Ecosystem Edge: Sustaining Competitiveness in the Face of Disruption

Chapter 1

1. Mohanbir Sawhney, “Why Investors Should Think Twice before Buying into Tesla,” Fortune, April 11 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/04/11/tesla-market-cap-general-motors-ford/.

2. Bill Ford, “A Future beyond Traffic Gridlock,” online video, March 2011, TED Talks, https://www.ted.com/talks/bill_ford_a_future_beyond_traffic_gridlock.

3. Ernest Gundling, “Disruption in Detroit: Ford, Silicon Valley, and Beyond,” Berkeley Haas Case Series, University of California, July 1, 2016, http://cases.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/best_case_award/2016_2_ford_5875.pdf.

4. Gundling, “Disruption in Detroit.”

5. “AlixPartners Study Indicates Greater Negative Effect of Car Sharing on Vehicle Purchases,” AlixPartners, press release, February 5, 2014, http://legacy.alixpartners.com/en/MediaCenter/PressReleases/tabid/821/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/950/AlixPartners-Study-Indicates-Greater-Negative-Effect-of-Car-Sharing-on-Vehicle-Purchases.aspx#sthash.5aEKm3np.m8yxsDxo.dpbs.

6. Gundling, “Disruption in Detroit.”

7. Mike Timmermann, “These Major Retailers Have Closed More than 5,000 Stores in 2017,” Clark, December 13, 2017, http://clark.com/shopping-retail/major-retailers-closing-2017/.

8. “Five Industries under Threat from Technology,” Financial Times, December 26, 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/b25e0e62-c6ca-11e6–9043-7e34c07b46ef.

9. Aircraft power by the hour is a term trademarked by Rolls Royce, but widely used in the aircraft engine industry to describe a programme to provide the aircraft operator with a fixed engine maintenance cost over an extended period of time.

10. “Speed to Scale,” Future Agenda, https://www.futureagenda.org/insight/speed-to-scale.

11. Kevin Kelleher, “How Facebook Learned from MySpace’s Mistakes, Fortune, November 19, 2010, http://fortune.com/2010/11/19/how-facebook-learned-from-myspaces-mistakes/.

12. All currency is in US dollars unless stated otherwise.

13. “Culture and Values,” Alibaba Group, https://www.alibabagroup.com/en/about/culture.

14. Peter Williamson and Michelle Wang, “Alibaba Group’s Taobao: From Intermediary to Ecosystem Enabler,” University of Cambridge, 2014, Judge Business School, case 10 (Case Centre case number 314-139-1, https://www.thecasecentre.org).

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Ron Adner, “Ecosystem as Structure: An Actionable Construct for Strategy,” Journal of Management 43, no. 1 (2017): 39‒58

20. Marco Iansiti and Roy Levien, The Keystone Advantage: What the New Dynamics of Business Ecosystems Mean for Strategy, Innovation and Sustainability, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press; Charles Dhanarg and Arvind Pharke, “Orchestrating Innovation Networks,” Academy of Management Review 31, no. 3 (2006): 659‒69.

21. David B. Yoffie and Mary Kwak, “With Friends Like These: The Art of Managing Complementors,” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 9 (September 2006): 88‒98, 157, https://hbr.org/2006/09/with-friends-like-these-the-art-of-managing-complementors; Ron Adner, “Match Your Innovation Strategy to Your Innovation Ecosystem,” Harvard Business Review, April 2006, 107.

22. James F. Moore, “Predators and Prey: A New Ecology of Competition,” Harvard Business Review 71, no. 3 (May‒June 1993): 75‒86.

23. Adner, “Ecosystem as Structure.”

Chapter 2

1. James F. Moore, “Predators and Prey: A New Ecology of Competition,” Harvard Business Review, May/June 1993, https://hbr.org/1993/05/predators-and-prey-a-new-ecology-of-competition.

2. Michael G. Jacobides, Carmel Cennamo, and Annabelle Gawer, “Towards a Theory of Ecosystems,” Strategic Management Journal 39, no. 8 (March 2018): 2255–76

3. James M. Acheson, The Lobster Gangs of Maine (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998); James M. Acheson, Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster Industry (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2004).

4. “All about Lobsters,” Gulf of Maine Research Institute, accessed August 8, 2018, http://www.gma.org/lobsters/allaboutlobsters/lobsterhistory.html#sthash.suicOB1J.dpuf.

5. David Sneath, “State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia,” Science, August 21, 1998, 1147–48.

6. Elinor Ostrom et al., “Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges,” Science, April 9, 1999, 278–82.

7. Kazuo Kadokawa, “Applicability of Marshall’s Agglomeration Theory to Industrial Clustering in the Japanese Manufacturing Sector: An Exploratory Factor Analysis Approach,” Journal of Regional Analysis and Policy 41, no. 2 (2011): 83–100.

