudice that surrounded the caste system so that everyone would be considered equal.
In 1918, several events happened that gave Gandhi the opportunity to apply his pacifist ideals. In Champaran, a district located in India’s state of Bihar, farmers on plantations worked their crops under oppressive conditions. These men and women were forced by British landowners to grow indigo, rather than food crops that they could sell at fair wages and that would yield food to sustain them. Many of them were peasants who lived in poverty.
In the city of Ahmedabad, a labor dispute erupted between the management of several textile mills and the mill workers. At the same time, the district of Kheda was hit by floods and famine, causing great destruction for the local peasants. These people asked the British government for an exemption from the burden of the increasing taxes that were being forced upon them. The government denied their request.
Gandhi launching his campaign against England
By this time, Gandhi had become widely known as a peace leader. His reputation was growing through word of mouth, and also by mentions in British newspapers. In each of these instances, the Indian people called upon Gandhi to help, which he did by protesting in a nonviolent manner. The indigo farmers refused to lash out, and in time they won concessions from their bosses. In Ahmedabad, Gandhi intervened and worked out a compromise that involved increased wages for the workers. In Kheda, Gandhi launched a campaign in which peasants signed a petition refusing to pay any of their revenues to their landowners for tax purposes.
Gandhi’s reputation and power grew. Rabindranath Tagore, one of India’s most noted writers, gave Gandhi the name Mahatma, or “Great Soul.” This was a name given only to those who were considered saintly.
Under Gandhi’s leadership, the Indian people adhered to satyagraha beliefs. They continued to press forward by refusing to follow oppressive British rule. This made the British government very angry.
In 1919, a disturbance erupted in Amritsar, a city in northwestern India. British soldiers opened fire. They killed nearly four hundred unarmed Indian men and women, and wounded more than a thousand others in what was called the Amritsar Massacre.
This brutal event spurred Gandhi into further action. He brought forth a nonviolent movement known as a hartal, which is a nationwide strike. This hartal encouraged Indians to turn away from British institutions, to not patronize British establishments, and to become increasingly self-sufficient. As more and more Indians withdrew their resources from the British economy, India began to shut down. Gandhi told his people, “Nonviolence acts continuously, silently, and ceaselessly till it has transformed the diseased mass into a healthy one.”
In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested. He was forced to appear in court where he was tried for treason — defying the government, promoting nonviolence, and distributing anti-violence literature. A judge sentenced Gandhi to six years in prison.
Though he was jailed, Gandhi was pleased with the progress that had been made in weakening British oppression against Indian people. Satyagraha continued to gain followers. Gandhi considered his imprisonment a spiritual act. It meant that the messages of peace he was promoting were being heard.
While in jail, Gandhi’s health suffered. He was released from prison in 1924 after suffering an attack of appendicitis.
Gandhi’s health did not impair his ability to seek equality. Part of his struggle was to promote peace within the Indian community. Some Indian Muslims were opposed to the beliefs and practices of Indian Hindus. Riots were beginning to break out between them. Gandhi believed that if Indians were to succeed in gaining freedom from British oppression, they needed to become a strong unified force.
In the fall of 1924, Gandhi began a twenty-one-day fast. His quiet yet powerful action was called “the Great Fast of 1924.” Gandhi would not eat until the Muslims and Hindus made an effort to get along. The fast worked, but only temporarily. Fearing Gandhi might die from malnourishment and his weakened health, the two religious groups behaved peacefully toward each other for a time.
Gandhi fasting for Hindu-Muslim unity in 1924
In December 1928, Gandhi and the Indian National Congress (INC) issued a new request to the British government. Gandhi wanted India to achieve independent status by December 31, 1929. But the British government took no action to make this happen.
Gandhi would not give up. On January 26, 1930, he and Hindu Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru issued a declaration of independence. With this document, they sought to peacefully bring together the Indian people who had become divided along religious lines. Each year, as Hindus and Muslims disagreed, the British government became stronger. This was especially evident in the many taxes Indian people were made to pay.
