Index

Note: locators containing an “n” indicate end notes

 

• Aarseth, Espen, 126

• Abbate, Janet
  • programming as software engineering, 12
  • on women in early computing, 108
  • on women in software careers, 165
• Abelson, Hal
  • similarity between code and human language, 21, 237n96
  • Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 100–101, 110, 237n96
• Abstraction
  • affordances of form in code, 118–122
  • hierarchy from speech to writing, 121
• ACM (Association for Computer Machinery), 11–12
• Adult Education Act of 1966, 60
• Adult literacy organizations, 60
• Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 161
• Affordability, and the commercial use of computers in twentieth-century America, 166
• Affordances
  • of computer screens, 33
  • vs. consequences, 97
  • provided by programming, 97, 112
• Affordances of form in code
  • abstraction, 118–122
  • code exceeds writing, 121
  • code reduces writing, 120–121
  • creativity (see Creativity with code)
  • digital technology and data preservation, 120–121
  • discreteness, 118–122
  • fidelity, 118–122
  • grammatization, 119–121
  • grammatology, 118–119
  • hierarchy of abstraction from speech to writing, 121
  • human language vs. programming, 116–118, 263n79
  • loops, 118
  • overview, 116–118
  • perfect execution of code, 118–122, 264n85
  • power structures in code, 264n85
  • programming as an exercise in applied semiotics, 117
  • rationalization of information through digital technology, 119–120
  • scale, 118–122
  • spatializing temporal information, 121
  • text crossing space and time, 118–119
  • trade-offs between writing and programming, 120
  • translating information across modes, 121
• Agar, Jon
  • bureaucratic structure as precursor to the computer, 162
  • computer as apotheosis of the civil servant, 190
  • Domesday compilation of landholdings, 188
  • from written bureaucracy to computation, 176–177
• Agile development, 130–131, 267n132
• Albrecht, Bob, 67
• ALGOL language, 21, 109, 261n52, 265n103
• Algoraves code performance, 126
• Algorithmic criticism, 16
• Alice language, 110
• Allen, Paul, 70, 169
• Alphabetic literacy, 30
• Altair 8800, 70, 168
• American Airlines reservation system, 163, 276n129
• American National Adult Literacy Surveys, 57, 247n72
• Analytical Engine, 187
• Andreessen, Marc, 23
• Anglo-Norman language in medieval England, 271n50
• Anti-spam laws, 210
• APIs (application program interfaces), 221
• Apple II, 169, 171
• Aptitude tests for programmers, 165–166
• Aquinas, Thomas, 191
• Arabic programming language, 262n62
• Arab Spring, 213
• Arcade games, 170
• Arnaud, Noël, 265n103
• Arnove, Robert, 58, 59
• ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), 161
• ARPANET, development of, 161, 199. See also Internet
• Artificial intelligence and human psychology, 202–203
• Arts and humanities approaches to educational programs for programming, 16
• Aspray, William, 158, 170, 197
• Assemble in Pittsburgh, 75
• Assembly programs, 19, 107, 261n42
• Association for Computer Machinery (ACM), 11–12
• “As We May Think,” 98–99, 197
• Atari, 170–171
• Atwood, Jeff, 14, 17, 131
• Auroux, Sylvan, 119
• Austin, J. L., 114–116
• Authoring arguments through processes, 9
• Autoflow program, 165
• Automatic programming, 23, 107–108, 165
• Automation of governance through writing, 187
• Autonomous model of literacy, 30, 240n148, 259n31

• Babbage, Charles
  • Analytical Engine, 101, 187
  • Difference Engine, 187
  • Lovelace’s notes on the Analytical Engine, 116
  • manufacturing constraints on computer production, 116
• Backus, John, 108
• Bakhtin, Mikhail, 128–129
• Banking. See Stock market and banking
• Banks, Adam
  • Race, Rhetoric, and Technology, 74
  • transformative access to programming, 8
• Barriers to programming, 5, 12
• Barton, David
  • on literacy, 46–47
  • metaphors for literacy, 238n118
  • situated literacies, 32–33
• BASIC language
  • on the Altair 8800, 70
  • among the younger generation, 171
  • development of, 43
  • in the history of programming languages, 110–112, 168–169
  • lingua franca of home computing, 71, 174
  • My Computer Likes Me When I Speak Basic, 68
  • paired with DTSS, 66–67
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • purpose of, 66
  • swapping programs in the 1980s, 26
  • TinyBASIC language, 68
• Bazerman, Charles, 35, 239n123
• Beating the bounds, 147
• Bell Laboratories, 65
• Beniger, James
  • communication and governance, 144
  • control revolution, 120, 144
  • writing in medieval England, 144
• Bentham, Jeremy, 188
• Berkeley, Edmond, 197
• Berners-Lee, Tim, 73, 213
• Bias
  • in communication, 102–103
  • cultural, in programming languages, 262n62
  • gender bias in search, 37 (see also Search results)
  • in writing, 105
• Biblical concordance, 148
• Big Blue. See IBM
• Binary programming, 107
• Binet, Alfred, 57
• Bitcoin, 213–214, 290n175
• Black. See People of color
• Black boxes, 111
• Black Girls Code initiative
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • targeting minorities in programming, 13, 78–79
• Bletchley Park, 106
• Blockly language, 111
• Bloomberg, Michael, 14
• Blurring of national boundaries, 90–91
• Bogost, Ian
  • authoring arguments through processes, 9
  • on inflexibility of computers, 117
  • procedural literacy, 9, 100
  • procedural rhetoric, 9
  • programming as writing, 20
• Bolt, Beranek and Newman, 72
• Bolter, Jay David, 117, 192
• Books, accessibility to women, 152
• Books and publications. See also Video, TV, and movies
  • Algol, 265n103
  • Books of Hours, 152, 184, 191
  • Compute!, 26, 169, 171
  • “The Computer as Communication Device,” 79, 199
  • Computer Lib/Dream Machines, 67, 70, 82
  • Data periodicals launched in the 1950s, 164
  • Domesday Book, 149, 188, 271n50
  • Dr. Dobb’s, 26
  • Empire and Communications, 143
  • Exercises in Programming Style, 123
  • Exercises in Style, 123
  • Exploratory Programming for the Arts and Humanities, 16–17
  • “Falling Through the Net
  • “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” 236n93
  • Giant Brains, or Machines that Think, 197
  • Of Grammatology, 119, 121
  • Hackers, 67
  • “Is Google Making Us Stupid,” 280n10
  • John Wiley & Sons, 171
  • “Man-Computer Symbiosis
  • Mindstorms, 79, 254n162
  • My Computer Likes Me When I Speak Basic, 68
  • Nation at Risk, 57, 61, 64
  • New Yorker, cartoons, 2, 198
  • People’s Computer Company Newsletter, 68
  • “A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages
  • 10 PRINT CHR$(205.5+RND(1)); : GOTO 10, 73
  • Race, Rhetoric, and Technology, 74
  • Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space), 201, 287n126
  • “Rise of the Journalist Programmer
  • R.U.R, 198
  • Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 100, 110
  • Summa Theologica, 191
  • “THE HOME COMPUTER IS HERE
  • Time magazine, 170
  • “As We May Think,” 98–99, 197
  • “Why Johnny Can’t Write
  • xkcd, 36–37
• Books of Hours, 152, 184, 191
• Boole, George, 107
• Boot camps for learning programming, 75
• Bootstrap program, 44
• Bosh, Chris, 76
• Boundary objects, 154
• boyd, danah, 204, 238n118
• Boyle, Robert, 192
• Brainfuck language, 125
• Brandt, Deborah
  • changing expectations of literacy, 48–49
  • on coding as a literate practice, 224
  • coding literacy as leaky knowledge, 134–135
  • illiteracy among soldiers, 57
  • literacy campaigns, 62
  • literacy technologies, 228n11
  • on materiality of literacy, 33–34
  • sociomaterial approach to writing, 104
  • technology organizing literacy, 62–63
  • workplace literacies, 208
  • writing as the literacy of consequence, 180, 182
• Bricolage
  • approach to programming education, 16, 234n68
  • definition, 19
• Brooks, Frederick, 123, 128, 164
• Brown. See People of color
• Bryant, Kimberly, 218
• Bureaucracy
  • bureaucratic control, 144
  • role in literate mentality, 179
  • word origin, 190
  • written, anxiety about, 188–191
• Burke, Quinn
  • connected code, 231n45
  • on eCrafting circles, 221
  • low floors, high ceilings, wide walls, and open windows, 11, 231n45
  • metaphors for promoting programming in K-12 schools, 252n145
  • programming as a sociolinguistic system, 115
  • Scratch language, 81
• Bush, George H. W., 61
• Bush, Vannevar
  • “Computers and the World of the Future
  • designing computers, 158
  • “As We May Think,” 98–99, 197

