3: HOW DO ADULTS LEARN?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

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A Training & Development Scenario

The training manager at Abbeydex, a Computer Call Centre, was asked to train 500 newly-recruited staff in a two-month period in induction, customer care skills, sales skills, trouble-shooting skills, and the basic computer training skills. This was a request from the parent company in the US and they expected almost instant results.

The HR Director was also involved in the project and wanted to expedite the process as quickly as possible. He took a somewhat Machiavellian approach to the project. Abbeydex’s financial resources were limited because it had invested most of its training budget into an in-depth management development programme. He decided to use their in-house trainers to execute the programme.

The project was fraught with difficulties on a number of fronts:

To speed up the training project, it was decided to train 50 people together at a time. The burden on the training department was tremendous, with trainers having to resort to lecturing large groups using a microphone and a podium.

Although the training was carried out in the prescribed period, it was an unmitigated disaster. Sixty percent of the mature returners left the company and the employees who got through the two-month programme developed a very poor skill set. They kept making mistakes with customers and contributed to a downturn in sales.

The net result was that the HR director was forced to resign and the training manager was relocated. The company lost €2.2 million in this episode.

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INTRODUCTION

Learning lies at the heart of training and development. Whether you adopt a formal and systematic learning process or a more informal and ad hoc approach, learning is a necessary pre-condition for anything that you wish to achieve.

To learn is to gain knowledge or skill in a particular area. You will find that many trainers use the terms “competence” and “capability” to express the objective of learning. They often say things like “I want to be competent in a job role” or “to possess the capability to carry out certain activities to the highest standards”. This type of discussion places an emphasis on the results rather than on the change process of learning.

We are concerned in this chapter with the process of learning. We focus on the philosophical aspects of learning, in addition to the characteristics of adult learners, and the more important learning “laws” that you should be aware of as a trainer. We believe that it is important that you have a basic conceptual grasp of what learning is and why it is central to your effectiveness as a trainer.

PHILOSOPHIES & METAPHORS OF LEARNING

We first consider some of the philosophies of learning. We explain three metaphors that are commonly used to describe the learning process. If you fully understand the learning process, it will help you design more effective T&D activities.

Understanding Learning Philosophy

The two primary learning philosophies are: Pedagogy and Andragogy.

Pedagogy

Pedagogy is derived from the Greek words “ped”, meaning “child”, and “agogus”, meaning “leader of”. Therefore, pedagogy literally means the science of leading (teaching) children. Historically, from the Middle Ages to the 20th century, the pedagogical model was primarily used to teach.

Pedagogy represents the traditional, most frequently implemented and trainer-centred approach to learning. It is based on a number of important assumptions:

Andragogy

Andragogy is described as “the art and science of helping adults learn” and can be viewed as the antithesis of the pedagogical approach. Knowles’s model is the backbone of this philosophy and is based on the premise that, as an individual matures, the need to be self-directed, to have opportunities to use experience in the learning process, to be active and to participate in organising and structuring the learning process all develop.

If you wish to implement an andragogical philosophy in your training, you need to be concerned with the following androgogical assumptions:

A group of adults will learn much more from each other than they would from listening solely to a trainer. On the other hand, adult experience can be viewed as negative, as we can develop biases that can inhibit our ability both to change and to develop new ideas. This can sometimes manifest itself in the training room.

If you are to successfully implement the androgogical model, you need to be concerned with clearly diagnosing the needs of your learner, and involving them in the formulation of the learning objectives and the design process.

Figure 3.1 presents a comparison of pedagogy and andragogy.

FIGURE 3.1: COMPARING PEDAGOGY & ANDRAGOGY

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We do not present these two categories of philosophy as representing good/poor training practice. They are best viewed as approaches to training to be considered in terms of their appropriateness for particular learners in particular situations. If pedagogical assumptions are realistic in a particular situation, then pedagogical strategies are appropriate. For example, if a learner is entering into a totally new content area, there will be a strong dependency on a trainer, until enough content has been acquired to enable self-directed inquiry to begin.

