Chapter 9
Winning His Greatest Victories
In This Chapter
Conquering Italy again
Achieving imperial glory
A fter Napoleon took control of France in November 1799 (see Chapter 8), he began to institute a series of domestic reforms to improve living conditions in the country. Unfortunately, the enemies of the French Revolution were now the enemies of Napoleon, and for the next several years, Napoleon was forced to defend France against a series of coalitions, often led and bankrolled by England.
In this chapter, I discuss how Napoleon conquered the European continent by dealing with threats in Italy and Germany in the early 1800s.
Seeking Peace in Europe
After taking power, Napoleon was determined to consolidate gains that he (and France) had made in earlier years. His first efforts were in Egypt, where he ordered additional troops and supplies to be sent in relief of General Jean-Baptiste Kléber, whom he had left in charge just a few months earlier. He also began to organize his fleet to gain control of the Mediterranean and attack British trading vessels in the Atlantic. Finally, he prepared an expedition to the island of San Domingo to support a revolution there, which was being led by General Pierre Dominique Toussaint l’Ouverture.
In other words, if France gave up all the territories she had gained and pretended that the French Revolution had never occurred, then England would make peace. This harsh response served only to strengthen the resolve of the French people to defend their Revolution against those outsiders who would destroy it in the name of the very Bourbons the French had tossed out of power.
Napoleon also wrote to Emperor Francis of Austria, with much the same result. Austria would pretend to consider peace, but the war would continue. In June 1799, England, Austria, and Russia had formed what was called the Second Coalition against France, and they were convinced that they had the upper hand. It would be up to Napoleon to call their bluff. The situation was not entirely bad from Napoleon’s standpoint. For one thing, it allowed him to seize the moral high ground: He was seeking peace, but his enemies wanted nothing but the forceful overthrow of the French government.
There was another benefit as well. Military leaders need great victories to maintain their popularity. Julius Caesar certainly understood the political benefits of military success, and Napoleon was a student of Caesar. Domestic reforms take time, but Napoleon was determined to bring France new military glory quickly. And to do that, he turned once again to northern Italy.
Fighting the Austrians in Italy — Again!
While Napoleon had been in Egypt (see Chapter 7), the Austrian army had moved back into the very same areas that the French had pushed them out of in the 1796–1797 Italian campaign (see Chapter 6). As a result, in 1800, France was once again facing the Austrians (who were receiving British financial support), and once again they would clash in Germany and northern Italy. In southwestern Germany, a French army under the command of General Jean Victor Moreau faced Austrian forces led by General Paul Kray. The Austrians were east of the Rhine River in the Black Forest, and the situation was more or less a stalemate.
Russian troops led by Field Marshal Alexander Vasilivich Suvorov had been a part of this mix; in 1799 they had actually driven the French out of the northern Italian areas that Napoleon had acquired for France with the Treaty of Campo Formio (see Chapter 6). But some of Suvorov’s army had been badly defeated by General André Masséna in September 1799, and Suvorov and the rest of his army were chased out of the area. This defeat led Russian Tsar Paul to pull Russia out of the Second Coalition.
As he did in 1796, Napoleon led the French army into Italy in 1800. But this time he was not just a general; he was the leader of France. In fact, he was not technically in command of his new army, called the Army of the Reserve. To assure a separation between the executive leadership of the nation and the military, the new constitution prevented a Consul from commanding an army. So Napoleon put his friend Louis Alexandre Berthier in command. But who do you think was really calling the shots?
In 1796, had Napoleon moved along the southern coast of France to join an army that was already there. This time, he was leading an army into Italy, and he attempted to surprise the Austrians by doing what they least expected. He led his army through the snowy passes of the Alps and descended upon them from the north. He planned to go through the Great Saint Bernard Pass (on the Italian-French border), sweep into Milan, and move south to face the main Austrian force led by General Michael Melas.
Meanwhile, General André Masséna, fresh from his victory over the Russians, had taken command of a French army in Genoa, which Napoleon anticipated would keep a significant number of Austrians away from his attack. But Masséna’s army was in terrible shape (about as bad as Napoleon’s army had been in 1796), and before long he was trapped behind the walls of Genoa, hoping for rescue by Napoleon. He had rations for 30 days, barely enough to hold out until the end of May, so Napoleon needed to hurry.