• CAC (computing across the curriculum), 72–73
• Calculating Space (Rechnender Raum), 201, 287n126
• Calculus notation, 96
• Campbell-Kelly, Martin
  • dawn of the computer age, 158
  • graphical user interface, 170
  • Mark I as icon of the computer age, 197
  • UNIVAC computer in the U.S. census of 1950, 198
• Cantor, Eric, 1, 76
• Caperton, Idit Harel, 75, 218
• Carnegie Mellon University, 15–16
• Carnegie Tech, 65
• Carr, Nicholas, 180, 280n10
• Cartoons
  • computer coaching baseball, 198
  • Facebook algorithms, 37
  • kidney transplant, 2
  • value of coders, 2
• Castile, Philandro, 205
• Castro, Fidel, 59
• Catholic Church
  • papal bulls, 271n40
  • role in establishing literacy as a moral good, 52
  • standardizing documents, 148–150
  • writing in medieval England, 148–150
• Cellular automata, 200–201
• Censuses
  • ancient Egypt, 272n57
  • ancient Mesopotamia, 272n57
  • mechanizers, 275n100
  • U.S. census, 1950, 157
  • U.S. census, nineteenth-century, 156–157, 275n100
  • U.S. Census Bureau survey of 1986, 60–61
  • written, historical uses for, 149
• Chartier, Roger, 181–182
• Chef language, 125
• Children
  • computers as tools for, 69, 71–72
  • learning to code, 1, 218
  • OLPC (One Laptop Per Child) project, 74–75
• Chomsky, Noam, 202–203
• Chun, Wendy Hui Kyong
  • code as executable language, 20
  • computation, consolidating power of the state, 176
  • computational model of the world, 202
  • on perfect execution of code, 264n85
• Church, Alonzo, 110
• Civic contexts for computational literacy, 209–211
• Civic participation, literacy as a requirement for, 194
• Civil servant, trial of, 188
• Clanchy, Michael
  • beginning of the era of official memory, 148
  • definition of computational mentality, 182
  • on the devil and literacy, 154
  • documentation in medieval governance, 283n55
  • on the Domesday Book, 149
  • on the domestication of ecclesiastical books, 152
  • exactness in copies of medieval documents, 192
  • lay literacy out of bureaucracy, 145
  • literate habits and assumptions, 150–151
  • literate mentality, 150
  • on portable books, 151
  • on signatory seals, 153
  • writing, in medieval England, 140–141, 144, 185
• C language, 112
• C++ language, 112
• The cleric and the knight, 189–190, 283n62
• Clinton, Katie, 33–34, 224
• COBOL language, 108–109, 113, 261n52
• Code
  • access to, 221–222
  • affordances of form (see Affordances of form in code)
  • creativity (see Creativity with code)
  • debugging (see Debugging code)
  • definition, 143
  • exceeding writing, 121
  • as executable language, 20
  • experimental uses of (see Programming, for scientific experiments)
  • human-readable, 107, 250n113
  • intertwined with writing, 23–26
  • network effects of, 224, 292n27
  • reducing writing, 120–121
  • replacing writing, 24
  • similarities to human language, 21, 250n113
  • social organization, 131–134
• “Code: The New Literacy” video, 44
• Code Brigades program, 82
• Codecademy.org
  • online educational resources, 75
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • in the UK national curriculum, 90
• CodeCombat game, 44
• CodeFellows, 75
• Code for America program, 82
• Code.org. See also Educational programs for programming; Hour of Code campaign; Online resources
  • “Code: The New Literacy” video, 44
  • “Code Stars” video, 85
  • computer science in schools, 75
  • focus on computer science, 232n56
  • founding of, 44, 76
  • goals, 232n56
  • importance of learning to code, 44
  • mass programming campaigns, history of, 75
  • mission statement, 13, 232n56
  • motivational trends in programming education, 76
  • promoting computational literacy
  • a short URL, 6, 14, 228n15
  • in Silicon Valley schools, 85
  • students of color, outreach to, 13
  • support from Barack Obama, 76
  • video promotions, 44, 76, 77, 82, 85, 253n146
  • “What Most Schools Don’t Teach” video, 77, 82
  • women, outreach to, 13
• CoderDojo, 75
• Code review, 130
• Coder in Chief (Barack Obama), 1
• Coders, value of (cartoon), 2
• Code School, 75
• Code smells, debugging code, 15
• codeSpark, Foos game, 1, 218
• “Code Stars” video, 85
• Code & Supply, 75
• Codework, 122
• Codification of English common law, 148
• Coding. See also Computation; Programming
  • author’s definition, 6
  • collaborative (see Collaborative coding)
  • as a literate practice, 224
  • in online coding communities (see Open-source software communities)
  • programmer’s influence on, 129
  • vs. programming, 6
  • social, 127–128
  • social influences on, 128
  • teaching (see Programming, learning)
• Coding boot camps, 13
• Coding literacy. See also Computer literacy; Literacy
  • arguments for, 45–46
  • best languages for, 11
  • Code.org, importance of learning to code, 44, 45–46
  • etymology of the term, 4
  • first public argument for, 65
  • hierarchy of skills, 11
  • as leaky knowledge, 134–137
  • Mark Guzdial, on learning to code, 43–44
  • quotations supporting, 44
• Cognitive benefits of programming
• Cognitive pillars of literacy, 9, 96
• Cognitivism, 203, 287n141
• Cold War
  • ideological driver of literacy campaign, 57, 64
  • impetus for American defense and computer technology, 158–159, 162, 199
  • influence on computers in American schools, 39, 64, 79, 171
• Cole, Michael
  • on learning new ways to think, 80
  • literacy, psychological differences in individuals, 33
  • sociological study of Vai people of Liberia, 32, 33, 103
• Coleman, E. Gabriella, 132–133
• Collaborative coding
  • code review, 130
  • Discourse, 128–129
  • legacy code, 128–129
  • maintainability, 130
  • overview, 128–131
  • pair programming, 130–131, 267n138
  • palimpsest code, 128–129
  • programmer’s influence on coding style, 129
  • social influences on coding, 128
  • speech genres, 128–129
  • style guides, 130–131, 267n134
• Collective literacy, 185–186, 193–196
• Colossus: The Forbin Project, 177, 199
• Colossus computer, 106, 157–158
• Columbia University
  • dual degree in Journalism and computer science, 289n164
  • funding programming education in Estonia, 250n120
• Commercial use of computers in twentieth-century America. See also specific commercial uses
  • affordability, 166
  • American Airlines reservation system, 163
  • Delta reservation system, 163
  • Denver International Airport, baggage handling system, 165
  • Garmisch Conference on Software Engineering, 165
  • killer apps, 163
  • manufacturing-distribution complex, 166–167
  • OS/360 operating system, 162–163
  • overview, 162–167
  • PanAm reservation system, 163
  • publications for, 164
  • SABRE airline reservation system, 162–163
  • software crisis, 165, 277n136
  • UPC (Universal Product Code) symbol, 166–167
  • VisiCalc spreadsheet program, 162–163, 166, 170
• Commodore 64, 170–173
• Commodore PET, 169, 171
• Communication
  • with and across computers, 21–22
  • and governance, 143–144
  • role in increasing the human empire, 143–144
• Communities of practice, 133
• Community identity, 132
• Compilers, 19, 107–108
• Computation. See also Coding; Programming
  • history of (see Computation in twentieth-century America; Programming languages, history of)
  • intertwined with writing, 23–26
  • replacing writing, 24
• Computation in twentieth-century America
  • advances in World War II, 144–145
  • after the launch of Sputnik, 145
  • automated computation, 156–157
  • control crisis, 155, 157
  • a dystopian view of, 177
  • government research, 156–162
  • in the hands of individuals, 145
  • overview, 155–156
  • social statistics, 157
  • standardized data collection, 157
  • World War II, 155–156
• Computational literacy
  • for civic contexts, 209–211
  • collective, limits of, 206–207
  • future of, 223–225
• Computational literacy, promoting
  • access to code, 221–222
  • access to education, 220–223
  • APIs (application program interfaces), 221
  • barriers to learning, 220–221
  • Black Girls Code initiative, 13, 78–79, 218
  • Creative Commons, 222
  • educational opportunities, 217–219, 291n4
  • extracurricular activities, 221
  • makerspaces, 221
  • overview, 217–223
  • political support for, 219–220, 257n214
  • pros and cons, 217
  • separated from games, 220
  • software laws, 221–222
• Computational mentality. See also Literate mentality
  • in America in the 1950s, 183
  • computers as a supplement to human memory, 197
  • computers as thinking machines, 198, 200
  • computers in the public consciousness, 197–200
  • computers represented in the media, 197–199
  • definition of, 182
  • to literacy, 205–206
• Computational models of the mind and self
  • artificial intelligence and human psychology, 202
  • cognitivism, 203, 287n141
  • computational states of the brain
  • connectionism, 203
  • Freudian model, 202
  • linguistics, 202–203
  • overview, 202–205
  • smartphones, 204
  • social media, 204, 288n152
  • universal grammar, 202–203
• Computational models of the world, 200–202, 206, 287n126
• Computational narrative, 16
• Computational participation, 81
• Computational states of the brain, 203
• Computational thinking, 9–11
• Computational universe, 202
• Computationalism, 202
• Compute!, 26, 169, 171
• “The Computer as Communication Device,” 79, 199
• Computer counterculture movement, 67–69
• Computer illiteracy, definition, 53
• Computer Lib/Dream Machines, 67, 70
• Computer literacy. See also Coding literacy; Literacy; Programming as literacy
  • critique of, 88
  • importance of, 43
  • Kemeny’s case for, 79–80
  • at the undergraduate level, 72
• Computers
  • coaching baseball, cartoon, 198
  • for everybody, 67–68
  • evolution of, 20–21 (see also Programming languages, history of)
  • as metaphor or model, 202
  • as objects to think with, 79
  • in the public consciousness, 197–200
  • represented in the media, 197–199
  • social context for, 115
  • stored program concept, 20–21, 236n93
  • as a supplement to human memory, 197
  • as thinking machines, 198, 200
  • as tools for children, 69, 71–72
• Computers, in twentieth-century America. See also specific computers
  • Cold War (1950s), 158–162
  • commercial use (see Commercial use of computers)
  • dawn of the computer age, 158
  • development of ARPANET, 161
  • governmental use, 155–162, 274n97
  • government funding, 161–162, 276n126
  • launching of ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), 161
  • personal use (see Personal computers)
  • precursor to the Internet, 161
  • SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment) missile defense, 159–161, 199
  • Sputnik launch, 161
  • stored programs, first machine, 158, 275n110
• “Computers and the World of the Future
• Computer science (CS)
  • for everyone, 14
  • overextending, 16
  • separating from programming, 18–19
  • vs. software engineering, 15
• Computer Science for All initiative, 85–87
• Computer science vs. programming, 18–19
• Computer screens vs. paper, 104
• Computer time vs. programmer time, 110–111
• Computing across the curriculum (CAC), 72–73
• Connected Code, 81, 231n45
• Connectionism, 203
• Consequences
  • vs. affordances, 97
  • of literacy, 35
• “The Consequences of Literacy,” 103, 259n28
• Context collapse, 238n118
• Contract law, illiteracy, 195
• Conway, John, 201
• Cook-Gumperz, Jenny
  • definition of literacy, 45
  • illiteracy as personal vice, 55
  • measuring literacy, 57–58
  • sociomaterialities of literacy, 31
  • on standardized schooled literacy, 54
  • on standardized teaching of computer literacy, 218–219
• Copyright laws, software
  • computer games, 251n129
  • CONTU report, 264n87
  • vs. copyright laws for photocopiers, 264n87
  • loosening of, 222
  • origins in the 1980s, 71, 251n129
• Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 105
• Creative Commons, 222
• Creativity with code
  • algoraves code performance, 126
  • attention to form, 126–127
  • Brainfuck language, 125
  • Chef language, 125
  • codework, 122
  • creolization of media, 127
  • demoscene code performance, 126
  • double coding, 124–125
  • ergotic literature, 126
  • esoteric code languages, 125
  • Hamlet rendered in C language, 117
  • literate programming, 124
  • live code performances, 126
  • Malboge language, 125–126
  • obfuscating code languages, 125
  • overview, 122–127
  • pseudocode, 122
  • restricted code, 123, 265n103
  • scriptons, 126–127
  • SPL (Shakespeare Programming Language), 124–125
  • textons, 126–127
  • weird languages, 124
• Creolization of media, 126–127
• Crime, literacy linked to, 53
• Crises of control, 144
• Crisis camps, 209
• Cryptocurrrency, 213–214
• Cryptography during World War II, 157, 275n104
• CS (computer science). See Computer Science (CS)
• Cuba, literacy campaign, 59

• Dartmouth College. See also DTSS (Dartmouth Time-Sharing System)
  • BASIC language, 43, 168
  • computer literacy initiative, 81–82, 254n177
  • initiative for computer literacy, 81–82
  • mass programming campaigns, history of, 65–67
• Dartmouth Time-Sharing System (DTSS). See DTSS (Dartmouth Time-Sharing System)
• Dash and Dot robots, 44
• Data periodicals launched the 1950s, 164
• Dawn of the computer age, 158
• Debian, 132
• de Blasio, Bill
  • on computer literacy, 44
  • Computer Science for All initiative, 85–87
  • support for coding literacy, 1
• Debugging code, code smells, 15
• DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) PDP computer. See PDP computer
• Decree of Illiteracy, 59
• Deeds (contracts)
  • evolution of, 148, 151
  • text as substitute for human action, 187
• Delta reservation system, 163
• Democracy, word origin, 190
• Democratized data, 25
• Demoscene code performance, 126
• Denning, Peter, 87–88
• Derrida, Jacques
  • computational model of the world, 201
  • Of Grammatology, 119, 121
  • hierarchy of abstraction from speech to writing, 121
  • transcendental signified, 201
  • translating information across modes, 121
• Descriptive statements vs. performative, 114–116
• Desk Set, 198
• devbootcamp, 75
• Difference Engine, 187
• Digital immigrants, 260n32
• Digital literacy, 6
• Digital natives, 260n32
• Digital physics, 201
• Digital technology and data preservation, 120–121
• Dijkstra, Edsger, 168
• Discourse, 128–129
• Discreteness, affordances of form in code, 118–122
• diSessa, Andrea
  • computational literacy, 9–10
  • definition of literacy, 216, 239n127
  • literacy, definition, 143
  • material intelligences into literacies, 29, 96–97, 102, 143
  • on the notation of calculus, 96
  • pillars of literacy, 9, 96, 228n11
  • writing, as contributor to material intelligence, 182
• Django language, 111
• Domesday Book, 149, 188, 271n50
• Dominican approach to literacy, 151
• Dot and Dash robots, 1
• Double coding, 124–125
• Downsourcing programmers, 208
• Dr. Dobb’s, 26
• DTSS (Dartmouth Time-Sharing System). See also Dartmouth College
  • final report on the Dartmouth initiative, 254n177
  • paired with BASIC, 66–67
  • precursor to personal computers, 168
  • primary goal of, 249n105
• Dynabook personal computer
  • early visions of, 69, 169
  • Papert’s influence on, 79
  • prototyping, 72