A significant amount of current training practice is based to a certain degree on the philosophy of andragogy. If you wish to implement an effective andragogical approach to training, you need to be aware of the following implications for your style and approach as a trainer:

Some Metaphors to Explain the Learning Process

We suggest that there are three metaphors of learning that may be of value to you in seeking to understand your role in the learning process. Knowledge of these metaphors should enable you to clarify the purpose of the learning activity, your role within the learning process and the role that the learner is expected to perform.

Figure 3.2 presents a summary of the main features of each metaphor.

FIGURE 3.2: CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE TRAINING METAPHORS

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CHANGES IN THINKING ABOUT THE LEARNING PROCESS

It is clear from what we have discussed so far in this chapter that our thinking about the learning process has changed in the last 20 years. When we think about the learning process, we usually focus now on both the processes and outcomes of learning.

Processes

We define the process by which people learn as the way learning takes place. We can use the terms “approaches to learning” or “methods of learning” to describe the types of decisions that you will be required to make when you design training activities.

However, the term “process” has another meaning. It can refer to the internal process that a learner experiences during learning. We have a lot yet to learn about this internal process, although we do know that experience leads to learning. We will say more about this a little later.

Traditionally, we considered that learning took place in a structured manner and that people could only be instructed or taught. Our more holistic and comprehensive view of the learning process shows that people can learn in six different ways:

Learning Outcomes

Knowledge of what learners are supposed to learn, and ensuring that it is known and understood, are vital components of the learning process. Two types of learning outcomes are relevant:

Many learning situations are a combination of both types of learning and the relative emphasis given to each one will vary depending on the objectives of the learning process.

We now have a more integrated notion of the learning process. Research points to significant changes in our thinking about learning. These changes in assumptions about the learning process are summarised in Figure 3.3.

FIGURE 3.3: HOW RESEARCH HAS CHANGED OUR ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE ADULT LEARNING PROCESS

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UNDERSTANDING LEARNING THEORIES

We now focus on some of the main laws and theories of learning that are relevant to you, as a trainer, and which will inform your training style and activities.

Laws of Learning

Psychologists have identified certain influences, commonly referred to as the “Laws of Learning”, which can either help or hinder the learning process:

The application of laws are referred to as conditioned learning.

Silverman’s Nine Principles of Learning Theory

Silverman (1970) formulated nine core principles of learning. He summarised them in this way:

Kingsland’s Approach to Learning

A further approach to learning was developed by Kingsland, based on his theory that learning is a combination of cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling) and behavioural (doing) components:

In terms of conditioned learning, these three faculties correspond with associating new experience and data primarily with ideas, patterns and structures (cognitive); with human contexts (feeling); or with physical responses and actions (behaviour). Individuals will have all three patterns of association, but in varying degrees.

ADULT LEARNING STYLES

Kingsland’s Personality Spectrum

Kingsland developed a personality spectrum that illustrates the learning styles of individuals with the overlapping of feeling, doing and thinking. He refers to these areas simply as A, B or C. In the case of a particular individual, a small amount of one of these attributes would be represented by lower case a, b, c.

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This spectrum is further developed to produce seven combinations or different styles of learning: reactive, proactive, holographic, adaptive, communal, functional and molecular.

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Kolb’s Learning Style Theory

Kolb formulated a theory of learning by identifying four learning styles and arranging them into a model. His contribution to researching learning styles did not end with this model; he also analysed the different types of learners. Kolb postulated that a learner’s dominant learning styles is the result of “our hereditary equipment, our particular past experiences and the demands of our present environment”.

He identified four learning styles, defined as:

An important development of Kolb’s (1979) work is the Learning Style Inventory (LSI), which he describes as “a simple self-description test, based on experiential learning theory”. It is designed to measure the learner’s strengths and weaknesses as a learner in each of the four stages of the learning processes:

The objective of the questionnaire is to help individuals to identify their dominant “learning style” – the way that they go about solving problems.