8. Paul Krugman, “Increasing Returns and Economic Geography,” Journal of Political Economy 99, no. 3, (June 1991): 483–99.

9. Michael Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations (New York: Free Press, 1990).

10. Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).

11. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy, trans. Eden and Cedar Paul (New York: Hearst’s International Library Co., 1915); Max Weber, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by Hans Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958).

12. Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science, December 13, 1968, 1243–48.

13. Elinor Ostrom et al., “Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges,” Science, April 9, 1999, 278–82.

14. Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984).

15. Paul S. Adler, “Market, Hierarchy, and Trust: The Knowledge Economy and the Future of Capitalism,” Organization Science 12, no. 2(2001): 215–34.

16. Jacobides et al., “Towards a Theory of Ecosystems.”

17. Charles Dhanarg and Arvind Pharke, “Orchestrating Innovation Networks,” Academy of Management Review 31, no. 3 (2006): 659–69.

18. These opportunities may be more restricted by data privacy laws in some jurisdictions, such as Europe where companies are required to conform to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

19. Zheng He, Lez Rayman-Bacchus, and Yiming Wu, “Self-Organization of Industrial Clustering in a Transition Economy: A Proposed Framework and Case Study Evidence from China,” Research Policy 40, no. 9 (November 2011): 1280–94;

Lee Fleming and Olav Sorenson, “Technology as a Complex Adaptive System: Evidence from Patent Data,” Research Policy 30, no. 7 (August 2001): 1019–39; Elizabeth Garnsey, “The Genesis of the High Technology Milieu: A Study in Complexity,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 22, no. 3 (September 1998): 361–77; Martin Kenney, Understanding Silicon Valley: The Anatomy of an Entrepreneurial Region (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000).

20. Alfred Marshall, “Industrial Organization, Continued: The Concentration of Specialized Industries in Particular Localities,” chap. 79 in Principles of Economics, 8th edition (London: Macmillan, 1920).

21. Ron Adner, “Ecosystem as Structure: An Actionable Construct for Strategy,” Journal of Management 43, no. 1 (2017): 39–58.

22. Niklas Zennstroem, “Silicon Valley Is No Longer the Only Game in Town,” Financial Times, January 7, 2014, https://www.ft.com/content/156569c4–6c06–11e3–85b1–00144feabdc0.

23. Julian Birkinshaw and Simon Best, “Responding to a Potentially Disruptive Technology: How Big Pharma Embraced Biotechnology,” California Management Review 60, no. 4 (2018): 74–100

24. David B. Yoffie and Mary Kwak, “With Friends Like These: The Art of Managing Complementors,” Harvard Business Review, September 2006, 89–98.

25. Jack Fuller, Michael G. Jacobides, and Martin Reeves, “The Myths and Realities of Business Ecosystems,” MIT-Sloan Management Review, February 25, 2019. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/the-myths-and-realities-of-business-ecosystems/

Chapter 3

1. Data about Dassault Systèmes is based on published materials, interviews, and their own website: www.3DS.com.

2. “Dassault Systèmes and National Research Foundation Collaborate to Develop the Virtual Singapore Platform,” Dassault Systèmes press release, June 16, 2015, https://www.3ds.com/press-releases/single/dassault-systemes-and-national-research-foundation-collaborate-to-develop-the-virtual-singapore-pla/.

3. “Bernard Charlès,” Compass, https://compassmag.3ds.com/4/all/bernard-charles-bernard-charles

4. “China’s Didi Bets $1Billion on Auto-Services Sector,” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 2018.

5. Ranjay Gulati and David Kletter, “Shrinking Core, Expanding Periphery,” California Management Review 47, no. 3 (April 1, 2005): 77‒104.

6. Ibid.

7. Chihmao Hsieh et al., “Does Ownership Affect the Variability of the Production Process? Evidence from International Courier Services,” Organization Science 21, no. 4 (July‒August 2010): 892‒912; Ranjay Gulati, Paul R. Lawrence, and Phanish Puranam, “Adaptation in Vertical Relationships: Beyond Incentive Conflict.” Strategic Management Journal 26, no. 12 (December 2005): 415–40.

8. M. Peltoniemi, “Preliminary Theoretical Framework for the Study of Business Ecosystems,” Emergence: Complexity & Organization 8, no. 1 (2006): 10‒19.

9. See the Dassault Systèmes website, www.3DS.com.

10. “Dassault Systèmes Introduces a New Release of 3DSwYm, Its Social Innovation Application,” Dassault Systèmes press release, April 12, 2012. https://www.3ds.com/press-releases/single/dassault-systemes-introduces-a-new-release-of-3dswym-its-social-innovation-application/.