Trekking through the Alps
Napoleon and his Army of the Reserve began their trek through the Alps, and on May 15, 1800 they entered the Great Saint Bernard Pass (elevation 8,100 feet). This portion of the trip was made famous by a well-known painting by Jacques-Louis David, probably the most important French painter of the Napoleonic period. You may well have seen it: Napoleon on a rearing white horse; his cape flowing in the wind; the names of Hannibal, Charlemagne, and Bonaparte inscribed on rocks at his feet. (Hannibal had passed that way to torment the Romans in the Punic Wars, while Charlemagne had crossed the Alps to defend the Pope in the eighth century.)
The reality of the passage was likely less romantic and more dangerous. You may think of May flowers, but the Great Saint Bernard Pass is often quite snowed in at that time of year, and Napoleon was on a mule for much of the trip (an image shown in another painting, this one by Paul Delaroche). The French had to slip past Fort Bard, which the Austrians had refused to surrender, but they did have the pleasure of receiving cheese and wine at the Hospice of Saint Bernard. The few Austrians encountered along the way were stunned by the French presence. Napoleon said it best, “We have struck like a thunderbolt . . . the enemy can scarcely believe it.”
Napoleon was a blur of action, planning the campaign, dealing with issues in France, receiving the adulations of the Milanese, and establishing a very close relationship with the noted Italian opera singer Madame Giuseppina Grassini. Grassini performed at the famed opera house La Scala and was frequently seen with her lover, Napoleon. (Many historians believe that in 1814, she was also the lover of Napoleon’s famous nemesis, Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, the victor at the Battle of Waterloo. More on him in Chapter 15.)
Facing the Austrian response
Austrian General Melas had not fully understood the importance of French movements in northern Italy. But as the end of May approached, he began to understand the danger. French control of northern Italy would cut him off from his home base in Austria, a disaster for any army.
Melas began to organize for a move north to meet Napoleon, and he was prepared to lift his siege of Genoa. About that time, Masséna surrendered — he was out of rations and had no real choice — but requested quite favorable terms. Melas was so concerned with Napoleon that he met those terms, which allowed Masséna to march out with his army to rejoin other French forces. Meanwhile, Napoleon’s French army tightened the noose and completely severed Melas’s communications with Austria.
Faulty intelligence
Napoleon quickly moved south to engage the Austrians, and the two armies began to converge near the town of Alessandria and a small nearby village named Marengo. Napoleon began to fear that the Austrians were fleeing, and so on June 13th he sent two units to cut off their possible escape routes. One of these units was commanded by General Louis Charles Desaix, who had served with Napoleon in Egypt and was one of Napoleon’s best friends.
Napoleon was unclear both as to the location and size of the Austrian forces. He received a report that the Austrian forces around the town of Alessandria were light. He sent only one scout to confirm this report, and this scout failed to fully report obvious signs of an Austrian effort to build up its forces in the area, such as the construction of a new bridge. Moreover, a double agent gave Napoleon misinformation. Thus, Napoleon thought he was facing only the Austrian rear guard that was covering the army’s retreat, rather than the main Austrian force.
The Battle of Marengo
On June 14th, the Austrians made a surprise move on Napoleon’s forces at Marengo. Napoleon had supposed that the Austrians were fleeing; instead, they had consolidated their forces and now outnumbered Napoleon’s army 30,000 to 22,000. It didn’t take Napoleon long to realize his mistake, and he quickly sent urgent messages to the two French units out looking for retreating Austrians. His note to Desaix was quite to the point: “I had thought to attack Mélas. He has attacked me first. For God’s sake come up if you still can.” But Desaix and all other French forces were likely too far away to be of any help.
The battle began, and it was soon clear that the French were in serious trouble. Outnumbered, outgunned, and low on ammunition, things were looking rather grim. The fighting was deadly, much of it at point-blank range. By mid-afternoon, the Austrians were certain of victory and began to regroup for a final push. Mélas, tired, had actually retired from the field, leaving the final push to subordinates.