According to Kolb, the four stages can be combined to form two major dimensions of learning: first, a concrete/abstract dimension, and second, a reflective/active dimension. Results can be logged on a chart incorporating these two dimensions, and a dominant learning style is allocated to each quadrant, as shown in Figure 3.4.

FIGURE 3.4: KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES CLASSIFICATION

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Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles

Honey and Mumford (1995) also researched learning styles, basing much of their work on Kolb’s ideas. They refined Kolb’s categories and used them to profile the type of trainee (identified by learning style) most likely to benefit from certain types of learning situations. Honey and Mumford propose the following learning styles:

The learner’s preferred style has important implications for the kind of learning methods and approaches that you adopt. This is particularly important because for example we know that activists and reflectors learn best in one-to-one instructional situations whereas pragmatists learn best from coaching programmes.

Activists learn more easily when they can get involved immediately in short “here and now” practical activities and when there is a variety of things to cope with; they are not put off by being “thrown in at the deep end”. Activists do not learn well when they are required simply to observe and not to be involved or when they are required to listen to theoretical explanations. Highly-structured massed practice sessions, such as where an activity is practised over and over again, would also not be liked by the activist.

On the other hand, reflectors learn best when they are allowed to watch, observe or listen and then think over or review what has taken place. They certainly need to “look before they leap” and to be given plenty of time for preparation. Being “thrown” into situations without warning would lead to an adverse reaction from reflectors.

In coaching situations, pragmatists need to work with activities or techniques that have an obvious practical “pay off”; they must concentrate on practical job-related issues. For the pragmatist, the content of the coaching session must not be theoretical but clearly related to their own reality.

An individual’s learning style preference can be assessed in a reasonably objective way by means of a questionnaire, preferably administered prior to the beginning of any training interaction coaching sessions. The benefits of this data for you as a trainer are that:

Left-Brain/Right-Brain – Brain Dominance Theory

A fourth perspective on learning styles comes from left-brain/right-brain theory or Brain Dominance Theory, which argues that right-brained and left-brained people think and acquire information in different ways.

Other versions of the theory split the brain into four quadrants:

FIGURE 3.5: LEFT BRAIN / RIGHT BRAIN THINKING

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We know from research that how a person learns is highly dependent on the way they receive and apply information. People perceive and learn through different systems tied to their basic senses and learning can be described as a “filtration” system, directly related to a person’s senses. Due to this, communication and learning are linked closely together. The average person has one primary system as their method of learning but can use a blend of systems.

This theory identifies three categories of learning styles:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ADULT LEARNER

As well as understanding learning styles, when you design training activities, it is important that you have in your possession some other pieces of information about your potential learners. Research tells us that you should know something about four individual differences: age, intelligence and ability, emotional state and learning maturity.

Age

There are a number of important differences between young and adult learners. Generally speaking, adult learners learn more slowly and may have more difficulty “grasping” new material than younger learners. Furthermore, if the adult makes a mistake early in training, then the error is likely to persist and correcting it becomes more difficult. You can employ a number of strategies to manage group training or 1:1 training sessions to compensate for some of the difficulties that adult learners experience. You should:

Levels of Intelligence and Ability

You should not assume that there is a standard or “clone-like” adult learner. Research tells us that there will be greater disparity in intelligence and intellectual ability amongst adult learners than younger learners. Therefore, some of the suggestions we make may need to be modified. You should customise your approach to suit the profile of your learning group.

The learning principles and tactics that you employ should be modified, depending on the ability or intelligence level of the learner. Higher-ability learners are more likely to be able to work from general principles to concrete situations and, depending on the complexity of the task, to cope with learning a task as a whole, rather than breaking it into parts. It may be more appropriate to teach the principle and theoretical aspects to learners with more academic experience before demonstrating and practising. In the case of learners with less academic experience, it may be better to tackle the practical aspects first, before dealing with the theory.