11. C. H. Loch, A. De Meyer, and M. T. Pich, Managing the Unknown: A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects. London: John Wiley and Sons, 2006.

12. W. B. Arthur, “Increasing Returns and the New World of Business,” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 4 (July‒August 1996): 100–109.

13. “Renault Chooses Dassault Systèmes Full V6 PLM to Improve the Company’s Productivity and Product Quality,” Dassault Systèmes press release, June 29, 2009, https://www.3ds.com/press-releases/single/renault-chooses-dassault-systemes-full-v6-plm-to-improve-the-companys-productivity-and-product-q/

14. Robert F. Higgins and Erin Trimble, “athenahealth’s More Disruption Please Program,” Harvard Business School Case 816-060 (Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, November 18, 2015), 6.

15. “Creating a Disrupter Ecosystem: How Athenahealth Did It,” Innovation Leader, https://www.innovationleader.com/how-athenahealth-created-a-community-around-disruptive-innovation/.

16. “More Disruption Please Datasheet,” athenahealth, accessed August 8, 2018, http://www.athenahealth.com/~/media/athenaweb/files/data-sheets/mdp_datasheet

17. Higgins and Trimble, “athenahealth’s More Disruption Please Program.”

18. A. Agrawal, A. De Meyer, and L. Van Wassenhove, “Managing Value in Supply Chains: Case Studies on the Sourcing Hub Concept,” California Management Review 56, no. 2 (2014): 23‒54.

19. The information about Amazon in this and following chapters is based on a combination of interviews and published materials.

20. Julia Kirby and Thomas A. Stewart, “The Institutional Yes: An Interview with Jeff Bezos,” Harvard Business Review, October 2007.

21. See Chris Seper, “Is the athenahealth Accelerator Term Sheet Disruptive or Just Awful?” MedCityNews, May 14, 2015, http://medcitynews.com/2015/05/more-disruption-please-term-sheet/; Stephani Baum, “athenahealth’s More Disruption Please Accelerator Gives Startups Another Way to Shake Up Healthcare,” MedCityNews, March 11, 2016, http://medcitynews.com/2016/03/athenahealths-more-disruption-please-accelerator/?rf=1; Athenahealth, http://www.athenahealth.com/more-disruption-please/accelerator.

22. “Karl Florida on the Legal Tech Innovation Challenge,” Legal Current, accessed October 30, 2016, http://www.legalcurrent.com/karl-florida-on-the-legal-tech-open-innovation-challenge/.

23. “Thomson Reuters and CodeX Announce 2015 Legal Tech Open Innovation Challenge Winners,” Thomson Reuters press release, December 15, 2015, accessed October 30, 2016, http://thomsonreuters.com/en/press-releases/2015/december/2015-legal-tech-open-innovation-challenge-winners.html.

Chapter 4

1. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Ford Expands Its Mobility Empire with a Couple of Acquisitions,” The Verge, January 25, 2018, https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/25/16932868/ford-autonomic-transloc-acquistion-mobility.

2. Darrell Etherington, “Ford and Autonomic Are Building a Smart City Cloud Platform,” TechCrunch, January 10, 2018, https://techcrunch.com/2018/01/09/ford-and-autonomic-are-building-a-smart-city-cloud-platform/?ncid=mobilerecirc_featured.

3. “Annual Reports,” Thomson Reuters, https://ir.thomsonreuters.com/financial-information/annual-reports.

4. “Thomson Reuters Announces Definitive Agreement to Sell its Intellectual Property & Science Business to Onex and Baring Asia for $3.55 billion,” Thomson Reuters press release, July 11, 2016, http://thomsonreuters.com/en/press-releases/2016/july/thomson-reuters-announces-definitive-agreement-to-sell-its-intellectual-property-science-business.html.

5. William Launder, “Thomson Reuters to Expand Eikon Instant Messaging,” Wall Street Journal, August 3, 2013, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323420604578647983409888730.

6. David Dawkins, “Clear Daylight Emerges between Bloomberg and the Competition,” WatersTechnology, February 3, 2016, https://www.waterstechnology.com/industry-issues-initiatives/2444608/clear-daylight-emerges-between-bloomberg-and-the-competition.

7. Scott Carey, “Thomson Reuters Opens Up Eikon APIs in Bid to Take On Rival Trading Data Platforms,” ComputerworldUK, January 18, 2016, http://www.computerworlduk.com/applications/thomson-reuters-opens-up-eikon-apis-in-bid-take-on-rival-trading-data-platforms-3633596/.