Gandhi with Jawaharlal Nehru in 1930
The tax on salt was the most relevant. Salt was a necessity for Indians, who used it to cook and preserve food. Salt laws made it illegal for Indian people to own salt that had not been sold or made by the British government. Adding to this, the British put a heavy tax on salt. The government was getting richer from salt profits while India’s people were becoming poorer and more disenfranchised.
On March 12, 1930, Gandhi began the Salt March — a national campaign to boycott salt and the taxes paid on this valuable resource. Scores of men and women started out with Gandhi, walking solemnly for over two hundred miles. They traveled from Sabarmati to the ocean town of Dandi. With every step under the scorching sun, more people joined the march until thousands created a parade of devoted followers to Gandhi’s latest satyagraha mission. The massive group arrived in Dandi on the night of April 5. When the sun rose on April 6, Gandhi knelt on the beach to pick up a pinch of salt. By doing this, he had broken British salt laws. But his action showed how unfair the laws were.
The Salt March inspired Indian people to collect loose salt for themselves. Indians began selling their own salt, all the while ignoring the laws that prevented them from doing so. The British tried to stop this mass action by arresting people. But as salt sales increased, it became harder to keep the Indian citizens down. Mahatma Gandhi, the great soul, had once again led his people peacefully yet forcefully.
Gandhi picking up salt after the Salt March
In an attempt to take the protest further, Gandhi announced his plans to stage a march on Dharasana Salt Works, a salt company owned by the British government. Before Gandhi could rally the marchers, the British government arrested him. He was not granted a trial and was put in jail immediately. The government believed that imprisoning Gandhi would halt the march. But Gandhi’s detainment had the opposite effect — it spurred his followers into further action. Led by Indian poet Sarojini Naidu, thousands of marchers pressed on peacefully.
What came next was a brutal attack on the protesters. When the first line of protesters advanced quietly, the police and military beat them back with wooden clubs. Some marchers went down right away. Others struggled, but remained standing. The police kept beating.
More and more groups of devoted Indians advanced, one group at a time, until all had been pounded to the ground, bloodied and bruised, many of them knocked unconscious. Not once did the marchers attempt to strike back in a violent fashion. They clung to satyagraha even as they were being dragged to jail. Thankfully, newspaper reporters captured images and wrote articles about the horrors inflicted by the British. This press coverage showed the world what was happening and caused a public outcry to stop the brutality.
In an attempt to resolve the salt conflict, Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India, met with Gandhi. Each leader wanted what they believed was best for their people. After hours of talking, Gandhi and Lord Irwin came to an agreement called the Delhi Pact, more commonly known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed by Gandhi and Lord Irwin on March 5, 1931.
Under the Delhi Pact, Lord Irwin promised Gandhi that the government would allow for limited salt production among the Indian people and would release the jailed protesters — if Gandhi agreed to call off the Salt March completely. Many Indians didn’t want Gandhi to give up the march so quickly. But Gandhi felt that Lord Irwin had offered a compromise that, while not ideal, was a step closer to progress. He agreed to the terms set forth by Lord Irwin.
Lord Irwin, viceroy of India, with his entourage in 1928
In the eyes of many Indians, his agreeing to the compromise was a mistake. Though Gandhi felt sure of his actions, he would later say, “Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make mistakes.”
As World War II raged, the conflict between Hindus and Muslims grew. Most Indians were of the Hindu faith, and many Muslims worried that an independent India would weaken their power. The opposing factions entered into an all-out civil war. Violence tore through the countryside, with people killing each other and setting villages on fire.
Gandhi was greatly saddened by these events. In 1944, after being released from yet another stint in prison, he traveled on foot with no shoes, wearing only his loincloth, to encourage the people to seek peace. When Gandhi entered a village or town, he was regarded as a holy man. People put down their weapons and, for a time, stopped the violent destruction of their neighbors. But this was only temporary. Fighting would soon start up again. One man, even a “great soul,” could not solve the long-standing struggles of warring factions by himself.