For learners who have less effective learning abilities:

The modern view on intelligence is that learners have multiple intelligences. Howard Gardner has carried out extensive research on the concept of intelligence and has exploded the theory that we are born with an intelligence that is immutable and can be definitively measured. Gardner defined intelligence as “an ability to solve a problem, or make a product that is valuable in at least one culture or community”. He went on to say that “an IQ test won’t show you whether you can cook a dinner, or conduct a meeting”. Gardner identified a number of different intelligences:

You should be aware of the varied potential and intelligence of your learning group. You can use this information to shape the learning process. Figure 3.6 presents the eight intelligences and explains what the learner and trainer can do in the case of each one.

FIGURE 3.6: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES & LEARNING

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Physical Readiness

The learner’s physical readiness is an important consideration, especially for certain types of training situations. The training situation may demand certain requirements such as physical fitness, visual acuity, hearing, etc.

Emotional State of Learner

A learner’s emotional state may influence how and what is learned. Anxiety, fear or failure and lack of confidence are the sorts of feelings experienced by some learners that can negatively impact motivation and willingness to learn.

You can use a number of strategies to deal with the emotional characteristics of the learner:

The attitudes and enthusiasm of the trainer are important influences on how well the learner learns a particular skill. However, trainers must guard against being over-exuberant. “Hyping up”, or stimulating high motivation before and during training, may create anxiety and apprehension in some learners. This is particularly the case if the trainer, at the same time, minimises and is unrealistic about the difficulties of learning complex tasks. These emotions may be felt by the learners because of doubts and fears aroused by the memory of previous failures in their earlier experiences of educational or occupational learning environments. Your sensitivity, style and approach throughout the training event, but especially in the early stages, can help in eliminating, or at least lessening, the emotional blockages and barriers that might interfere with subsequent learning.

Learners who are over-confident or arrogant may need to be managed in a way that challenges and utilises their capabilities – for example, give them an opportunity to lead the session or give a presentation on their views to the group, followed by a Q&A session.

Learner Maturity

Another individual difference that you should take into account is the “maturity of the learner”. Maturity in a training context is not referring to the learner’s chronological age, but rather the learner’s:

If you have a relatively immature group of learners, you should try to ensure that they “walk before they run”. If you push learners too fast, it is likely to have a negative impact on learning time and their motivation. With such learners, you may need to be persuasive, be in control and be more direct. As the learner matures, you can then become less structured in your approach and concentrate on guiding, advising and supporting. A mature learner will respond more effectively to a participative, challenging and collaborative learning situation.

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT ADULT LEARNING

Many misconceptions exist about learning and the adult learning process, in particular the following.

Learners over a Certain Age Cannot Learn

This is a common misconception. There is little evidence to support such a myth; anyone at any age can learn. It may, however, take longer for an older learner to learn, because their rate of learning and retention may become slower with age. But, if an individual wants to learn, then he/she can.

It is the learner’s personal approach to life that influences learning. The major positive factor that adults bring to learning is their motivation: they already have an idea of the relevance of what they learn. This is something younger learners sometimes lack. Adults have the capacity to learn a vast number of new skills and apply them effectively to a range of situations. Information may be absorbed at a slower rate and is therefore less likely to evaporate.

Technophobia

Many organisations that have experienced staff shortages have recruited more mature employees. This more mature employee may not have been exposed to new technology prior to this experience and can suffer from a fear or a block to using it. This creates problems for trainers whose task may be to run induction training or teach basic technological skills. Training strategies can be employed effectively to overcome technophobia. The core issues are creating a safe environment where learners can discuss their lack of confidence. Reassurance from the trainer is vital.

The Person who Learns Fast is Best Suited to the Job

In some ways, this statement could be accurate, in so far as some learners experience a high level of achievement if they are continually learning new things, rather than coping with routine work, which is relatively easy to learn.