8. “Thomson Reuters Adds Futures and Options Execution Application for Commodities Traders in Eikon,” Thomson Reuters press release, July 19, 2016, https://www.thomsonreuters.com/en/press-releases/2016/july/thomson-reuters-adds-futures-and-options-execution-application.html.

9. Thomson Reuters Labs, “Shareable by Default: Creating Resilient Data Ecosystems,” accessed October 31, 2016, https://innovation.thomsonreuters.com/en/labs/shareable-data.html.

10. Andrew Fletcher, “Extracting Value from New Sources of Data,” Thomson Reuters Answers On (blog), September 9, 2016, https://blogs.thomsonreuters.com/answerson/extracting-value-new-sources-data/.

11. Karl Florida, “The Legal Tech Innovation Challenge,” online video, June 18, 2015, http://www.legalcurrent.com/karl-florida-on-the-legal-tech-open-innovation-challenge/.

12. Eleanor O’Keeffe and Peter Williamson, “ARM Holdings Plc—From Beleaguered Computer Company to Industry Standard,” INSEAD Euro-Asia Centre, April 1, 2002 (Case Centre case number 302-170-1, www.thecasecentre.org).

13. Ibid.

14. Arnoud De Meyer et al., “Rolls-Royce in Singapore: Harnessing the Power of the Ecosystem to Drive Growth,” Singapore Management University, 2014, case no. SMU-13–0031.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Matthias Hendrichs, “Why Alipay Is More Than Just the Chinese Equivalent of PayPal,” Tech in Asia, August 3, 2015, https://www.techinasia.com/talk/online-payment-provider-alipay-chinese-equivalent-paypal.

19. Oscar Williams-Grut, “This £20 billion Data Giant Wants to Build the App Store for Finance: ‘We’re Leading the Charge,’” Business Insider, January 22, 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/thomson-reuters-albert-lojko-on-fintech-and-app-studio-2016-1.

20. De Meyer et al., “Rolls-Royce in Singapore.”

21. Thomson Reuters Labs Homepage, accessed October 25, 2016, https://innovation.thomsonreuters.com/en/labs.html.

22. “IDSS and Thomson Reuters Collaborate to Advance Innovation in Data Science, Finance, and Risk Analytics,” MIT Institute for Data, Systems, and Society, accessed October 22, 2016, https://idss.mit.edu/idss-and-thomson-reuters-collaborate-to-advance-innovation-in-data-science-finance-and-risk-analytics/.

Chapter 5

1. See Amazon’s AWS page: https://aws.amazon.com/.

2. Ron Miller, “How AWS Came to Be,” TechCrunch, July 2, 2016, https://techcrunch.com/2016/07/02/andy-jassys-brief-history-of-the-genesis-of-aws/.

3. Steven Levy, “Jeff Bezos Owns the Web in More Ways Than You Think,” Wired, November 13, 2011, https://www.wired.com/2011/11/ff_bezos/.

4. Robert S. Huckman, Gary P. Pisano, Liz Kind, “Amazon Web Services,” Harvard Business Publishing, February 3, 2012, HBS No. 609-048, 14, 24.

5. “Amazon Partnership Model,” Amazon Web Services, accessed August 10, 2017, https://www.slideshare.net/AmazonWebServices/awsome-day-warsaw-aws-partnership-model/31.

6. Ron Miller, “AWS Won’t Be Ceding Its Massive Market Share Lead Anytime Soon,” TechCrunch, July 28, 2017, https://techcrunch.com/2017/07/28/aws-wont-be-ceding-its-massive-market-share-lead-anytime-soon/.

7. Jessica Lyons Hardcastle, “Amazon Dominates the Cloud as AWS Revenue Soars in Q1,” SDxCentral, April 28, 2017, https://www.sdxcentral.com/articles/news/aws-revenue-soars-q1/2017/04/.

8. “Amazon Partnership Model,” Amazon Web Services, accessed August 10, 2017, https://www.slideshare.net/AmazonWebServices/awsome-day-warsaw-aws-partnership-model/31.

9. James Bourne, “AWS Lays Down Its Vision for the Success of Cloud Computing,” CloudTech, March 27, 2014, https://www.cloudcomputing-news.net/news/2014/mar/27/aws-lays-down-its-vision-success-cloud-computing/.

10. “So You Want to Be an AWS Partner?,” Amazon Web Services, accessed September 6, 2016, http://www.slideshare.net/AmazonWebServices/so-you-want-to-be-an-aws-partner.

11. “Global Partner Summit,” AWS Events, accessed August 10, 2017, https://reinvent.awsevents.com/partners-sponsors/global-partner-summit/.