After years of resisting, the British finally granted India its independence on August 12, 1947. At that time, Great Britain also gave freedom to Pakistan, a newly formed Muslim country. Millions of Muslims fled India to go to Pakistan. Hindus who were in Pakistan walked to India. Winding lines of refugees snaked across the lands. Millions of people fled their homes in search of an uncertain future. While refugees covered the hills and arid soil, Muslims and Hindus fought with a vengeance.
Finally, India was free, but it was now a divided country, oppressed by its own internal violence.
Gandhi had learned from past experience that fasting was an effective means for stopping violence and unifying people. On January 13, 1948, Gandhi began another fast. He was now seventy-eight years old and very frail. He called this his “greatest fast” and made it known that he was steadfast in this spiritual action.
Muslim and Hindu leaders feared for Gandhi’s life. Just a few days into Gandhi’s fast, he was close to dying. Five days after Gandhi’s fast began, one hundred representatives — Muslim and Hindu — came together quickly. They presented their ideas to Gandhi, promising him they would create a peaceful resolution. When they signed a statement agreeing to live in “perfect amity,” Gandhi ended his fast.
Gandhi listening to the Muslim community’s grievances
Gandhi’s commitment to peace remained unwavering, even while many were angry that India had become so divided. Some believed this was Gandhi’s fault. Hindu and Muslim radical groups publicly shared their negative views about Gandhi. Each group clung to the belief that theirs was the best religion. This only served to increase the antagonism between Indians of different faiths.
One evening, as the sun began to dip on the horizon, Gandhi met with India’s home minister and deputy prime minister, Vallabhbhai Patel, a friend and supporter of Gandhi’s satyagraha values. It was January 30, 1948. The two men enjoyed their talk, but it went on longer than expected. His watch, fastened to a chain, hung from the folds of his loincloth. The timepiece showed he was running late for a prayer gathering. This was not like Gandhi. He was usually very punctual. It was now a few minutes after five o’clock.
As Gandhi walked toward the garden where the prayer meeting would be held, crowds of people greeted him. Some chanted his name. Others, so moved by his presence, could not find words to express their admiration. Though he was elderly and very thin, Gandhi radiated gentle benevolence.
A Hindu man came out from the crowd. He approached Gandhi with what appeared to be goodwill. His name was Nathuram Godse. Godse bowed in front of Gandhi, briefly lowering his eyes. Gandhi returned the gesture, bowing courteously. Then, in a swift, jerky move, Godse lifted a gun and shot Gandhi three times in the chest, near his heart. Gandhi fell to the ground. His timepiece smacked onto the dirt. It was 5:12 P.M.
Softly, Gandhi uttered his final words, delivered to his assassin: “Rama, rama, rama — I forgive you, I love you, I bless you.” Even as he died, “the great soul” was filled with love and peace.
Nathuram Godse was convicted and sentenced to death a year later. Had Gandhi lived, he would have opposed Godse’s death penalty. Gandhi rejected death as a punishment. He once said, “An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind.”
Mahatma Gandhi was cremated. His family chose to mix his ashes with sweet rose petals. The ashes were sprinkled among three rivers in India — the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Sarasvati. As a person of deep spiritualism, Gandhi kept few material possessions. After Gandhi’s death, his family saved the few items he owned. These included three pet monkeys, a tin bowl that he’d kept from one of his prison stays, his watch, a pair of rickety eyeglasses, and his only pair of sandals.
What remained of Gandhi was a love so powerful that it has touched millions. Gandhi would not give entrance to resentments, cruelty, or hate. He believed these negative emotions distorted one’s ability to think clearly. Gandhi prayed for good to come to all people, especially those who detested him. Gandhi has been called “the Father of India,” and his abiding commitment to peace continues to resonate in the hearts of people throughout the world.