The French quickly regrouped, with the fresh troops inspiring the others to renew their fight. A massive artillery barrage prevented the Austrians from moving forward, and when the French counterattacked, the Austrians collapsed (see Figure 9-1). The victory became a rout. Thoroughly beaten, the Austrians sued for peace, requesting only that they be allowed to retire to Austrian territory.
The Austrian casualties were much heavier than the French, but Napoleon suffered a deep personal blow. General Desaix, whose timely action had saved the day, was killed in the battle. Upon hearing of his friend’s death, Napoleon said, “Why am I not allowed to weep?” He ordered monuments erected and eulogies spoken to the memory of his friend, and Desaix’s statue is near Napoleon’s at the battlefield to this day.
Napoleon’s sadness was later compounded by the news that on the very same day, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber, whom Napoleon had left in charge in Egypt, had been assassinated by a religious fanatic. French forces there were now in the hands of far less capable leaders, and within a year they would be forced by the British to withdraw.
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Figure 9-1: This 1824 engraving by George Crunkshank after Carl Vernet shows the action at the Battle of Marengo. |
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Napoleon returned in triumph to Milan, where he was warmly welcomed by an adoring public. He sent letters to Austria’s Emperor Francis and opened peace negotiations. He returned to Paris in July 1800 to deal with domestic issues. There, as in Milan, he was welcomed by crowds that were convinced he was invincible.
Securing the peace
Napoleon was in great spirits, but he soon discovered that the peace talks with Austria were bogged down. Disgusted with the situation and fearful that the Austrians were simply stalling while they regrouped, Napoleon ordered General Moreau’s Army of the Rhine to find and destroy the Austrian army under General Kray. Moreau caught up to Kray at Hohenlinden, near Munich, and on December 3, 1800 won a great victory. A series of other victories followed, which left the Austrian court despondent. On Christmas Day, Kray and Moreau signed an armistice.
On the February 8, 1801, Austria and France signed the Peace of Luneville. Napoleon was generous to the Austrians. He wanted a lasting peace and realized that a nation that is treated badly in a treaty may feel compelled to regain its honor in the near future. Under the Peace of Luneville, Austria
Agreed to the terms of the earlier Treaty of Campo Formio (see Chapter 6).
Gave France the left (west) bank of the Rhine River.
Later treaties with Naples and Tuscany brought peace to the European continent. Only England remained in opposition to France; the war of the Second Coalition was over.
Fighting the Austrians and Russians — Yet Again!
For the next several years, Napoleon ruled as First Consul and instituted a number of important reforms in France. (I discuss these reforms in Part IV.) Peace with England came and went, as I discuss in Chapter 21. But since this chapter is all about conquering a continent, I now tell you about Napoleon’s most famous victorious campaign, that of 1805.
Setting the stage
In 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, and, shortly thereafter, King of Italy. (I explain how these titles came to him in Chapter 20.) He sought peace with all the nations of Europe. England, however, was uninterested in allowing Napoleon to rule.
Stubborn England
England was organizing a Third Coalition, which included Russia and Austria, to threaten France’s security. Napoleon realized that as long as England was able to finance coalitions against France, the French people would not be secure, and an overall peace would not be possible. This situation was unacceptable to France. Napoleon felt he would have to invade England to finally bring peace to Europe. To be fair, England felt that French control of so much territory, especially right across the English Channel, was a threat to her own security.
Napoleon massed his troops along the English Channel, with his headquarters at the French port city of Boulogne, just a stone’s throw from the British coast. Ah, but therein lay the rub. To get from here to there required ships, of which England had many and France had few. This was long before the construction of the Chunnel, the tunnel that now allows for high-speed train travel between England and France beneath the Channel. Don’t think Napoleon didn’t think of building one, but the technology just wasn’t there.
The Third Coalition
Why would other European nations want to engage Napoleon yet again? After all, wasn’t there peace on most of the Continent? Unfortunately, the usual suspects still weren’t happy:
The Pope didn’t appreciate Napoleon’s being crowned King of Italy.
Austria had several grievances:
• She still resented being ousted from Italy.
• Napoleon’s increasing influence in Germany positively galled her.