12. “AWS Partner Network (APN) Blog,” Amazon, accessed August 10, 2017, https://aws.amazon.com/blogs/apn/thank-you-to-all-of-our-aws-partner-network-apn-partners/.

13. Asha McLean, Stephanie Condon, “Andy Jassy Warns AWS Has No Time for Uncommitted Partners,” ZDNet, November 29, 2016, http://www.zdnet.com/article/andy-jassy-warns-aws-has-no-time-for-uncommitted-partners/.

14. “ARM Approved Program,” ARM, accessed August 11, 2017, https://www.arm.com/support/arm-approved-program.

15. “2017 Letter to Shareholders,” Amazon, accessed August 11, 2017, http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=97664&p=irol-reportsannual.

16. Carliss Y. Baldwin and Kim B. Clark, “Managing in an Age of Modularity,” Harvard Business Review 75, no. 5 (1997): 84‒93.

17. “AWS Marketplace,” Help and FAQ, Amazon, accessed August 11, 2017, https://aws.amazon.com/marketplace/help.

18. N. Lang, K. von Szczepanski, and C. Wurzer, “The Emerging Art of Ecosystem Management,” BCG Henderson Institute, January 16, 2019, https://www.bcg.com/publications/2019/emerging-art-ecosystem-management.aspx.

19. Lyra J. Colfer and Carliss Young Baldwin, “The Mirror Hypothesis: Theory, Evidence and Exceptions,” Industrial and Corporate Change 25, no. 5 (2016): 709‒38.

20. Michael G. Jacobides, Carmel Cennamo, and Annabelle Gawer, “Towards a Theory of Ecosystems,” Strategic Management Journal 39, no. 8 (2018): 2255‒76.

21. A. Gawer, and R. Henderson, “Platform Owner Entry and Innovation in Complementary Markets: Evidence from Intel,” Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 16, no 1 (Spring 2007): 1–34.

22. Barney Jopson, “From Warehouse to Powerhouse,” Financial Times, July 8, 2012.

23. Peter Williamson and Michelle Wang, “Alibaba Group’s Taobao: From Intermediary to Ecosystem Enabler,” University of Cambridge, Judge Business School, 2014, case study, 10 (Case Centre case number 314-139-1, https://www.thecasecentre.org).

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Adriana Neagu, “Figuring the Costs of Custom Mobile Business App Development,” Formotus, last modified June 23, 2017, https://blog.formotus.com/enterprise-mobility/figuring-the-costs-of-custom-mobile-business-app-development.

27. Anita Balakrishnan, “Apple’s Services Revenue Topped $9 Billion in the March Quarter,” CNBC, TECH, May 1, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/05/01/apple-earnings-software-and-services-revenue.html.

28. W. J. Abernathy and J. M. Utterback, “Patterns of Industrial Innovation,” Technology Review 80, no. 7 (1978): 40–47.

29. Paul Mooney, “The Story behind China’s Tainted Milk Scandal,” U.S. News, October 9, 2008, https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2008/10/09/the-story-behind-chinas-tainted-milk-scandal.

Chapter 6

1. A. Agrawal, A. De Meyer, L. Van Wassenhove, “Managing Value in Supply Chains: Case Studies on the Sourcing Hub Concept,” California Management Review 56, no. 2 (2014): 23–54.

2. A similar argument has been made in N. Lang, K. von Sczepanski, and C. Wurzer, “The Emerging Art of Ecosystem Management,” BCG Henderson Institute, 2019, https://www.bcg.com/publications/2019/emerging-art-ecosystem-management.aspx.

3. C. H. Loch, A. De Meyer, M. T. Pich, Managing the Unknown, A New Approach to Managing High Uncertainty and Risk in Projects (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2006).

4. H. A. Simon, “A Formal Theory of the Employment Relationship,” Econometrica 19, no. 3 (1951): 293‒305.

5. W. C. Kim, R. Mauborgne, “Fair Process: Managing in the Global Economy,” Harvard Business Review, 75, no. 4 (July‒August 1997): 65‒75.

6. Loch et al., Managing the Unknown.

7. Ibid.

8. Jessica Lyons, “Arm Partners with Vodafone, China Unicom on IoT,” SDxCentral, March 1, 2019, https://www.sdxcentral.com/articles/news/arm-partners-with-vodafone-china-unicom-on-iot-launches-security-certification/2019/03/.

9. “Guardian Open Platform,” Terms and Conditions, accessed October 4, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/open-platform/terms-and-conditions.

10. E. Von Hippel, Cooperation between Rivals: Informal Know How Trading Research Policy, no. 16 (1987): 291‒302.

11. “ARM Approved Program,” ARM, accessed August 11, 2017, https://www.arm.com/support/arm-approved-program.