It is important to get the balance between the different aspects of a job, which the learner can master with time, and the more mundane work, which is done routinely. If there is an imbalance, the person who learns quickly and is seeking new or more difficult tasks will become demotivated because their interest in the learning process is not sustained. This is one of the essential reasons why you should know the ability level of your learners.

It is important to recognise that learners will not be motivated, if they are considered to be less effective learners and labelled as such. Learners at all levels must be encouraged. Less effective learners are more suited to routine tasks of a less complex nature. It should be noted too that there are learners who learn some of the more routine tasks very fast, but soon become very bored if there is nothing new to learn. A trainer needs to use some tricks here – they can get the fast learner to work with the other learners as a coach or guide, or give the fast learner more complicated problems to work on and to present their findings to the group.

There is a Strong Correlation between Academic Success and Performance on the Job

It is not correct that only high academic achievers will succeed. On the contrary, an individual may have a long list of academic qualifications but possess very little business acumen or practical intelligence. It is not possible to specify that a degree, in whatever subject, will ensure that the person becomes an entrepreneur. However, possession of a degree does suggest that a person will have a level of analytical skill that will help in a position when a situation needs to be analysed, the problem identified and problem-solving skills applied, as most degrees include this essential element.

It is necessary, however, to consider the late developer – not only those in the early to late teens, but also the older developer, those who did not recognise their own abilities until quite late in their lives. There are also those learners who did not have the opportunity, for a whole host of reasons, to study for a formal qualification. This type of learner can be very successful in the workplace

People Learn all they Need to Know on the Job

This is generally not a correct statement. It is true that employees do learn on the job; indeed, they are continually learning on the job every day – for example, by exploring and experimenting how a task can be done more efficiently or more effectively to save time, energy or cost. Through experimenting, the learner can learn to do the job in many different ways.

Learning is a continual process, but it would be most undesirable for an employee to attempt to perform a job on a production line for example, without first acquiring the basic knowledge and skills needed. A good example of this misconception relates to management and supervisory skills. The fundamental skills of management are often overlooked or regarded as capable of being learnt on-the-job. The preferred approach is that potential supervisors or managers should learn the essential skills and acquire the knowledge needed for these positions, through structured learning activities.

People Learn Nothing from Mistakes

Some learners do not learn from their mistakes, as they hold the misguided attitudes that “… oh well, everyone makes mistakes” and that mistakes are best forgotten. This negative reaction will not lead to performance standards being achieved and is sometimes indicative of learners who perceive themselves to be inferior or incapable in some way. This attitude may be a result of a previous mistake that was poorly handled by a trainer or manager. A trainer or manager should be supportive and encourage an employee by coaching or counselling where appropriate. Some learners make mistakes merely because they lack self-confidence, rather than because of any lack of ability. Encouragement is imperative, if employees are to learn from the mistakes they make. A mistake needs to be regarded positively as a learning opportunity.

It is natural that employees will make mistakes from time to time, but those employees who view it as an opportunity for learning and self-development will become valuable employees. Employees should be encouraged to communicate their experiences of mistakes, as others may make the same mistakes. This is particularly important where there is a health and safety aspect that requires corrective action.

People Learn All They Need to Know at the Beginning of their Careers

Internal and external environments are constantly changing; many organisations now view the culture of their organisation as a “change culture”. As a result, many employees have at least one career change. The reasons are varied, but one is that many individuals perceive a change as a career development strategy. Thus it is not true that one learns everything one needs to know at the beginning of a career.

Telling and Exhortation by an Instructor is the same as Learning by Listening

This is false because fatigue leads to lack of interest and boredom, irrespective of the topic. However, there are a few exceptions, such as an outdoor activity to develop individuals in decision-making and personal effectiveness, including team-building. The activity itself increases and retains the level of interest of the learner. The feedback discussions are generally lively and highly participative, indicating the level of response to the activities, and reinforcing what has been learnt.