• Napoleon had created new allies in Germany — Bavaria, Baden, and Württemberg — greatly reducing Austria’s influence.
Russia feared French expansion into Central Europe and an imbalance of power that might threaten her interests in the east.
Trouble brewing
Now, you may think that the Austrians, the Russians, and the Pope had learned their lesson. But you would be wrong. While Napoleon was reorganizing his army along the coast, including giving it the name that stuck for the rest of his reign, La Grande Armée (the Great Army), moves were afoot in the east to challenge Napoleon. Austria and Russia were moving across central Europe, and Austria, Russia, and some of the smaller countries in Italy were threatening France’s interests in that country. Notice a trend here?
Napoleon didn’t want a Continental war, but he was quite prepared to do what was necessary to protect the gains he had made, both at home and abroad. If the Russians and Austrians were determined to do battle, so be it. But he would not attack them in force in Italy, as he had done in two previous campaigns. Instead, he would move his Grande Armée straight across Europe to confront what became known as the Third Coalition head-on. The campaign that followed, known as the War of the Third Coalition, was Napoleon’s greatest and assured him a place in the pantheon of great commanders.
Dividing and conquering
In terms of raw numbers, the Austrian and Russian forces moving westward were quite impressive. Each side could, at least on paper, promise some 200,000 troops. But the numbers of the Third Coalition alone did not tell the complete story:
The Austrians had sent a vanguard fairly far west, commanded by General Karl Mack.
The Russians, under General Mikhail Kutusov, were moving to join Mack but were still quite far to the rear.
The main Austrian force was still near Vienna.
Another Austrian force, commanded by Archduke Charles, the Austrian emperor’s brother, was in Italy, being held at bay by Masséna.
Napoleon had an army of some 210,000 men. If he could bring that army to bear against the divided Austrian and Russian forces, victory should be easy. There was just one little problem: Napoleon and his army were on the English Channel, several hundred miles from Ülm, the German city where Mack was headed.
Austrian General Mack had occupied Ülm and was busying himself improving the fortifications and waiting for the Russian reinforcements to arrive. He had approximately 50,000 men under his command. But he was a man without any idea of his real situation. Napoleon not only moved his army to Ülm, he moved it around that city, completely encircling the Austrians. Mack made several efforts to extricate himself from the situation, but it was no use. He had been completely bamboozled by Napoleon, and on October 20, 1805, he surrendered to the French. As he presented himself to Napoleon, he said, “Here you have the unfortunate General Mack.” Unfortunate indeed. Mack was allowed to return to Vienna, where he was promptly court-martialed.
A few days after taking Ülm, Napoleon went to Munich, where he was received much as he had been in Milan twice before. He enjoyed his rest there but could stay only a few days. He had defeated a substantial Austrian army, but the main conflict lay ahead. Archduke Charles and his brother, Archduke John, had over 100,000 men in northern Italy and were beginning to move toward Austria, having heard of the disaster at Ülm.
Capturing Vienna
Napoleon moved quickly down the Danube River toward the Austrian capital city of Vienna. Several times, he wrote to Austrian Emperor Francis suggesting peace. Francis probably should have agreed, but he was convinced that his brothers would move up from Italy to join the Austrian and Russian armies north of Vienna and that together they could crush Napoleon.
Meanwhile, French forces were defeating the Austrians in every skirmish they fought, and Vienna was in clear danger. After defeating a substantial Russian force, the French moved into Vienna, and Napoleon occupied the palace of Schönbrunn, one of the world’s most beautiful. With the capture of Vienna, Napoleon gained enormous stores of food, ammunition, and other materials necessary for the campaign.
Napoleon’s mood was decidedly dampened, however, when he heard news of a naval disaster at the Battle of Trafalgar, which I explain in Chapter 11. Clearly, it was time to crush his opponents.
Preparing for combat
Napoleon moved north to Brünn. The Austrians and Russians had recently evacuated that town and move some 50 miles to the east, taking positions at the fortress of Olmütz, where they hoped to be joined in time by the Archduke Charles and his men. There was also the possibility that Prussia would renounce her neutrality and join the Coalition, a move that would be a disaster for the French. Clearly, Napoleon needed to take quick action before any of these possibilities came to pass. As things stood now, Napoleon had the advantage, but that could quickly change for the worse. So he moved his army east and took up positions at Austerlitz, a short distance from Brünn.