12. Susan Martin, “Karl Florida on the Legal Tech Open Innovation Challenge,” Legal Current, June 18, 2015, http://www.legalcurrent.com/karl-florida-on-the-legal-tech-open-innovation-challenge/.

13. Eagan Minn, “Thomson Reuters and CodeX Announce 2015 Legal Tech Open Innovation Challenge Winners,” Thomson Reuters, press release, December 15, 2015, https://www.thomsonreuters.com/en/press-releases/2015/december/2015-legal-tech-open-innovation-challenge-winners.html.

14. Paul S. Adler, “Market, Hierarchy, and Trust: The Knowledge Economy and the Future of Capitalism,” Organization Science 12, no. 2 (2001): 215‒34.

15. Ranjay Gulati, Paul R. Lawrence, and Phanish Puranam, “Adaptation in Vertical Relationships: Beyond Incentive Conflict.” Strategic Management Journal 26, no. 12 (December 2005): 415–40.

16. “So You Want to Be an AWS Partner?,” Amazon Web Services, accessed September 6, 2016, http://www.slideshare.net/AmazonWebServices/so-you-want-to-be-an-aws-partner.

17. Peter Williamson and Michelle Wang, “Alibaba Group’s Taobao: From Intermediary to Ecosystem Enabler,” University of Cambridge, Judge Business School, 2014, case study, 10 (Case Centre case number 314-139-1, https://www.thecasecentre.org).

18. A. Tencate and L. Zsolnai, “The Collaborative Enterprise,” Journal of Business Ethics 85 (2009): 367–76.

19. “App Store Review Guidelines,” App Store, Apple, accessed September 6, 2016, https://developer.apple.com/app-store/review/guidelines/#developer-information.

20. Williamson and Wang, “Alibaba Group’s Taobao.

21. Y. L. Doz, and G. Hamel, Alliance Advantage (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998), 201.

Chapter 7

1. SimilarWeb, “The Guardian.com,” accessed March 19, 2019, https://www.similarweb.com/website/theguardian.com.

2. Judith Townsend, “Alan Rusbridger on His Vision for a ‘Mutualised Newspaper,’” Journalism.co.uk (blog post), April 30, 2010, https://blogs.journalism.co.uk/2010/04/30/alan-rusbridger-on-his-vision-for-a-mutualised-newspaper-video/.

3. Matthew Ingram, “Guardian Says Open Journalism Is the Only Way Forward,” GigaOm, March 1, 2012, https://gigaom.com/2012/03/01/guardian-says-open-journalism-is-the-only-way-forward/.

4. Mike Butcher, “The Guardian Launches Open API for All Content—but They Still Control the Ads,” TechCrunch, March 11, 2009, https://techcrunch.com/2009/03/10/the-guardian-launches-open-api-for-all-content-but-they-still-control-the-ads/.

5. Matt McAlister, “An Open Community News Platform: n0tice.com,” Matt McAlister (blog), May 16, 2011, http://www.mattmcalister.com/blog/2011/05/16/1785/an-open-community-news-platform-n0tice-com/.

6. Justin Ellis, “The Guardian Creates an API for n0tice, Its Open News Platform,” NiemanLab, May 22, 2012, http://www.niemanlab.org/2012/05/the-guardian-creates-an-api-for-n0tice-its-open-news-platform/.

7. Ibid.

8. Contribly, accessed August 10, 2018, http://www.contribly.com/.

9. GNM Press Office, “GuardianWitness to Open Up Guardian Journalism as Never Before,” The Guardian, April 16, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/gnm-press-office/guardianwitness-to-open-up-guardian-journalism-as-never-before.

10. “About athenaInsight,” athenahealth website, accessed August 10, 2018, https://insight.athenahealth.com/about/.

11. “PayerView 2016: Industry Trends,” athenahealth website, accessed August 10, 2018, http://www.athenahealth.com/network-data-insights/payerview?intcmp=10033987.

12. AWS Partner recruitment slide pack.

13. John Ellis, “The Guardian, CNN, Reuters, and More Enter into a Global Ad Alliance,” NiemanLab, March 18, 2015, http://www.niemanlab.org/2015/03/the-guardian-cnn-reuters-and-more-enter-into-a-global-ad-alliance/.

14. Jack Marshall, “News Publishers Form Programmatic Advertising Alliance,” Wall Street Journal, CMO Today (blog), March 18, 2015, https://blogs.wsj.com/cmo/2015/03/18/news-publishers-form-programmatic-advertising-alliance/.

15. Lara O’Reilly, “The Guardian, Financial Times, Reuters, CNN, and The Economist have formed an Ad Alliance to Take On Google and Facebook,” Business Insider, March 8, 2015, https://www.businessinsider.com.au/publishers-form-pangaea-advertising-alliance-2015-3.