Effective instruction consists of question and answer sessions, demonstrations that are seen clearly, and accompanying supporting material. Learners should be constantly stimulated to retain their interest. This is not an exclusive list, but emphasises the importance of varied learning methods to heighten retention by learners.

Consideration of the length of periods of instruction is fundamental to the success of a learning event. Appropriate breaks of relevant durations are essential and should be designed into the programme schedule. It is a good idea to build in shorter breaks of approximately five minutes every hour. Adults are not used to sitting in one place for long periods in a learning context.

Psychologists consider that it is impossible for learners to retain everything they are taught, and generally agree that retention is approximately 25% of what is learnt initially; the reinforcement of learning is therefore extremely important.

UNDERSTANDING CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

We made a brief reference to the laws of learning earlier in this chapter; here, we go into more detail. We will address the practical implications of these well-established principles when we consider training design and delivery.

Sequencing the Training Material

Training content should follow some logical order that makes sense to the learner. If this is achieved, it will make learning, as well as subsequent recall and application, much easier.

There are a number of “laws” that will help you to arrange material in the best order:

Whole versus Part Learning

Another important consideration is whether or not to cover what has to be learned in one complete session, or whether to break it up into smaller sessions. For instance, if the skill to be learned is made up of several elements, should it be learned all at once or should the learner be taught the elements separately, before combining them into the whole? The answer to this question seems to be “it depends”.

The “whole” method is more advantageous than the “part” method when:

Setting Objectives and Sub-Objectives

In order to stimulate and sustain a learner’s motivation, you should outline the learning objectives to be achieved at the beginning of the programme. This will give the learner a clear idea of what has to be accomplished as a result of the one-to-one training or coaching experience. Furthermore, it will allow learners to judge their own performance against the objectives set.

If objectives are to be valuable in a learning context, the following conditions must be met:

Apart from telling the learner about the overall learning objectives at the outset, you can influence the learner’s ongoing attitudes and motivation towards the learning programme by setting or agreeing a series of shorter term or interim objectives with him/her. Having progressive learning objectives will allow you to monitor the learner’s achievement more closely and also, to a certain extent, to alert the organisation to workplace activities required to reinforce the learning following the training.

This link is vital to consolidate learning. Training is not a stand-alone activity. Learning can evaporate, if the trainee is not given the opportunity to use the skills in the workplace – for example, a presentation skills course needs to build in on-the-job opportunities to complete at least four presentations in the workplace soon after the course is completed. Coaches need to be identified to give structured feedback to the trainee so that they can develop their skills to a high level on-the-job.

Providing a Meaningful Context for Learning

Apart from stimulating the learner’s motivation by setting learning objectives, you need to structure the learning environment in a way that maintains alertness throughout the training sessions. Sessions that are run as on-the-job training sessions are already placed in the context of the work environment and little can be done to make the learning more stimulating. However, some aspects of training may have to be taught as separate items and may not be directly related to what has gone before or what follows. Giving an overview of the task and showing its relationship to other tasks and activities provides a more meaningful context in which the learning can take place. Another way in which a meaningful context can be provided is by simulating an environment that resembles, as closely as possible, the real working conditions – for example, using models of the workplace.

Directing Attention

There will be occasions when you have to draw the learner’s attention to particular elements of the material to be learned. These features may be associated with any of the six senses: Vision, Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and the Proprioceptive sense (this sense relates to the position and movement of the body – for example, balance).

Guidance, Prompting and Cueing

These terms are very similar in that they are all used to direct learners at times when they are physically involved in doing something and you feel that there is a need to provide some help. Although they are explained separately for reasons of clarity, their function is the same.