• E-books, 104
• Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, 60
• EDSAC computer, 158
• Education
  • access to, 220–223
  • barriers to learning, 220–221
  • educational opportunities, 217–219, 291n4
  • extracurricular activities, 221
• Educational applications for personal computers, 171
• Educational programs for programming. See also Code.org; Programming, learning
  • approaches from the arts and humanities, 16
  • Black Girls Code, 13, 78–79
  • coding boot camps, 13
  • Computer Science for All initiative, 85–87
  • CS for everyone, 14
  • Girl Develop It, 13, 75
  • learn-to-code websites, 13
  • Made with Code initiative, 13
  • outside of computer science, 11–19
  • popular programming vs. professional use, 14
  • self-teaching, 12–13
  • UK Department of Education, key stages, 11
  • UK national curriculum in England, 230n43
  • #YesWeCode, 13
• EDVAC, 21
• Edward I, King, 148
• Egypt
  • ancient censuses, 272n57
  • early writing, 269n10
• Eisenstein, Elizabeth
  • Harvey Graff on, 33
  • literacy as progress, 31
  • print era, significance of, 180
  • verbatim interpretation of texts
• Electronic literature analysis, 16
• “Electronic man,” 104, 192
• Elias, Peter, 22–23
• Emig, Janet, 30
• Empire and Communications, 143
• Employability for coders
  • Ali Partovi on, 85
  • supply and demand for engineers and coders, 84
  • trends in education and work, 87–91
  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics chart, 86
• Empowerment in education, 60
• Englebart, Douglas, 169
• English as lingua franca for programming languages, 236n85, 262n62
• English common law, codification of, 148
• ENIAC computer, 20–21, 106, 158
• Ensmenger, Nathan
  • on legacy code maintenance, 128
  • personality profiling for programmers, 17
  • programming as software engineering, 12
• Equal opportunity
  • in industry (see specific firms)
  • in programming (see Programming, equal opportunity)
• Ergotic literature, 126
• Ericson, Barbara, 76
• Esoteric code languages, 125
• Estonia, teaching programming in
  • Ilves, Toomas Hendrik, president, 44, 82, 250n120
  • K-12 education, 82
  • Logo language, 218
  • mass programming campaign, 250n120
  • ProgeTiiger programming campaign, 87
  • Scratch language, 218
  • Tiger’s Leap initiative, 44
• Ethnographic studies of literacy. See Sociological studies of literacy
• Etoys language, 110
• Executing code, 20
• Exercises in Programming Style, 123
• Exercises in Style, 123
• Exploratory Programming for the Arts and Humanities, 16–17
• Expressive processing, 16

• Facebook
  • algorithms, cartoon, 37
  • friending, 204–205
  • newsfeed algorithm, 36–37
  • technical employees, diversity, 17
• “Falling Through the Net
• Farr, Marcia, 186
• Febvre, Lucien, 181–182
• Feurzeig, Wallace, 72
• Fidelity, affordances of form in code, 118–122
• Firedrake, George, 67
• Firefox, 132
• “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” 236n93
• Fisher, Allan
  • deterrences to women in computer science, 15
  • stereotypes of male CS students, 17–18
• Flusser, Vilem, 237n104
• Foos game, 1, 218
• Ford, Paul
  • on the future for noncoders, 92
  • social coding, 127
• Ford Motor Company, 54
• Forgery, 188–189, 283n62
• Forsythe, George E., 65
• Fortran (formula translation), 66, 108, 113
• F/OSS (free or open-source software), 134–136
• Fractal generation, 201
• Fredkin, Edward, 201
• FreeBSD operating system, 132–133
• FreeCodeCamp, 75
• Free Software Movement, 71
• Freire, Paolo, 59–60, 78, 218
• French Revolution, role in literate mentality, 187
• Freshman Computer Appreciation Course, 65–66
• Freudian model of the mind and self, 202
• Friending on Facebook, 204–205
• Functional literacy as a human right, 47
• Furet, François
  • French literacy in the middle ages, 175
  • literacy and social stratification, 195
  • literacy as a moral good, 52
  • literacy campaigns, 61, 62
  • measuring literacy, 56

• Gabriel, Richard, 110, 114, 123
• Galloway, Alexander, 20, 114
• Game industry, personal computers, 170
• Game of life, 201
• Games. See Video games
• Garmisch Conference on Software Engineering, 165
• Gates, Bill
  • BASIC for the Altair 8800, 70, 169
  • founding of Code.org, 44
  • promoting Code.org, 1, 76
  • push for Common Core standards, 90
• Gee, James Paul
  • ideological model of literacy, 8
  • Discourse, 128–129
  • sociomaterialities of literacy, 31
  • technologies of literacy, 33
• Geeks, sexism and stereotypes, 17–18
• Genetic code-script, 206
• Giant Brains, or Machines that Think, 197
• Gilmore, William
  • benefits of literacy, 35–36
  • literacy as a necessity of life, 180, 193
• Girl Develop It, 13, 75
• Globaloria, 218
• GNU General Public License (GPL), 132
• Goldberg, Adele, 72
• Golumbia, David
  • computationalism, 202
  • critique of computationalism, 176
• González, Norma, 182, 186
• Goody, Jack
  • on alphabetic literacy, 30
  • autonomous model of literacy, 30, 240n148, 259n31
  • Bazerman on, 35, 239n123
  • on censuses, 149, 272n57
  • communication and governance, 144
  • consequences of literacy, 35
  • “The Consequences of Literacy,” 103, 259n28
  • historical uses for written censuses, 149
  • literacy and development of Western civilization, 103
  • literacy and the control of family affairs, 179
  • on literate mentalities, 181
  • restricted literacy, 150, 209
  • sociomaterial approach to writing technologies, 102–103
  • writing as a technology of the intellect, 95
• Google
  • celebrating Grace Hopper’s 107th birthday, 76
  • equal opportunity, 17
  • Made with Code initiative, 1, 13
  • sexism in image search for “geek
  • support for coding literacy, 1
  • teaching young women to code, 1
  • technical employees, diversity, 17
• Government. See also Legislation; Public information
  • automation through writing, 187
  • documents, in medieval England, 147
  • funding of computers, in twentieth-century America, 161–162, 276n126
  • information transparency, 25
  • surveillance project, 24
  • use of computers, in twentieth-century America, 155–162
• GPL (GNU General Public License), 132
• Graff, Harvey
  • on Eisenstein and McLuhan, 33
  • on industrialization in England vs. the U.S., 55
  • literacy as social and technological phenomenon, 32
  • on literacy campaigns, 58, 59
  • literacy causing social uplift, 35
  • the “literacy myth,” 31, 93
• Graham, Paul, 110
• Grammatization of
  • industrial machines, 119
  • information, 119
  • sound, 121
• Grammatology, 118–119
• Great divide between oral and literate cultures, 114, 181–182, 192
• Greek rhetorical tradition, 146
• Greenberger, Martin, 99
• Gregory VII (pope), 148
• GUIs (graphical user interfaces), 170, 221
• Guzdial, Mark
  • computational literacy, 9–10
  • contributor to the Hour of Code campaign, 76
  • CS for everyone, 14
  • the “geek gene
  • on learning to code, 43–44
  • mercenary focus of learning programming, 64
  • overemphasis on geek culture, 18
  • popular programming vs. professional use, 14
  • support for learning programming, 75
  • trends in education and work, 87–88

• Haas, Christina
  • affordances of computer screens, 33
  • literacy technologies, 228n11
  • sociomaterial approach to writing, 104
  • software for reading, 33
• Hacker News, 15
• Hackers, 67
• Harrell, Fox, 16
• Harvard University, 106, 158
• Havelock, Eric, 181
• Hawisher, Gail, 33–34
• Hayles, N. Katherine
  • computational universe, 202–203
  • creolization of media, 126–127
  • electronic literature analysis, 16
  • hierarchy of abstraction from speech to writing, 121
  • means-and-metaphor model of the world, 202
  • “The Regime of Computation,” 121, 177
  • translation of information across modes, 121
  • universal computer, 201
• Heath, Shirley Brice, 8, 30–31, 186
• Heidegger, Martin
  • “The Question Concerning Technology
  • sociomaterial approach to writing
  • technology enframing our world, 180
  • theories of technics, 119
• Henry II, King, 147
• Hierarchy of abstraction from speech to writing, 121
• High ceilings, 11, 231n45
• Hispanic technical employees at major tech companies, 17
• Hollerith, Herman, 157
• The Holocaust, 119
• Home computer. See Personal computers in twentieth-century America
• Hopkins, Sharon, 265n103
• Hopper, Grace
  • automatic programming, 23, 108, 165
  • balancing her checkbook, 260n41
  • first compiler, 108
  • 107th birthday observation, 76
• Hour of Code campaign
  • arguments for coding literacy, 45–46
  • current offerings, 76–77
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 78
• Houston, Drew
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 77
  • on supply and demand for engineers and coders, 84
• How to Do Things with Words, 114
• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), 73, 111
• Hugh, of St. Victor, 146, 191
• Human language vs. programming, 116–118, 250n113, 263n79
• Human-readable code, 107, 250n113
• Hypertext, 67

• IBM
  • antitrust suit, 277n135
  • as “concentration camp for information
  • development of Fortran, 108
  • establishment of a research arm, 162
  • Mark I computer, 158
  • OS/360 operating system, 162–164
  • Project Whirlwind, 159
  • SABRE airline reservation system
  • SHARE program, 164
  • symbol of corporate computing, 67
  • System/360 computers, 164
• IBM PC, 170
• Ideal literacy, 48
• Ideological arguments about education, 44–45
• Ideological model of literacy, 8, 103, 259n31
• IDEs (integrated development environments), 112
• Illiteracy
  • among prisoners, 53
  • among soldiers, 57
  • among voters, 194
  • in contract law, 195
  • definition, 2
  • disqualification from jury duty, 195
  • historical social uses, 47
  • immorality of, 2
  • measuring, 56–58
  • in medieval England, 141
  • vs. nonliteracy, 180
  • social stratification, 195–196
• Illiterate
  • etymology of the term, 47
  • with regard to computers, 53
• Illocutionary force, 115–116
• Ilves, Toomas Hendrik, 44, 82, 250n120
• Immigrant communities, a sociomaterial approach to writing, 104
• Indexing documents, 150
• Infrastructure of literacy
  • based on cultural literacy, 239n123
  • definition, 28, 143
  • properties of, 239n121
• Initial Orders program, 261n42
• Innis, Harold, 102, 143
• Inscripted knives, 153
• Intelligibility at a distance, 144
• International Symposium for Literacy, 60
• Internet, precursor to, 161. See also ARPANET
• Interpreters, 19
• Iranian elections, 213
• Ito, Mizuko, 217–219