16. Dassault Systèmes Website, “Why Become a Technology Partner?,” accessed August 24, 2017, https://www.3ds.com/partners/partnership-programs/technology-partners/why-become-a-technology-partner/.

17. Steven Levy, “Jeff Bezos Owns the Web in More Ways Than You Think,” Wired, November 13, 2011, https://www.wired.com/2011/11/ff_bezos/.

18. “2nd Watch”, AWS Partner Network, accessed August 24, 2017, http://www.aws-partner-directory.com/PartnerDirectory/PartnerDetail?Name=2nd+Watch; “Coca-Cola North America” case study, 2nd Watch website, accessed August 24, 2017, http://2ndwatch.com/resources/customers/coca-cola-migration/.

19. “Breakfast Seminar: Simulation Driven Design,” Dassault Systèmes Events, accessed August 24, 2017, https://www.3ds.com/events/single/breakfast-seminar-simulation-driven-design/.

20. “Innovation Unbridled,” ARM, accessed August 24, 2017, http://www.arm.com/innovation.

Chapter 8

1. “Looking Ahead,” Byte Magazine 8, no. 1 (1983), accessed February 6, 2017, https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-01-rescan/1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead#page/n189/mode/2up.

2. “Aboard the Columbia,” PC Magazine, June 1983, https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=14Kfbrc6cbAC&pg=PA451&lpg=PA451&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false.

3. Paul Freiberger, “Bill Gates, Microsoft and the IBM Personal Computer,” InfoWorld, August 23, 1982, https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=VDAEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA19&pg=PA22&redir_esc=y%20-%20v=onepage&q&f=true#v=onepage&q&f=false.

4. Andrew Ross Sorkin, Floyd Norris, “Hewlett-Packard in Deal to Buy Compaq for $25 Billion in Stock,” The New York Times, September 4, 2001, https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/04/business/hewlett-packard-in-deal-to-buy-compaq-for-25-billion-in-stock.html.

5. Stewart Brand, Whole Earth Software Catalog (Garden City, NY: Quantum Press, 1984), https://archive.org/stream/Whole_Earth_Software_Catalog_1984_Point/Whole_Earth_Software_Catalog_1984_Point_djvu.txt.

6. Corey Sandler, “IBM: Colossus of Armonk,” Creative Computing 10, no. 11 (1984): 298.

7. Charles Bermant, “Endangered PCs,” PC Magazine, May 14, 1985, 33.

8. Tom R. Halfhill, “The MS-DOS Invasion / IBM Compatibles Are Coming Home,” Compute!, December 1986, 32.

9. Paul Thurrott, “IBM’s PC Division: No Profit in More Than 3 Years,” IT Pro Today, January 2, 2005, https://www.itprotoday.com/windows-8/ibms-pc-division-no-profit-more-3-years.

10. M. Iansiti and R. Levin, The Keystone Advantage: What the New Dynamics of Business Ecosystems Mean for Strategy, Innovation, and Sustainability (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2004).

11. Jay Barney, “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage,” Journal of Business 17, no. 1 (1991): 99‒120.

12. Tony Smith, “Nokia Grabs 40% of Phone Market for First Time,” The Register, January 24, 2008, accessed March 28, 2017, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/24/sa_q4_phone_figures/.

13. Charles Arthur, “Nokia’s Chief Executive to Staff: ‘We Are Standing on a Burning Platform,’” The Guardian, February 9, 2011, accessed March 28, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2011/feb/09/nokia-burning-platform-memo-elop.

14. Gregory Gromov, Roads and Crossroads of the Internet History (published online 1995‒2012), accessed March 29, 2017, http://history-of-internet.com.

15. “Browser Market Share,” Net Marketshare, accessed March 27, 2017, https://www.netmarketshare.com/browser-market-share.aspx?qprid=0&qpcustomd=0.

16. Tim Mackenzie, “App Store Fees, Percentages, and Payouts: What Developers Need to Know,” TechRepublic, May 7, 2012, http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/software-engineer/app-store-fees-percentages-and-payouts-what-developers-need-to-know/.

17. “Architecting a Secure and Connected World,” ARM, accessed March 30, 2017, http://www.arm.com/company.

18. “Amazon S3 Pricing,” Amazon Web Services, accessed March 30, 2017, https://aws.amazon.com/s3/pricing/.

Chapter 9

1. We use the expression ecosystem head for the individual who leads the ecosystem leader. In previous chapters we used the concept of ecosystem leader to describe the team and the organization that provides leadership to the ecosystem.