Guidance

Guidance can be given in two ways:

It is particularly important to provide guidance in the early phase of the learning of complex tasks. Errors that are made at this time are likely to be repeated and subsequently, learning resources will have to be devoted to unlearning those early mistakes. It is also important to prevent errors occurring in training where serious safety problems or damage to equipment might result.

However, there are circumstances in which allowing errors to be committed might be more beneficial to learning, than making correct responses. This needs to be monitored carefully.

You will need to consider the amount of guidance you provide. Observing a learner’s reaction to guidance will give some indication of how much is welcomed and needed and how far the trainer can go before there is a danger of boredom and demotivation. The learner may perceive that he/she does not have sufficient independence and control over the learning situation, if the trainer is too controlling and thus he/she may not learn as effectively as possible.

Prompting

Prompting as a skill is most applicable to learning verbal material and not to procedural tasks. After some initial learning of information, the learner may be required to recall it and is helped accomplish this task by being “prompted” by the trainer. Skilful questioning of the learner may also act as a form of prompting, leading to the correct response or action. As with guidance, prompting appears to be particularly effective in the initial phase of the learning process. We will say more about it in Chapter Eight.

Cues

You can speed up the learning process by providing or highlighting easily identifiable and easily remembered cues that trigger the correct response or sequence of actions. For example, in some forms of social skills training such as selling, you can direct the learner’s attention towards cues such as a customer’s facial or oral expressions, tone of voice, etc. This will help the learner to interpret particular social situations and helps them to behave appropriately.

Practice and Rehearsal

It is the learner who learns. Therefore it is necessary to ensure the learner’s participation and active involvement if learning is to be effective. Practice and rehearsal are two of the most important activities that learners must engage in, under your influence and direction, in order to acquire new knowledge and skills.

There are two initial conditions that you should be aware of, if “practice is going to make perfect”:

Similarly, for rehearsal to be an effective method of ensuring that verbal or procedural material is remembered, you must involve the learner in active retrieval and recall of the material, during the training or coaching session. This form of activity is important because:

Distribution of Practice

You will need to consider whether practice should be completed all at once (massed) or spread over several sessions (distributed). It is difficult to provide conclusive guidelines, although the following should be considered:

Feedback, Knowledge of Results and Reinforcement

Learners need to know how well they are doing at all stages in the learning process. This will ensure that they learn effectively and improve performance. Feedback may focus on how well a learner performs a particular task. Alternatively, you can direct the learner to look out for cues and information that allows the learner themselves to judge how effectively the learning is progressing.

You should be concerned with two important features of feedback:

We know from research that too much specific feedback in the early stages may not necessarily lead to improvements in performance. If you overload the learner with too much detailed information about performance, it may only serve to confuse and may also have a depressing effect on their motivation.

The general recommendation on feedback seems to be to give the learner a small amount early on, increase the amount and specific detail as the learner improves, withdraw it gradually as the skills to be learned become more established, and finally exclude it altogether.

When giving feedback, you should not ignore your learner’s emotional needs. Some form of emotional reward – for example, saying “well done” – should follow effective performance of parts, or the whole, of the task. However, the learner should not become overly dependent on your emotional support as their confidence and performance may be adversely affected when support is withdrawn. On the other hand, praise or reassurance is necessary and important when progress is slow or non-existent and the learner needs to be motivated to achieve a higher level of performance.

Retention and Forgetfulness

Forgetting what was originally learned is a common enough experience. It is important to ensure that skills and knowledge learned in training situations are retained and transferred to the work context. This may be difficult to achieve if there is little or no opportunity to use the knowledge and skills immediately or on a relatively frequent basis in the work context. You can employ a number of strategies in the training context that can facilitate retention and prevent or minimise forgetfulness:

Retention of learning is facilitated when the learner is allowed to watch and perform a task in addition to being told how to perform it. Incorporating hands-on training into a lesson plan significantly improves learners’ learning retention.

Figure 3.7 shows retention percentages after 60 days for three types of training.