• Java language, 21, 73–74, 108, 111–112, 234n61
• Javascript language, 12, 73, 111–112
• Jobs. See Employability for coders
• Jobs, Steve, 80, 169
• Johnson, Lyndon B., 60, 264n87
• Johnson, Samuel, 47
• John Wiley & Sons, 171
• Jones, Van, 79, 83, 218
• Journalists, as code writers, 289n164
• Judicial book (liber judiciarious). See Domesday Book

• Kafai, Yasmin
  • connected code, 231n45
  • on eCrafting circles, 221
  • low floors, high ceilings, wide walls, and open windows, 11, 231n45
  • programming as a sociolinguistic system, 115
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • Scratch language, 81
  • support for learning programming, 75
• Kafka, Ben
  • automation of governance through writing, 187
  • bureaucracy, word origin, 190
  • communication and governance, 144
  • democracy, word origin, 190
  • documentation in medieval governance, 283n58
  • on the power of literate clerks, 189–190
  • on the trial of a civil servant, 188
• Kay, Alan
  • computers for children, 72
  • consultant on Tron, 251n126
  • designing the Dynabook laptop, 69
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 77
  • KiddiComp, 169 (see also Dynabook personal computer)
  • on learning new ways to think, 80
  • on Papert’s influence on design of the Dynabook laptop, 79
  • “A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages
  • prototyping the Dynabook laptop, 72
  • shifting focus, 74
  • Smalltalk language, 72, 111
  • support for learning programming, 75
  • trends in education and work, 87–88
• Kelleher, Caitlin, 11, 262n58
• Kemeny, John
  • attending “Computers and the World of the Future
  • BASIC language, 43, 66, 110, 168
  • CAC (computing across the curriculum), 72–73
  • case for computer literacy, 79–80
  • computer literacy at the undergraduate level, 72
  • connection between programming and gaming, 220
  • Dartmouth initiative for computer literacy, 81–82, 156
  • drive to teach programming, 63–64
  • on the future of computers and intelligent machines, 82
  • on the importance of computer literacy, 43
  • learning programming in Estonia, 82
  • on learning programming outside of computer science, 18–19
  • novice-to-expert progression in programming, 73
  • support for learning programming, 75
  • trends in education and work, 87–88
  • WAC (writing across the curriculum), 73, 252n135
  • on widespread access to computing, 66
• Keywords metaphor, 27, 238n120. See also Metaphors for literacy
• Keywords project, 7, 229n16
• KiddiComp computer, 169
• Kidney transplant, cartoon, 2
• Kids. See Children
• Killer apps, 163
• Kirschenbaum, Matthew, 20, 264n85
• Kittler, Friedrich, 106, 190
• Klawe, Maria, 75
• The knight and the cleric, 189–190, 283n62
• Knives, inscripted, 153
• Knuth, Donald
  • history of CS (computer science), 11–12
  • literate programming, 124
• Kohanski, Daniel
  • on digital technology and data preservation, 120–121
  • the power of programmers, 36–38
• Kurland, D. Midian
  • programming as a unitary skill, 104
  • sociomaterial approach to writing, 101–102, 104
• Kurtz, Thomas
  • BASIC language, 43, 66, 110, 168
  • computer literacy at the undergraduate level, 72
  • connection between programming and gaming, 220
  • Dartmouth initiative for computer literacy, 81–82, 156
  • drive to teach programming, 63–64
  • learning programming in Estonia, 82
  • novice-to-expert progression in programming, 73
  • support for learning programming
  • trends in education and work, 87–88
  • on widespread access to computing, 66

• Language libraries, 111
• Languages, programming. See Programming languages; specific languages
• Larousse, Pierre, 188
• Latin
  • in medieval England, 149, 152, 184–186, 245n44, 271n50
  • value of, in education, 102
• Latour, Bruno, 33, 104
• Laubach, Frank, 60
• Leaky knowledge, 134–137
• Learning new ways to think, 79–81, 89–90, 242n170
• Learning programming. See Programming, learning
• Learn to code movement, 46, 244n17
• Learn to code websites, 13
• Legacy code, 128–129
• Legislation, tracking state bills, 25. See also Government, information transparency
• Le Goff, Jacques, 181–182, 281n14
• Leibniz, Gottfried, 99
• Lessig, Lawrence
  • East Coast Code vs. West Coast Code, 83
  • on legal access to raw material, 222
• Levi-Strauss, Claude, 16, 234n68
• Liber judiciarious (judicial book). See Domesday Book
• Library policies, 151, 273n72
• Licklider, J.C.R.
  • attending “Computers and the World of the Future
  • “The Computer as Communication Device
  • development of ARPANET, 161–162, 199
  • on the nature of programming
  • on symbiosis between man and computer, 99
• Lingua franca
  • BASIC, home computing, 71, 174
  • coding as, 92
  • English in most programming languages, 236n85, 262n62
• Linguistics, 202–203
• Linux, 131
• Lisa computer, 169
• Lisp language, 72, 108–110
• Literacy. See also Coding literacy; Computer literacy; Metaphors for literacy; Reading; Sociomaterialities of literacy; Writing
  • abstracting away from specific tools, 10
  • as access to information, 47
  • across materialities, cultures, and eras, 31
  • across race and class, 244n17
  • applied to computers, 43
  • Catholic Church, role of, 52
  • changing nature of, 2, 5–6
  • the cleric and the knight, 189–190, 283n62
  • compulsory schooling and class divisions, 54–55
  • from computational mentality, 205–206
  • as consequence of adopting writing, 30
  • and the control of family affairs, 179
  • and crime, 53, 245n44
  • cycles of, 8
  • David Barton on, 46–47
  • defining, 2, 4, 45–47, 228n9
  • as the definition of citizenship, 81
  • and development of Western civilization, 103
  • and the devil, 154
  • digital, 6
  • emergence of the civic model of literacy, 53
  • as epistemological keyword, 45
  • ethnographic study of, 8, 186, 193
  • etymology of the term, 46–47
  • functional (see Functional literacy)
  • historical purposes for, 45–47
  • ideal, 48
  • ideological model of, 8, 30–31, 103, 259n31
  • infrastructure of, definition, 143
  • lay literacy grew out of bureaucracy, 145
  • vs. literacies, 28
  • mapping, 7, 229n16
  • Martin Luther, role of, 52
  • from material intelligences, 29
  • measuring, 56–58 (see also Literacy rates; Measuring literacy)
  • medieval Europe, 52
  • metaphors for, 27, 48, 238n120
  • in the military, 54–55
  • as model for computational thinking, 9–11
  • moral basis for, 45
  • as moral good, 52–56
  • from moral quality to technological good, 45–46, 52–56
  • multiliteracies, 32
  • in national economic development, 45–46
  • as a necessity of life, 180, 193–196
  • nineteenth century Europe, 52
  • origins of mass programming ideologies, 52–56
  • parallels with programming, 44
  • as a performance of violence or oppression, 8
  • in personal success, 45–46
  • pillars of, 9, 96
  • platform literacy, 3
  • power of literate clerks, 189–190
  • procedural, 16, 100, 127
  • programming as (see Programming as literacy)
  • as progress, 31
  • as qualification for voting, 81
  • reading and writing as, 47
  • requirement for civic participation, 194
  • restricted, 150, 209
  • rightful owners of, 62
  • and schooling, 52–53, 56
  • shaped by social structures, 34
  • situated literacies, 32–33
  • skills included as, 2, 6
  • as social and technological phenomenon, 32
  • social stratification, 195
  • standardized schooled literacy, 54
  • tests for voting, 194
• Literacy, definition
  • according to diSessa, 143, 239n127
  • according to Vee, 216
  • functional, 48
  • history of the term, 47
  • overly broad definitions, 28–29
  • by popular acclaim, 50
  • social definitions across history, 34
  • tendency to expand, 48–49
  • UNESCO, 47
  • used in this book, 27, 216
• Literacy, expectations of
  • differences, 244n17
  • literacy crises, 34, 50
  • major factors affecting, 50
  • men vs. women, 244n17
  • in the workplace, 48–49
• Literacy and power
  • benefits of literacy, 35–36
  • computational networks, 36–38
  • consolidating technologies, 34
  • disadvantaged communities, 35–36, 39
  • gender bias in search results, 37 (see also Search results)
  • inconsistent dispersal, 39
  • literacy technologies, 34
  • programming, as platform literacy, 34–35
  • the struggle for literacy, 35–36, 39
• Literacy campaigns. See also Literacy rates; Measuring literacy
  • Adult Education Act of 1966, 60
  • adult literacy organizations, 60
  • for African Americans, 58
  • Christian influence, 60, 62
  • Cold War, 64
  • in Cuba, 59
  • Decree of Illiteracy, 59
  • Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, 60
  • empowerment in education, 60
  • ideologies in, 58–59, 87, 247n76
  • International Symposium for Literacy, 60
  • major political shifts, 58
  • Moonlight Schools, 62
  • National Institute for Literacy, 61
  • National Literacy Act of 1991, 60–61
  • in Nicaragua, 59, 61
  • overview, 58–62
  • post-revolutionary Russia, 59
  • programming skills, 63–64 (see also Mass programming campaigns)
  • ProLiteracy, 60
  • reading vs. writing, 62
  • religion, 59, 60
  • rightful owners of literacy, 62
  • Scotland in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 61
  • socialist ideology in education, 59
  • Soviet ideology, 59, 61
  • technology, 62–64
  • War on Poverty, 60
• Literacy crises, 34, 50
• Literacy levels, measuring. See Literacy rates
• The “literacy myth”, 31, 93, 248n77, 259n31
• Literacy rates. See also Measuring literacy
  • Sweden in the seventeenth century, 56
  • U.S. Census Bureau survey of 1986, 60–61
  • U.S. Department of Education, 57
  • in the United States, 2
• Literacy rates among women
  • in comparison to men, 244n17
  • end of seventeenth century, 195
  • medieval England, 152, 184
  • in underdeveloped countries, 196
• Literate habits and assumptions, 150–151
• “Literate man,” 103, 192
• Literate mentality. See also Computational mentality
  • critical assumptions, 181
  • definition of mentality, 181
  • funds of knowledge, 182, 186
  • history of, 281n14
  • pooling of resources, 182, 186
• Literate mentality, transition toward
  • among late medieval English people, 144
  • automation of governance through writing, 187–188
  • beginning of, 179–180
  • bureaucracy’s role in, 179
  • forgery, 188–189, 283n62
  • French Revolution, 187
  • history of textual literacy, 180
  • precursors to, 150
  • role of the printing press, 191–192
  • text as a substitute for human action, 187–188
  • writing as a representation of truth, 191–192
  • written bureaucracy, anxiety about, 188–191
• Literate programming, 124
• Little Brother, 177
• Live code performances, 126
• Local city governments, computational literacy, 210
• Locutionary force, 115–116
• Logo language
  • for children, 79
  • critique of, 101–102, 258n19
  • development of, 72
  • in Estonian school initiative, 218
  • focus on learning, 254n162
  • geared toward novices, 110
  • as an object to think with, 101
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • in schools, 171
• Loops, 118
• Lorenz machine, 157
• Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet program, 170
• Lovelace, Ada, 101, 114–116
• Low barriers to entry, 11, 231n45
• Low floors, 11, 231n45
• Luther, Martin
  • evolving literacy from moral quality to technological good, 52
  • on literacy campaigns, 59
  • on truth in the church, 191