2. Peter Williamson and Michelle Wang, “Alibaba Group’s Taobao: From Intermediary to Ecosystem Enabler,” University of Cambridge, Judge Business School, 2014, case study 10. (Case Centre case number 314-139-1, https://www.thecasecentre.org).

3. L. D. Parker, “Control in Organizational Life: The Contribution of Mary Parker Follett.” Academy of Management Review 9, no. 4 (1984): 736‒45.

4. Arnoud De Meyer, “Collaborative Leadership: A New Perspective for Leadership Development,” in The Future of Leadership Development, ed. Jordi Canals (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).

5. Susan Schneider and Arnoud De Meyer, “Interpreting and Responding to Strategic Issues: The Impact of National Culture,” Strategic Management Journal 12, no. 1 (1991): 307–20.

6. The reader who wants to know more about the role of dualities in management is referred to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Global Business (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998).

7. Michael L. Tushman, Wendy K. Smith, and Andy Binns, “The Ambidextrous CEO,” Harvard Business Review, 89, no. 6 (June 2011): 74‒80.

8. A. De Meyer, “The Flow of Technical Information in an R&D Department,” Research Policy 14, no. 6 (1985): 315‒28.

9. Tim Ocock, “Symbian OS—One of the Most Successful Failures in Tech History,” TechCrunch, November 9, 2010, https://techcrunch.com/2010/11/08/guest-post-symbian-os-one-of-the-most-successful-failures-in-tech-history-2/.

10. Jo Best, “‘Android before Android: The Long, Strange History of Symbian and Why It Matters for Nokia’s Future,” ZD Net, April 4, 2013, https://www.zdnet.com/article/android-before-android-the-long-strange-history-of-symbian-and-why-it-matters-for-nokias-future/.

Chapter 10

1. Of course, we don’t argue that all business activities will be organized in ecosystems. As we mentioned in chapter 2, there will always be room for supply chains, vertical integration, and so on. See also: J. Fuller M. G., Jacobides, and M. Reeves, “The Myths and Realities of Business Ecosystems,” Sloan Management Review, February 2019.

2. “Baidu Unleashes Accelerated Innovation for Autonomous Driving at ‘China Speed’ at CES 2018 in Las Vegas,” GlobeNewswire, January 8, 2018, https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2018/01/08/1285414/0/en/Baidu-Unleashes-Accelerated-Innovation-for-Autonomous-Driving-at-China-Speed-at-CES-2018-in-Las-Vegas.html.

3. Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy (New York: Free Press, 1980); Michael E. Porter, Competitive Advantage (New York: Free Press, 1985).

4. Liz Flora, “Alibaba’s Luxury Ambitions,” Gartner L2, Daily Insights, April 2, 2018, https://www.l2inc.com/daily-insights/alibabas-luxury-ambitions.

5. Porter, Competitive Advantage, 15.

6. Cristina B. Gibson and Julian Birkinshaw, “The Antecedents, Consequences and Mediating Role of Organizational Ambidexterity, Academy of Management Journal 47, no. 2 (April 2004): 209‒26.

7. “CST—Computer Simulation Technology,” Dassault Systèmes, accessed August 26, 2017: https://www.cst.com/company/3ds.

8. Simon Erickson, “This ‘Secret’ Amazon Technology Could Be Worth $15 Billion to Shareholders,” The Motley Fool, September 19, 2017, https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/09/19/this-secret-amazon-technology-could-be-worth-15-bi.aspx.

9. John Thornhill, “Daniel Zhang of Alibaba on Leading a Supercharged Empire,” Financial Times, September 3, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/5a14153c-6d53-11e7-b9c7–15af748b60d0.

10. “Chinese Outbound Tourism Statistics in 2016: 122 Million Chinese Tourists Make Outbound Trips, Spend $109.8 Billion,” Travel168, http://news.travel168.net/20170203/43145.html.

11. Sam Varghese, “OpenBSD to Support More Wireless Chipsets,” The Age, March 1, 2005, https://www.theage.com.au/national/openbsd-to-support-more-wireless-chipsets-20050301-gdku1p.html.

12. Theo de Raadt, “Intel: Only ‘Open’ for Business,” OpenBSD Journal, September 30, 2006, http://www.undeadly.org/cgi?action=article&sid=20060930232710&mode=expanded.

13. Herb Rubenstein, “Book Review of The Death of Competition: Leadership and Strategy in the Age of Business Ecosystems, by James F. Moore,” Herb Rubenstein Consulting, http://www.herbrubenstein.com/articles/THE-DEATH-OF-COMPETITION.pdf.

14. James F. Moore, The Death of Competition: Leadership and Strategy in the Age of Business Ecosystems (New York: Harper Business, 1996).