FIGURE 3.7: LEARNING RETENTION LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

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Criticism and Punishment in Training

We know from research that constructive criticism has both advantages and disadvantages in a learning context. You should be concerned that criticism does not destroy employees’ confidence or self-esteem. The way in which you communicate criticism is important.

If learners have been previously continuously criticised in the workplace, it may take a long time, extreme patience and understanding to re-establish the self-value of those individuals before any forward steps can be assumed or indeed measured in any way. The re-building of a learner’s self-esteem is a lengthy process and as a trainer you need to be patient.

We believe that punishment and fear of any kind are not conducive to the learning process. Research indicates that these activities inhibit individualism, stifle creativity, induce a sense of failure and produce neuroses, all of which deprive learners of their dignity.

FIGURE 3.8: PRINCIPLES AND CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

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The Learning Environment

There is a strong body of research evidence indicating that effective learning will be transferred to the workplace, if it takes place in an environment that is conducive to learning. The comfort and relaxation of learners can help learning. The external environment may also be significant. If, for example, day release or evening classes have to take place several miles away from a trainee’s work or home, this is not likely to enhance the motivation to learn.

Some of the issues that you need to consider in this respect are:

Intellectual Readiness

Learners bring something with them to any new learning situation. This will include previous experience, a level of existing knowledge, specific skills, special aptitudes, general potential and capacity of learning, etc. This will have an influence on how ready learners are to undertake the training that is being planned for them.

In some cases, it may be necessary to introduce basic or remedial training before proper training can begin. In other cases, it may be possible to speed up the training, or even omit some of it, if learners have already mastered some of the skills or have sufficient knowledge.

Motivational Readiness

One of the strongest findings from the research is that learning is negatively affected if the learner has no desire or is not motivated to learn. Most positively, it can be a rewarding experience for both the learner and the trainer when the level of motivation to learn is high.

There are a number of factors that potentially might influence trainee’s motivation. These include meeting their needs, rewards and incentives, the perceptions, expectations and attitudes that they hold.

There are four categories of needs that can be met in a training situation:

Which of the above needs are important for any particular learner will depend on their personality, background and experience.

Broadly speaking, there are two main forms of reward or incentive that are linked with learning events. There are those that are closely associated with the task itself, called “intrinsic”, and those that are more in the way of being an outcome of performing the task, called “extrinsic” outcomes:

We conclude this chapter with an outline in Figure 3.9 of the main findings that research indicates will help you design high quality T&D activities.

FIGURE 3.9: SUMMARISING WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE ADULT LEARNING PROCESS

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BEST PRACTICE INDICATORS

Some of the best practice issues that you should consider related to the contents of this chapter are:

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Reflections on the Training & Development Scenario

This scenario reveals a common mistake made by many trainers, who fail to consider the fears and expectations of adult learners.

First, senior management had unrealistic expectations about the training period and the time necessary to learn. Key issues that should have been investigated were as follows:

  • The training department did not conduct an analysis of the characteristics of the training population and identify their implications for the design of learning events
  • The age and experience of the learning population appeared to be very relevant factors. They had relatively less trainability, due to long periods away from structured training situations
  • The training objectives tended to focus on sales and customer care issues. These objectives required that learners achieve important behavioural and attitude change. These types of learning objectives are less likely to be achieved in large group learning situations
  • Adult learners may experience a fear of technology. This was the case in this scenario. Where learners have fears about technology, it needs to be managed more sensitively than happened in this situation. Where fear exists, it should be addressed with an appropriate learning intervention.
  • Time is an important issue in this scenario. Learning is a gradual or incremental process. It needs to be appropriately scheduled in order to maximise learning transfer.

We know from the research that small group learning is more effective when the learners are mature. Small group learning (maximum of 10) provides learners with an opportunity to build trust and become familiar with a training environment. Small group learning situations are useful in that they provide opportunities to practice skill development. Learning methods that are useful in achieving opportunities for practice include role-plays and group discussion.