• Machine code vs. source code, 19–20, 107
• “Machine of the Year” for 1982, 170
• Macintosh computer, 169
• Made with Code initiative, 13
• Mahoney, Michael
  • evolution of programming in twentieth-century America, 140–141
  • programming as software engineering, 12
• Maintainability of code, 130
• Malbolge language, 125–126, 266n115
• Male-dominated computer culture, 17, 110
• Male stereotypes in programming, 17–18
• Managing software projects
  • Autoflow program, 165
  • automatic programming, 165
  • silver bullets for, 164
  • software planning, 165
• Manchester Baby Computer, 275n110
• “Man-Computer Symbiosis
• Mann, Horace, 53
• Manufacturing-distribution complex, 166–167
• Mapping literacy, 7, 229n16
• Margolis, Jane
  • deterrences to women in computer science, 15, 17–18
  • support for learning programming, 75
• Mark I computer, 106, 158, 197
• Martin, Trayvon, 79
• Massively open online courses (MOOCs), 74
• Mass programming, outside of college campuses, 69–72
• Mass programming campaigns. See also Programming, learning
  • critique of computer literacy, 88–89
  • metaphors for promoting programming in K-12 schools, 252n145
  • training students for software jobs, 89–90
  • trends in education and work, 87–91
• Mass programming campaigns, history of
  • access for poor and minority groups, 74
  • Bell Laboratories, 65
  • Carnegie Tech, 65
  • Code.org, 75
  • computer counterculture movement, 67
  • “Computers and the World of the Future
  • computers for everybody, 67–68
  • Dartmouth College, 65–67
  • first public argument for coding as literacy, 65
  • focus on the World Wide Web, 73
  • free online resources, 75
  • Freshman Computer Appreciation Course, 65–66
  • HTML, 73
  • Java, 73–74
  • MIT, 65
  • MOOCs (massively open online courses), 74
  • OLPC (One Laptop Per Child) project, 74–75
  • PCC (People’s Computer Company), 67–68
  • rise in computer science majors, 74
  • software consumerism, 73–74
  • Stanford University Mathematics Department, 65
  • University of Michigan, 65
  • “The Use of Computers in Engineering Classroom Instruction
  • West Coast programming initiatives, 67
• Mass programming campaigns, ideological drivers
  • citizenship, 81–83
  • collective progress, 81–83
  • computer as servant, 77–79
  • dominant arguments, 76–77, 252n145 (see also specific arguments)
  • East Coast Code vs. West Coast Code, 83
  • economic concerns, 83–87
  • employability, 83–87
  • individual empowerment, 77–79
  • introduction, 75–76
  • learning new ways to think, 79–81, 89–90, 242n170
  • social justice movements in the 1960s, 78
  • software crisis in the 1960s, 84
• Mateas, Michael
  • creativity with code, 123–124, 126
  • procedural literacy, 9, 16, 127
• Material intelligence
  • definition of literacy, 216
  • pillars of, 96
  • programming as, 29, 99–102
  • writing as, 99–102
  • writing as contributor to, 182
• Materiality of literacy, 33–34
• The Matrix Trilogy, 177
• Matsumoto, Yukihiro (Matz), 134
• Mauchly, John, 21
• Max/MSP language, 111
• McCarthy, John
  • development of Lisp, 108
  • on procedural knowledge in programming, 100
• McGovern, George, 228n9
• McKinley, William, 53, 57
• McLuhan, Marshall
  • bias in communication, 102–103
  • “electronic man,” 104, 192
  • eras in the development of literacy
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 192
  • Harvey Graff on, 33
  • literacy as progress, 31
  • “literate man
  • “oral man
  • sociomaterial approach to writing technologies, 102–104
  • “the medium is the message
  • writing as an extension of man, 95
• Means-and-metaphor model of the world, 202
• Measuring literacy. See also Literacy campaigns; Literacy rates
  • American National Adult Literacy Surveys, 57, 247n72
  • low literacy levels, 57
  • overview, 56–58
  • takeoff theory of literacy, 57, 247n71
  • U.S. Department of Education, 57
• “Mechanizers,” in government, 187
• Media archaeology, 104
• Memex, 99, 197
• Memorization, medieval England, 146–147
• Memory palace, 146
• Mentalities. See also Literate mentality
  • definition, 181
  • history of, 281n14
• Mesopotamia
  • ancient censuses, 272n57
  • early writing, 269n10
• Metaphors for literacy. See also Keywords metaphor
  • as adaptation, 48
  • definition, 27, 238n120
  • driving literacy promotion, 48
  • functional literacy, 48
  • lessons for society, 45
  • as power, 48
  • promoting programming in K-12 schools, 252n145
  • as a state of grace, 48
• Microsoft
  • diversity, 17
  • launching of, 169
• Military, literacy in, 54–55
• Mill, James, 188
• Mind and self, models of. See Computational models of the mind and self
• Mindstorms, 79, 171, 254n162
• Minorities in technical positions, 17
• Minority Report, 177
• Minsky, Marvin, 203
• Mission statements
  • Code.org, 13, 232n56
  • National Institute for Literacy, 61
• MIT
  • artificial intelligence and human psychology, 203
  • BASIC on the Altair 8800, 70
  • Free Software Movement, 71
  • history of the SAGE project, 276n111
  • Lifelong Kindergarten Team, 80
  • mass programming campaigns, history of, 65
  • Project Whirlwind, 159
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • Scratch language, 1, 44, 80–81, 110
• Modernism vs. post modernism, 284n80
• Modkit language, 111
• Modularity of computers, 109
• Moldovan elections, 213
• Moll, Luis, 182, 186
• Montfort, Nick, 16
  • creativity with code, 123–124
  • Exploratory Programming for the Arts and Humanities, 16–17
  • introduction to programming with Python, 16–17
  • swapping BASIC programs in the 1980s, 26
• MOOCs (massively open online courses), 74
• Moonlight Schools, 62
• Moral basis for literacy, 45
• Movies. See Video, TV, and movies
• Mozilla Development Center, 130
• Mozilla Style Guide, 130–131
• MS-DOS operating system, 170
• Multiliteracies, 32. See also Sociomaterialities of literacy
• Mumford, Lewis, 180
• Munroe, Randall, 36–37
• MyBO (My Barack Obama website), 25
• My Computer Likes Me When I Speak Basic, 68

• Nasser, Ramsay, 262n62
• National Institute for Literacy, mission statement, 61
• National Literacy Act of 1991, 60–61
• National Science Foundation drive, 63
• Nation at Risk, 57, 61, 64
• Natural language programs, 113
• Naughton, John, 44, 243n11
• Nelson, Ted
  • computer counterculture movement, 67–69
  • Computer Lib/Dream Machines, 67, 82
  • creator of hypertext, 67–69
  • IBM as “concentration camp for information
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 77
  • My Computer Likes Me When I Speak BASIC, 67
  • Southern California Computer Society, 70
• Net neutrality, 210
• Network effects of code, 224, 292n27
• New Yorker, cartoons, 2, 198
• Newell, Gabe, 77
• “A new kind of science
• New London Group, 32–33
• New materialism, 104
• “The New Wave of Home Computers
• Nicaragua, literacy campaign, 59, 61
• NLS (New Literacy Studies). See also Sociomaterialities of literacy
  • emergence of, 30
  • focus on sociocultural aspects of literacies, 31–32, 33
  • on literacies, 31–32
  • literacy as progress, 31
  • multiliteracies, 32
  • restricted literacy, 209
  • a sociomaterial approach to writing, 103–104
  • tenets of, 30–31
  • writing as a technology, 32
• Node-RED language, 111
• Non-coder, 50
• Nonliterate vs. illiterate, 180
• Non-programmer, 50
• Norman control of medieval England, 144, 146–147
• Novices
  • Logo language, 110
  • programming languages for, 11, 110–111
  • taxonomy of approaches to teaching, 262n58
• Novice-to-expert progression in programming, 73

• Obama, Barack
  • Coder in Chief, 1
  • Computer Science for All initiative, 87
  • promoting Code.org, 76
  • social network website, MyBO, 25
  • support for coding literacy, 1
  • on video games, 220
• Obesity, connection to video games, 220, 291n14
• Obfuscating code languages, 125
• Objective C language, 112
• Object-oriented languages
  • benefits of, 262n60
  • Smalltalk, 111, 169
• Of Grammatology, 119, 121
• Ohmann, Richard
  • on compulsory schooling and class divisions, 55
  • “Literacy, Technology, and Monopoly Capital
  • on literacy campaigns, 247n76
• Old/Middle English language, 271n50
• OLPC (One Laptop Per Child) project, 64, 74–75
• Olson, David
  • definition of computational mentality, 182
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 104, 192
  • modernism vs. post modernism, 284n80
  • on shifts in ways of reading, 180, 191–193
  • text as representation of truth, 192–193
  • on the threshold for literate mentality, 190–191
  • verbatim, word origin, 192
  • writing, as contributor to material intelligence, 182
• Ong, Walter
  • communication and governance, 144
  • human language vs. programming, 116–117
  • on literate mentalities, 181
  • on Plato, 284n69
  • sociomaterial approach to writing technologies, 102–103
  • on Socrates, 117
  • spatializing temporal information, 121
  • writing as technology that restructures thought, 95, 103
  • writing and orality, 24
• Online journalism, programming, 208
• Online resources. See also Code.org
  • free, 75
  • for self-teaching programming, 12–13
  • Stack Overflow, 14
• Open-source software
  • communities of practice, 133
  • community identity, 132
  • Debian, 132
  • Firefox, 132
  • F/OSS (free or open-source software), 71, 134–136
  • FreeBSD operating system, 132–133
  • GPL (GNU General Public License), 132
  • Linux, 131
  • origin in 1980s, 71
  • Ruby language, 134
  • social organization of code, 131–134
• Open windows, 11, 231n45
• “Oral man,” 103, 192
• Oregon Trail game, 171
• OS/360 operating system, 162–164, 277n136
• Outsourcing education, 90
• Ozouf, Jacques
  • French literacy in the middle ages, 175
  • literacy and social stratification, 195
  • literacy as a moral good, 52
  • literacy campaigns, 61, 62
  • measuring literacy, 56