Russian Tsar Alexander I, a 28 year old who had recently advanced to the throne with the murder of his father, Tsar Paul I, arrived to join the Austrian Emperor Francis. Their combined army numbered around 85,000 men. Napoleon had an army of some 73,000 men in the immediate vicinity, with other units in the region. These were not terrible odds, as long as the Prussians or the Archduke didn’t enter into the equation.
Conveying weakness
Napoleon sent General Jean Savary as an envoy to the tsar. He spent several days at Olmütz, mainly trying to convince the tsar that Napoleon was weak and most anxious for peace. The brash young tsar was taken in by this ruse and began to demand that the Coalition forces attack Napoleon and end his reign once and for all.
This, of course, is exactly what Napoleon wanted. He was certain that the key to victory would be to convince the Austrians and Russians that he, Napoleon, was in a weakened state and thus entice them to attack before their reinforcements arrived. To further give this impression, Napoleon moved his troops off the high ground, known as the Pratzen Heights, a clear sign that he was considering retreating. (No army ever voluntarily gives up the high ground.) The allies, sensing blood, quickly moved onto the heights and prepared their next move.
When General Savary returned, he brought with him an emissary from Tsar Alexander, one Prince Peter Dolgoruki. Dolgoruki was arrogant and lectured Napoleon on the political realities, as he saw them, informing Napoleon that the key to peace was for Napoleon to give up pretty much all that he had gained. Napoleon held his temper in check, giving the impression that he could not completely disagree with Dolgoruki, who reported Napoleon’s “weakness” to his superiors. The trap was set and would soon be sprung!
On December 1, 1805, the night before the battle, Napoleon went on a tour of his positions. His soldiers, inspired by the sight of him and remembering that the next day was the anniversary of his coronation as emperor (see Chapter 20), lit huge bonfires and torches of straw, crying out “Vive l’ Empereur!” (“Long live the Emperor!”) as he passed by. Napoleon later said that that evening had been the finest of his life. Napoleon wrote that he expected all would go well the next day, but that if the outcome were in any doubt, he would personally lead his soldiers into battle.
Fighting at Austerlitz
The Coalition allies were convinced that they had Napoleon on the ropes. They were also convinced that he was far weaker than he really was, as Napoleon had managed to conceal much of his strength, including the late arrival of reinforcements to his right flank.
And then there was the famous fog of Austerlitz. An early morning heavy mist or fog completely obscured Napoleon’s center from view of those atop the Pratzen Heights. Not expecting an attack on the Pratzen itself, Allied forces, most of whom were commanded by Russian General Friedrich Buxhöwden, streamed off the heights to attack Napoleon’s presumably weak right flank. They soon found resistance stronger than anticipated, which only encouraged their commanders to order more reinforcements from their center. The Allied position on the Pratzen Heights was now far weaker than it should have been, but the fog and a small hill had successfully hidden Napoleon’s true intentions.
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Figure 9-2: This engraving from about 1830 shows Napoleon on the Pratzen Heights with his marshals behind him and prisoners on the ground. The battle rages in the valley below. |
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After the Pratzen Heights were secured, Soult, joined now by the infantry of the Imperial Guard, was able to send his forces down the Heights in pursuit of Buxhöwden’s Russians. Buxhöwden found himself between a hammer and anvil, and he suffered tremendous losses. Many Russian soldiers tried to escape across some frozen lakes, but French artillery broke the ice, and thousands drowned in the freezing water. By now, the Allied sovereigns, Tsar Alexander and Emperor Francis, were leaving the field. The battle was over shortly after 4:00 in the afternoon.
The Russian right flank, commanded by General Peter Bagration, retreated in good order. He had been having some success against the French left wing, but when he saw that all was lost, he was able to extricate his men. His actions made him the only true Allied hero of the day; all other glory was claimed by the French.
Gaining a glorious victory
And glory there was to claim. At the end of the day, the Russians alone had lost 18,000 men. The devastating Allied losses also included 180 artillery pieces and 30,000 prisoners of war, including 20 generals. In contrast, about 1,400 French were killed.