• Pair programming, 130–131, 267n138
• Palimpsest code, 128–129
• PanAm reservation system, 163
• Papert, Seymour
  • artificial intelligence, 203
  • children as computer users, 69, 72
  • computers as objects to think with, 79
  • on extracurricular activities, 221
  • influence on design of the Dynabook laptop, 79
  • Lisp language, 72
  • making computer science appeal to more women, 15–16
  • Mindstorms, 79, 171, 254n162
  • programming as object to think with, 101
  • shifting focus, 74
  • support for learning programming
• Papert, Seymour, Logo language
  • in Cold War educational strategy, 79
  • critique of, 258n19
  • development of, 72
  • in schools, 171
• Paper vs. computer screens, 104
• Partovi, Ali
  • on attracting women and minorities to programming, 78
  • on employability for coders, 85
  • founding of Code.org, 76
  • promoting computational literacy
  • promotional video, 76, 253n146
• Partovi, Hadi
  • on Code.org’s URL, 14, 228n15
  • computer science vs. programming, 18
  • founding of Code.org, 76
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 77
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • promotional video, 76, 253n146
• Patent trolls, 222
• Pausch, Randy
  • programming languages for novices, 11, 262n58
  • support for learning programming, 75
• PCC (People’s Computer Company)
  • first newsletter, cover art, 68
  • founding of, 67
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 77
  • support for BASIC, 69
• PDP computer required new programming languages (1960s), 21
• Pea, Roy, 101–102, 104
• People of color
  • Black Girls Code initiative, 13, 78–79
  • technical employees at major tech companies, 17
  • search results, images of black women, 37
• People of color, learning to code
  • Black Girls Code, 13, 78–79
  • coding boot camps, 13
  • Girl Develop It, 13
  • Hacker News, 15
  • learn-to-code websites, 13
  • Made with Code initiative, 13
  • self-teaching programming, 12–13
  • Stack Overflow, 14
  • #YesWeCode, 13
• People’s Computer Company Newsletter
• Perfect execution of code, 264n85
• Performative statements vs. descriptive, 114–116
• Perlis, Alan
  • computer literacy at the undergraduate level, 72
  • Freshman Computer Appreciation Course, 65–66
  • on the importance of computer literacy, 43
  • inspiration for BASIC and DTSS, 66
  • on widespread access to computing, 66
• Perlocutionary force, 115–116
• “A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages
• Personal computers in twentieth-century America
  • Altair 8800, 168
  • Apple II, 169, 171
  • arcade games, 170
  • Atari, 170–171
  • BASIC language, 168–169, 171, 174
  • Commodore 64, 170–173
  • Commodore PET, 169, 171
  • common languages, 171 (see also specific languages)
  • educational applications, 171
  • in elementary schools and homes
  • game industry, 170
  • games, 171
  • graphical user interface, 170
  • IBM PC, 170
  • KiddiComp computer, 169
  • Lisa computer, 169
  • Logo language in schools, 171
  • Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet program, 170
  • “Machine of the Year” for 1982, 170
  • Macintosh computer, 169
  • movie special effects, 170
  • MS-DOS operating system, 170
  • “The New Wave of Home Computers
  • Oregon Trail game, 171
  • overview, 167–174
  • programming tools, 171
  • research on user interaction, 169
  • seeds of, 168
  • Smalltalk language, 169
  • tipping point, 170
  • TRS-80, 169
  • uses for, 168–169
  • VisiCalc spreadsheet program, 170
• Personality profiling for programmers, 17
• Pharmakon, 120
• Physical technologies vs. programming, 98
• Piaget, Jean, 79, 101
• Pierce, Charles, 117
• Pillars of literacy and material intelligence
  • Andrea diSessa, 9
  • calculus notation, 96
  • cognitive, 96, 102
  • social, 96, 102
  • technological, 96, 102
• Pittsburgh, accessing public information, 25
• Platform literacy
  • computational literacy as, 207
  • programming as, 3, 34–35
• Plato
  • anxiety about writing, 120, 284n69
  • Phaedrus, 189
  • on Socrates, 117, 189
• Political support for computational literacy, 219–220
• Pooling of resources, 182, 186
• Poor and minority groups
  • mass programming campaigns for, 74
  • struggling to obtain literacy and power, 35–36
  • as technical employees, 17
• Portable books, 151
• Post modernism vs. modernism, 284n80
• Power structures in code, 264n85
• Prensky, Marc
  • digital immigrants vs. digital natives, 260n32
  • on the importance of learning programming, 44
• Prince, 79
• 10 PRINT CHR$(205.5+RND(1)); : GOTO 10, 73
• Print era, significance of, 180
• Printing press, role in literate mentality, 191–192
• Proceduracy, 9
• Procedural epistemology, 100
• Procedural knowledge, 100
• Procedural literacy, 9, 16, 100
• Procedural rhetoric, 9
• Procedures as actions, 20
• Processing language, 218
• Professionalizing programming, 12
• Profiling for programmers, 17
• Programmers
  • aptitude tests for, 165–166
  • defining, 209
  • job title, 6
  • personality profiling, 17
  • recruiting in the 1960s, 165–166
  • women, in the 1960s, 165–166
• Programmer time vs. computer time, 110–111
• Programming. See also Coding; Computation
  • author’s definition, 6–7
  • automatic, 23
  • barriers to, 5, 12
  • building new knowledge, 105
  • vs. coding, 6
  • comparative contexts for reading and writing, 4–5
  • vs. computer science, 18–19
  • definition, 143
  • and the democratic process, 82
  • downsourcing, 208
  • equitable distribution of abilities
  • as an essential skill, 14
  • evolving into literacy, 29
  • as an exercise in applied semiotics, 117
  • historical parallels with writing, 139–145
  • history of, 11–13
  • vs. human language, 116–118, 250n113, 263n79
  • lowering barriers to, 12
  • as material intelligence, 29
  • as object to think with, 101
  • for online journalism, 208
  • as platform literacy, 3, 34–35
  • popular vs. professional use, 14, 17
  • as a profession, 12
  • purpose of, 64–65
  • as scaffold for knowledge, 101
  • for scientific experiments, 15
  • as a sociolinguistic system, 115
  • software engineering, 12
  • as a specialized skill, 207–209
  • trade-offs between writing and programming, 120
  • transformative access to, 8
  • transitioning from art to science, 12
  • ugly code, 15
  • as a unitary skill, 104
  • women in the origins of, 12
  • as written communication, 5–6
• Programming, a sociomaterial approach
  • cognitive benefits of, 102
  • commonalities with writing, 95
  • as material intelligence, 99–102
  • as object to think with, 101
  • vs. physical technologies, 98
  • procedural knowledge, 100
  • as scaffold for knowledge, 101
  • technoromanticism, 102
  • as a unitary skill, 102
• Programming, equal opportunity
  • Black Girls Code initiative, 13, 78–79
  • brogrammer identity, 18
  • deterrences to women, 15, 17–18
  • disadvantaged groups, 17
  • the “geek gene
  • male domination, 17, 110
  • parallels with literacy, 44
  • people of color, 17
  • personality profiling, 17
  • programmer identity, 18
  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 17, 235n73
  • women and minorities, 17, 78
  • women in early computing, 108
  • #YesWeCode, 79, 83
• Programming, learning. See also Educational programs for programming; Mass programming campaigns
  • Assemble in Pittsburgh, 75
  • blurring of national boundaries, 90–91
  • boot camps for, 75
  • Bootstrap program, 44
  • bricolage approach to education, 16, 234n68
  • children (see Children, learning to code)
  • Codecademy.org, 75, 90
  • CodeCombat game, 44
  • CodeFellows, 75
  • CoderDojo, 75
  • Code School, 75
  • Code & Supply, 75
  • conflicts of interest between programmers and management, 136
  • Dash and Dot robots, 44
  • devbootcamp, 75
  • in Estonia (see Estonia, teaching programming in)
  • FreeCodeCamp, 75
  • Girl Develop It, 75
  • ideological arguments about education, 44–45
  • importance of, 44
  • Khan Academy, 75
  • “learn to code movement
  • mercenary focus, 64
  • National Science Foundation drive, 63
  • novice-to-expert progression, 73
  • One Laptop Per Child project, 64
  • outside of computer science, 18–19
  • outsourcing education, 90
  • overemphasis on geek culture, 18
  • programming as an essential skill, 14
  • programs for (see Educational programs for programming)
  • Scratch program, 44
  • self-sponsored learning, 135
  • Silicon Valley campaigns, 64
  • in Singapore, 82
  • Tiger’s Leap initiative, 44
  • in the United Kingdom, 82
  • vocational training, 75
  • war on learning, 90
  • women (see Women, learning to code)
• Programming, transition to mass literacy
  • in the everyday lives of citizens, 139–145
  • overview, 139–145
• Programming as literacy
  • central arguments for, 4
  • heritage of moral goodness, 1–3
  • importance of, 9
  • other literacies built on, 3
  • terminology matters, 7
• Programming as writing. See also Writing
  • assemblers, 19
  • automatic programming, 23
  • Bogost on, 20
  • bricolage, 19
  • code as executable language, 20
  • communication with and across computers, 21–22
  • compilers, 19
  • etymology of the term programming, 21
  • evolution of, 20–22
  • executing code, 20
  • increasing necessity of, 22–23
  • interpreters, 19
  • introduction, 19
  • machine code, 19–20
  • with natural language interface
  • object code (see Machine code)
  • procedures as actions, 20
  • running code, 20
  • similarity between code and human language, 21, 250n113
  • source code, 19–20
  • translating programs, 19, 236n85
• Programming languages. See also Computers, evolution of
  • ALGOL language, 109, 261n52
  • Alice language, 110
  • Arabic language, 262n62
  • assembly programs, 107, 261n42
  • automatic programming, 107–108
  • BASIC language, 110–112
  • binary programming, 107
  • black boxes, 111
  • Blockly language, 111
  • C language, 112
  • C++ language, 112
  • COBOL language, 108–109, 113, 261n52
  • Colossus computer, 106
  • compilers, 107–108
  • Django language, 111
  • early mechanical and electrical computers, 106
  • English as lingua franca, 236n85, 262n62
  • ENIAC computer, 106, 161
  • Etoys language, 110
  • a focus on novices, 110–111
  • Fortran (formula translation), 108, 113
  • high ceilings, 11, 231n45
  • HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), 111
  • human-readable code, 107
  • IDEs (integrated development environments), 112
  • influence of social factors, 112
  • Initial Orders, 261n42
  • Java language, 112
  • Javascript language, 111
  • language libraries, 111
  • Lisp language, 108–110
  • Logo language, 110
  • low barriers to entry, 11, 231n45
  • low floors, 11, 231n45
  • Mark I computer, 106
  • Max/MSP language, 111
  • mid-twentieth century, 110–111
  • Modkit language, 111
  • modularity, 109
  • natural language programs, 113
  • Node-RED language, 111
  • Objective C language, 112
  • object-oriented languages, 111
  • open windows, 11, 231n45
  • overview, 106–113
  • present day, 112–113
  • programmer time vs. computer time, 110–111
  • Python language, 111
  • room for diverse applications, 11, 231n45
  • room for growing proficiency, 11, 231n45
  • Ruby language, 111–112
  • Ruby on Rails language, 111
  • Scheme language, 110
  • Scratch language, 110
  • sharing, 11, 231n45
  • Simula language, 111
  • Smalltalk language, 111
  • source code vs. machine code, 107
  • stored programming, 106
  • structured programming, 109
  • technical affordances, 112
  • trade-offs between freedom and constraint, 111–112
  • UNIVAC computer, 108
  • visual programming languages, 111, 262n59
  • von Neumann architecture, 106
  • wide walls, 11, 231n45
  • World War II era, 106
• Programming tools, 171
• Programming vs. writing
  • differences, 113–114
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 114
  • illocutionary force, 115–116
  • locutionary force, 115–116
  • performative statements vs. descriptive, 114–116
  • perlocutionary force, 115–116
  • programming as a sociolinguistic system, 115
  • social context for computers, 115
  • speech act theory, 97, 106, 114
  • speech rules, 115
• Programs, debugging. See Debugging code
• Project Whirlwind, 159
• ProLiteracy, 60
• Property boundaries, medieval England, 147, 148
• Pseudocode, 122
• Publications. See Books and publications
• Public information. See also Government, information transparency
  • democratized data, 25
  • Pittsburgh area, 25
  • tracking, 25
• Python language
  • creator of, 43
  • definition, 243n3
  • Exploratory Programming for the Arts and Humanities, 16–17
  • introduction to programming with, 16–17
  • in the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project, 74
  • promoting computational literacy
  • role of literacy in creation of, 43–44