When the Austrian losses at Ülm are included, it is clear that the forces of the Third Coalition had been not only defeated but humiliated by the French campaign. Prussia quickly gave up any thought of joining the now-discredited Coalition, and the Russians limped back home. Pursuing French forces may have done more damage to the retreating Russians and even captured the tsar, but Alexander fooled the French into thinking an armistice had been signed, delaying pursuit until the Russians were safely gone. This blunder didn’t bother Napoleon a great deal, as he generally had very little respect for the Russian army and anticipated that they would go home and cease meddling in the affairs of Western Europe.
The Russians could retreat home, but Austria really had nowhere to go and nothing to do. Further fighting would simply have added to its casualty lists. Austrian Emperor Francis requested a personal meeting with Napoleon, which Napoleon granted. An armistice soon followed, with Napoleon warning his commanders to be prepared in case of renewed hostilities, a definite possibility if Archduke Charles arrived on the scene. This was unlikely, however, and negotiations for a peace treaty soon commenced.
Napoleon was usually generous in victory, but he was bitter at continued Austrian opposition to his rule and determined to punish her once and for all. The subsequent Treaty of Pressburg, signed on December 26, 1805, stripped Austria of substantial territory in Italy and Germany and required her to pay a large indemnity. As he twice had done in his Italian campaigns, Napoleon ordered a large number of art and historic treasures sent to Paris. The French also gained a couple thousand cannon and numerous additional military supplies, including much-needed horses.
Francis also gave Napoleon his personal word to never again fight against Napoleonic France. It was a promise he would break all too soon. Francis also was told to fire his foreign minister, Count Johann Cobenzl, whom Napoleon blamed for having been heavily influenced (and paid) by the British to get Austria into the Third Coalition.
Rewarding his soldiers
In his Bulletins (written accounts of his actions published on a regular basis), Napoleon also listed numerous men and units for special recognition. This gave them recognition within the army as well as back in France, as the Bulletins were published and widely distributed (see Chapter 18).
Words are nice, but Napoleon gave his soldiers far more than simple recognition:
By Imperial Decree, he gave widows of those killed in the battle lifetime pensions, ranging from 6,000 francs per year to widows of generals to 200 francs per year to widows of privates.
He personally adopted the children of those killed, finding husbands for daughters and jobs for sons.
He also provided for these children’s education and allowed each to add the name Napoleon to his or her own.
Soldiers who had been wounded received bonus pay, and countless promotions and awards were given out, including France’s top honor that had been organized by Napoleon himself, the Legion of Honor. Napoleon also honored the brave officers and men on the Allied side, mentioning some in his Bulletins and often seeing to it that their commanders were made aware of their bravery. This was good politics, as Napoleon hoped to be at peace with these countries, and establishing good relations with other armies is never a bad thing.
Austerlitz destroyed the Third Coalition and further isolated England. It should have ushered in an era of peace and prosperity for all of Europe. Unfortunately, not everyone saw it that way, and war would continue.
Napoleon’s proclamation after the Battle of Austerlitz
Napoleon won what was generally considered his greatest victory at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. The next day, he issued a proclamation (which I reproduce here only in part) to his soldiers to express his great satisfaction with them. The proclamation comes from my book Imperial Glory: The Bulletins of Napoleon’s Grande Armée, 1805–1814 (Greenhill).
Soldiers! I am pleased with you. On the day of Austerlitz, you have justified what I expected from your intrepidity. You have decorated your eagles with an immortal glory. In less than four hours an army of 100,000 men, commanded by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, has been cut down or dispersed. . . .Thus, in two months the third coalition is conquered and dissolved. Peace can no longer be at a great distance; but, as I promised to my people before crossing the Rhine, I will only make a peace that gives you some guarantees and assures some recompenses to our allies . . . Soldiers! When everything necessary to the happiness and prosperity of our country will have been achieved, I will lead you back to France. There you will be the objects of my most tender solicitudes. My people will see you again with joy, and it will be enough for you to say: “I was at the battle of Austerlitz,” for them to reply, “There is a brave man!”