• Quantified self movement, 204
• Quasi-literacy, 185–186
• Queneau, Raymond, 123
• “The Question Concerning Technology

• Race, Rhetoric, and Technology, 74
• Ramsay, Stephen
  • algorithmic criticism, 16
  • on digital humanists, 234n68
  • on learning new ways to think, 80
• Raspberry Pi, in wearable technologies, 1, 227n6
• Rationalization of
  • bureaucratic control, 144
  • information through digital technology, 120
  • the world, 119
• Reading. See also Writing
  • comparative contexts for programming, 4–5
  • heritage of moral goodness, 1–3
  • history of, 5
  • as literacy, 47
  • shifts in methods, 191–193
  • software for, 33
  • technology of, 228n9
  • vs. writing, focus of literacy campaigns, 62
• Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space), 201, 287n126
• “The Regime of Computation,” 121, 177
• Religion, ideological driver of literacy campaign, 59, 60
• Religious representations, medieval England, 153
• Resnick, Mitchel
  • on learning new ways to think, 80–81
  • mercenary focus of learning programming, 64
  • promoting computational literacy, 218
  • support for learning programming, 75
  • trends in education and work, 87–88
• Resources. See Books and publications; Online resources; Video, TV, and movies
• Restricted code, 123, 265n103
• Restricted literacy, 150, 209
• Retrievable documents, medieval England, 150, 272n57
• Richard I, King, 148
• “Rise of the Journalist Programmer
• Roman rhetorical tradition, 146
• Rosch, Eleanor
  • computational models of the mind and self, 203
  • computational models of the world, 201
• Ruby language, 111–112, 134
• Ruby on Rails language, 111, 262n61
• Running code, 20
• R.U.R, 198
• Rushkoff, Douglas
  • on the importance of learning programming, 44
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 78
• Russia, post-revolutionary ideological drivers of literacy, 59
• Ryerson, Egerton, 53

• SABRE airline reservation system, 162–163
• SAGE (Semi Automatic Ground Environment) missile defense, 159–161, 199, 276n111
• Scale, affordances of form in code, 118–122
• Scheme language, 110
• Schooled literacy, 56
• Schrödinger, Erwin, 200
• Scientific experiments, code for. See Programming, for scientific experiments
• Scratch language
  • after school activities, 221
  • educational initiatives, 44
  • history of, 110
  • promoting computational literacy
  • teaching children to code, 1
  • teaching programmers to think
• Scribner, Sylvia
  • on defining literacy, 2, 27, 215, 228n9
  • on educational opportunities, 291n4
  • illiteracy, evaluating the problem of, 215
  • on learning new ways to think, 80
  • literacy, psychological differences in individuals, 33
  • metaphors for literacy, 45, 48
  • sociological study of Vai people of Liberia, 32, 33, 103, 135
  • sociomaterial approach to writing
• Scripting, definition, 6
• Script kiddies, definition, 6
• Scriptons, 126–127
• SDC (Systems Development Corporation), 160–161
• Sealing wax, 147
• Search results
  • gender bias in results, 37
  • images of black women, 37
  • “right to explanation” law, 38
  • sexism in image search for “geek
• Searle, John, 115
• The Second Self, 203
• Self, models of. See Computational models of the mind and self
• Selfe, Cynthia, 33–34
• Self-sponsored learning, 135
• Self-teaching programming, 12–13
• Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) missile defense, 159–161, 199, 276n111
• Sexism. See Programming, equal opportunity; specific cases
• Shakespeare Programming Language (SPL), 124–125
• Shannon, Claude, 107
• SHARE program, 164
• Shaw, Mary
  • popular programming vs. professional use, 15
  • programming as software engineering, 12
• Signatory seals, 153
• Signatures, 186, 209
• Silicon Valley campaigns to learn programming, 64
• Silver bullets for managing software projects, 164
• Simula language, 111
• Singapore, learning programming, 82
• Situated literacies, 32–33
• Skills required for coding literacy, 11
• Skinner, B. F., 30
• Smalltalk language, 111, 169, 254n162
• Smartphones, 204
• Snow, C. P., 42, 243n11
• Snow Crash, 177
• Snyder, Betty, 108
• Social coding, 127–128
• Social context for computers, 115
• Social factors, influence on programming languages, 112
• Socialist ideology in education, driver of literacy campaign, 59
• Social media, computational model of the mind and self, 204, 288n152
• Social organization of code, 131–134
• Social pillars of literacy, 9, 96
• Social uplift, 31
• Sociological studies of literacy
  • Carolina Piedmont, 30, 186
  • ethnographic study of literacy, 8
  • Vai people of Liberia, 32, 33, 103, 135
• Sociomaterialities
  • of programming (see Programming, a sociomaterial approach)
  • of writing (see Writing, a sociomaterial approach)
• Sociomaterialities of literacy. See also Literacy, defining; NLS (New Literacy Studies)
  • cognitive revolution in psychology, 30
  • communications media shaping our use of language, 33
  • computers changing writing, 33–34
  • eras in the development of literacy, 30
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 30, 181–182
  • ideological perspective, 31
  • infrastructural communication technology, 28
  • infrastructure, definition, 28, 239n121
  • introduction, 27
  • lifting up individuals or societies, 31
  • literacy as consequence of adopting writing, 30
  • literacy as social and technological phenomenon, 32
  • literacy crises, 34, 50
  • the “literacy myth,” 31, 93
  • literacy shaped by social structures, 34
  • literacy vs. literacies, 28
  • material intelligences into literacies, 29
  • metaphors for literacy, 27, 238n120
  • multiliteracies, 32
  • new materialities, 30
  • new technology spawning literacies, 33–34
  • overly broad definitions of literacy, 28–29
  • psychological differences in individuals, 33
  • separating oral and literate discourse, 30
  • social definition of literacy across history, 34
  • social uplift, 31
• Socrates
  • in Plato’s Phaedrus, 189
  • on writing as a dull child, 117
• Software
  • as a commodity, 71
  • consumerism, 73–74
  • for reading, 33
• Software crisis, 165, 277n136
• Software engineering
  • vs. computer science, 15
  • overextending, 16
  • programming as, 12
• Software laws, 221–222. See also Copyright laws, software
• Software planning, managing software projects, 165
• Solomon, Cynthia
  • children as computer users, 69
  • computers for children, 72
  • support for learning programming, 75
• Soltow, Lee
  • literacy as moral good, 52–53
  • on literacy campaigns, 58, 247n76
• SOPA (Stop Online Piracy Act) of 2012, 210
• Source code, 19–20, 107
• Southern California Computer Society, 70
• Soviet ideology, driver of literacy campaign, 59, 61
• Spatializing temporal information, 121
• Spatial memory vs. temporal, 146
• 1960s (PDP computer required new programming languages), 21
• Speech act theory, 97, 106, 114
• Speech genres, in collaborative coding, 128–129
• Speech rules, 115
• SPL (Shakespeare Programming Language), 124–125
• Sputnik, 145, 161
• Stack Overflow, 14
• Stallman, Richard, 71
• Standardized schooled literacy, 54
• Standardized teaching of computer literacy, 218–219
• Standards, political nature of, 261n50
• Stanford University Mathematics Department, 65
• Star, Susan Leigh
  • boundary objects, 154
  • infrastructure of literacy, definition, 28, 143
  • infrastructure of literacy, properties of, 239n121
• Stephenson, Neal, 221
• Stevens, Edward
  • on individual empowerment for coding literacy, 78
  • literacy and contract law, 195
  • literacy as moral good, 52–53
  • literacy as qualification for voting, 81
  • literacy as the definition of citizenship, 81
  • on literacy campaigns, 58, 247n76
  • literacy tests for voting, 194
• Stevenson, Jill, 147, 152
• Stewart, Cora Wilson, 62
• Stiegler, Bernard
  • grammatization of information, 97, 119–120
  • hierarchy of abstraction from speech to writing, 121
  • spatializing temporal information, 121
• Stock, Brian
  • documents in medieval England, 151
  • facts, embodied in text, 187
  • literate mentality, 144, 180
  • people begin living texts, 139–140
  • textual communities, 185
  • writing, in medieval England, 185
• Stock market and banking, flash crash of 2010, 24
• Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) of 2012, 210
• Stored programming, 106
• Stored programs
  • first concept of, 20–21, 236n93 (see also von Neumann architecture)
  • first machine, 158, 275n110
  • Manchester Baby Computer, 275n110
• Street, Brian
  • autonomous model of literacy, 240n148, 259n31
  • dismissal of Goody, 33
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 30, 103
  • ideological model of literacy, 8, 30–31, 103, 259n31
  • literacy as social and technological phenomenon, 32
  • Literacy in Theory and Practice, 259n31
  • promoting computer literacy, 217
  • on the takeoff theory of literacy, 247n71
• Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 100, 110, 237n96
• Structured programming, 109
• Style guides for code, 130–131, 267n134
• Summa Theologica, 191
• Sunlight Foundation, 25
• Sun Microsystems, 73–74
• Super Sad True Love Story, 177
• Support for learning programming, 75
• Sussman, Gerald, 100, 110
• Sussman, Julie, 100, 110
• System/360 computers, 164
• Systems Development Corporation (SDC), 160–161

• Takeoff theory of literacy, 57, 247n71
• Taylor, Robert
  • “The Computer as Communication Device,” 79, 199
  • research at Xerox PARC, 162
• Teaching coding. See Educational programs for programming; Programming, learning
• Technical affordance of programming languages, 112
• Technological pillars of literacy, 9, 96
• Technology
  • driver of literacy campaign, 62–64
  • effects on human relationships and thinking, 180
• Technoromanticism, 102
• Tedre, Matti, 12, 87–88
• Text. See also Reading; Writing
  • availability in medieval England, 151, 273n74, 273n77
  • blurring with human work, 190
  • crossing space and time, 118–119
  • definition, 143
  • facts embodied in, 187
  • as substitute for human action, 187–188
  • verbatim interpretation of, 192
• Textons, 126–127
• Textual communities, 185
• Textual literacy, history of, 180
• “THE HOME COMPUTER IS HERE
• “The medium is the message
• Theories of technics, 119
• Thinking machines, computers as, 198, 200
• Thompson, Evan
  • computational models of the mind and self, 203
  • computational models of the world, 201
• Tiger’s Leap initiative, 44
• Time magazine, 170
• Time magazine’s “Machine of the Year
• Time sharing, 69. See also DTSS (Dartmouth Time-Sharing System)
• TinyBASIC language, 68
• Tracking public information, 25
• Transcendental signified, 201
• Transformative access to programming, 8
• Translating
  • information across modes, 121
  • programs, 19, 236n86
• Trimbur, John, 50
• Tron, 170, 251n126
• TRS-80, 169
• Truth in the church, 191
• Turing, Alan
  • source code vs. machine code, 20
  • on the unpredictability of computers, 116, 118
  • World War II cryptography, 157, 275n104
• Turing machine, 201
• Turkle, Sherry
  • artificial intelligence and human psychology, 202
  • computational model of the mind and self, 203–204
  • computational model of the world, 202
  • making computer science appeal to more women, 15–16
  • on male-dominated computer culture, 110
  • The Second Self, 203
  • technology, effects on human relationships and thinking, 180
• TV. See Video, TV, and movies
• Twitter
  • built on Ruby on Rails, 262n61
  • equal opportunity, 17
  • fail whale, 262n61
  • scaling up, 262n61
  • self representation, 204
  • technical employees, diversity, 17
• “Two cultures” problem, 42, 243n11
• 2001: A Space Odyssey, 177, 199

• Uganda, literacy classes for women, 253n155
• Ugly code, 15
• UK Dept of Education
  • educational programs for programming, 11
  • learning programming, 82
  • national curriculum in England, 230n43
• UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), 47
• UNIVAC computer
  • predicting results of 1952 Presidential election, 198
  • U.S. census of 1950, 157, 197
• Universal computer, 201
• Universal grammar, 202–203
• University of Michigan, 65
• University of Pennsylvania Moore School, 158
• UPC (Universal Product Code) symbol, 166–167
• URL for Code.org, 6
• Urkel, Steve, played by Jaleel White, 18
• U.S. Adult Education Association, 78
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
  • employability for coders, chart, 86
  • minorities in technical positions, 17, 235n73
• U.S. Department of Education, 57
• U.S. Steel, 54
• “The Use of Computers in Engineering Classroom Instruction
• User interaction, research on, 169
• Uses for computers, 168–169

• Vai people of Liberia, sociological study of, 32, 33, 103, 135
• Value of coders, cartoon, 2
• van Rossum, Guido, 43
• Varela, Francisco
  • computational models of the mind and self, 203
  • computational models of the world, 201
• Vee, Annette
  • definition of literacy, 27
  • literacy vs. literacies, 28
  • new materialities, 30
• Verbatim, word origin, 192
• Verbatim interpretation of texts, 192
• Victor, Bret, 254n162
• Video, TV, and movies. See also Books and publications
  • 2001: A Space Odyssey, 177, 199
  • Code.org, promotional video, 76, 253n146
  • “Code Stars” video, 85
  • Colossus: The Forbin Project, 177, 199
  • Dash and Dot robots, 44
  • Desk Set, 198
  • Family Matters, 18
  • Little Brother, 177
  • The Matrix Trilogy, 177
  • Minority Report, 177
  • movie special effects, 170
  • Snow Crash, 177
  • Super Sad True Love Story, 177
  • “What Most Schools Don’t Teach,” 77, 82
• Video games
  • arcade games, 170
  • connection to obesity, 220, 291n14
  • connection to programming, 220
  • copyright laws, software, 251n129
  • personal computers, 171
  • promoting computational literacy, 220
  • separated from computational literacy, 220
  • teaching children to code, 1
• Vieira, Kate, 104, 186, 259n28, 284n74
• Vincent, David
  • autonomous model of literacy, 240n148, 259n31
  • consequences of literacy, 35
  • on individual literacy, 186
  • on the meaning of literacy, 91
• Virgin Mary, portrayal of the, 153–154
• Virtual currency, 213–214
• Virtual migration, 26
• VisiCalc spreadsheet program, 162–163, 170
• Visual programming languages, 111, 262n59
• Vocational training, 75
• von Neumann, John
  • atomic bomb calculations, 158
  • “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” 236n93
  • stored programs, 158
  • Turing machine, 201
• von Neumann architecture, 106, 236n93. See also Stored programs, first concept of
• von Rossum, Guido, 82
• Voters, illiteracy, 194
• Voting Rights Act of 1965, 194

• WAC (writing across the curriculum), 73, 252n135
• Walter, Hubert, 148
• Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, 16, 126
• War on learning, 90
• War on Poverty, 60
• Waterfall development, 130
• Watt, Ian
  • on alphabetic literacy, 30
  • consequences of literacy, 35
  • “The Consequences of Literacy,” 103, 259n28
  • literacy and development of Western civilization, 103
  • literacy as consequence of adopting writing, 30
  • on literate mentalities, 181
  • sociomaterial approach to writing, 103
• Wearable technologies, 1
• Weber, Max, 119, 144
• Weiner, Norbert, 65
• Weird languages, 124
• West Coast programming initiatives, 67
• Western Pennsylvania Regional Data Center, 25
• “What Most Schools Don’t Teach,” 77, 82
• Wheeler, Susan, 265n103
• White, Jaleel, as Steve Urkel, 18
• “Why Johnny Can’t Write,” 1-2, 49
• Wide walls, 11, 231n45
• Will.i.am, advocacy for mass programming, 82–83
• Williams, Raymond
  • keywords metaphor, 27, 45
  • keywords project, 7, 229n16
  • metaphors for literacy, 27, 238n120
• William the Conqueror, 149, 153
• Wills, written, 148, 187
• Wing, Jeannette
  • computational thinking, 9–11
  • CS for everyone, 14
• Winograd, Terry, 115
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 97, 116
• Wolf, Robert, 132, 134, 136
• Wolfram, Stephen, 201
• Women
  • Code.org outreach to, 13
  • CS majors at Carnegie Mellon University, 15–16
  • in early computing, 108
  • as geeks, stereotypical images of, 18
  • gender bias in search results, 37
  • making computer science more appealing to, 15–16
  • in the origins of programming, 12
  • search results, images of black women, 37
  • in software careers, 165
  • struggling for literacy and power, 35–36
• Women, in programming
  • deterrences to, 15, 17–18
  • in early computing, 108
  • the “geek gene
  • making computer science appeal to more women, 15–16
  • male domination, 17, 110
  • male stereotypes, 17–18
  • math vs. engineering, 7, 244n17
  • personality profiling, 17
  • in the 1960s, 165–166
  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 17, 235n73
• Women, literacy rates
  • end of seventeenth century, 195
  • medieval England, 152, 184
  • in underdeveloped countries, 196
• Women, learning to code
  • Black Girls Code initiative, 13, 78–79
  • coding boot camps, 13
  • Girl Develop It, 13, 75
  • Google donation to the Made with Code initiative, 1
  • Google support for, 1
  • Hacker News, 15
  • learn-to-code websites, 13
  • literacy classes in Uganda, 253n155
  • Made with Code initiative, 13
  • self-teaching programming, 12–13
  • Stack Overflow, 14
  • #YesWeCode, 13
• Workplace surveillance programs, 37
• World Wide Web
  • example of a code-based network, 212–213
  • focus on the, 73
• Wozniak, Steve, 169
• Writing. See also Reading; Text
  • as a basis for literacy, 182
  • beginning of the era of official memory, 148
  • changing caused by computers, 33–34
  • changing expectations of literacy, 49–50
  • commonalities with programming, 95
  • comparative contexts for programming, 4–5
  • as contributor to material intelligence, 182
  • definition, 143
  • discretization of information, 97–98
  • in Egypt and Mesopotamia, 269n10
  • as an extension of man, 95
  • forgery, 188–189, 283n62
  • heritage of moral goodness, 1–3
  • historical framework for, 139–145
  • historical parallels with programming, 139–145
  • history of, 5 (see also Writing, in medieval England)
  • intertwined with code, 23–26
  • intertwined with computation, 23–26
  • as literacy, 47
  • literacy as consequence of, 30
  • as the literacy of consequence, 180
  • as material intelligence, 99–102
  • as a necessity of life, 182 (see also Literacy, as a necessity of life)
  • on paper vs. etching in stone, 102
  • vs. programming (see Programming vs. writing)
  • programming as (see Programming as writing)
  • programming as written communication, 5–6 (see also Programming as writing)
  • replacing with code, 24
  • as a representation of truth, 191–192
  • vs. speech, 97
  • technology of, 228n9
  • as a technology of the intellect, 95
  • as technology that restructures thought, 95
  • trade-offs between writing and programming, 120
  • transition to mass literacy, 139–145
  • WAC (writing across the curriculum), 73, 252n135
• Writing, a sociomaterial approach
  • cognitive consequences, 102
  • computer screens vs. paper, 104
  • determinist theories (see Great divide between oral and literate cultures)
  • to e-books, 104
  • embedded biases, 105
  • great divide between oral and literate cultures, 103–104, 181–182
  • ideological model of literacy, 103, 259n31
  • in immigrant communities, 104
  • literacy and development of Western civilization, 103
  • McLuhan’s “literate man” vs. “oral man,” “electronic man
  • media archaeology, 104
  • new materialism, 104
  • overview, 102–105
  • programming builds new knowledge, 105
  • on T-shirts, 104
  • writing on paper vs. etching in stone, 102
• Writing, as technology
  • an extension of man, 95
  • of the intellect, 95
  • NLS (New Literacy Studies), 32
  • that restructures thought, 95
• Writing, in medieval England
  • Anglo-Norman language, 271n50
  • availability of texts, 151, 273n74
  • for the average person, 184
  • beating the bounds, 147
  • biblical concordance, 148
  • books, accessibility to women, 152, 273n77
  • Books of Hours, 152, 184, 191
  • Catholic Church, 148–150
  • in church and state, 146–150
  • codification of English common law, 148
  • collective literacy, 185–186, 193–196
  • deeds (contracts), 148, 151, 187 (see also Property boundaries)
  • documentation in medieval governance, 283n55
  • Domesday Book, 149, 188, 271n50
  • Dominican approach, 151
  • English language, 271n50
  • evolution of, 139–145
  • government documents, 147
  • Greek and Roman rhetorical tradition, 146
  • indexing documents, 150
  • inscripted knives, 153
  • Latin, 271n50
  • library policies, 151, 273n72
  • literacy rates among women, 152, 184
  • literate mentality, 144, 150, 154–155
  • memorization, 146–147
  • memory palace, 146
  • under Norman control, 144, 146–147
  • Old/Middle English language, 271n50
  • overview, 139–145
  • pace of evolution, 140–141
  • papal bulls, 271n40
  • participation in literacy, 185–186
  • portrayal of the virgin Mary, 153–154
  • property boundaries, 147, 148 (see also Deeds (contracts), evolution of)
  • quasi-literacy, 185–186
  • religious representations, 153
  • retrievable documents, 150, 272n57
  • sealing wax, 147
  • shift from memory to written record, 269n10
  • signatory seals, 153
  • signatures, 186, 209
  • spatial memory vs. temporal, 146
  • from symbolic to practical, 150–155
  • a tipping point, 185
  • vernacular languages, 271n50
  • written wills, 148
• Writing across the curriculum (WAC), 73, 252n135
• Written wills, medieval England, 148, 187
• Wysocki, Anne, 28

• Xerox PARC
  • Dynabook laptop project, 72
  • effects on thought patterns, 80
  • research on user interaction, 169
  • Smalltalk language, 111
• xkcd, 36–37

• #YesWeCode, 13, 83, 218
• Y2K crisis, 261n52
• YMCA, 54

• Zamansky, Michael, 89–90
• Z3 computer, 157
• Zone of proximal development, 101
• Zuckerberg, Mark
  • founding of Code.org, 44
  • promoting Code.org, 1, 76
• Zuse, Konrad
  • computational models of the world, 201
  • digital physics, 201
  • explanation of, 287n126
  • first programmable computer, 106
  • Z3 computer, 157