Chapter 2

Raising a Genius

In This Chapter

Getting a handle on Corsican politics

Introducing Napoleon’s family

Recognizing Napoleon’s first benefactor

Receiving a royal education

N apoleon’s birthplace, Corsica, is a small island off the northern coast of Italy in the warm waters of the Mediterranean. Just over 100 miles long, it is blessed with beautiful beaches and picturesque mountains. Its capital city of Ajaccio sits on a beautiful and strategically located bay. The pleasant nature of the island and its friendly people belie its sometimes stormy past.

In this chapter, I offer some insights into the influence that Napoleon’s birthplace and its political situation had during his formative years. I also introduce you to Napoleon’s family, whose influence on the emerging genius was important, though not always positive. And I explain the role that the French governor of Corsica, Count Charles René Marbeuf, played in his life by helping Napoleon get an education at a French military school.

Fighting for Corsican Independence

The first Punic War (264–221 BCE ) was an epic struggle between the early Roman Republic and its primary rival, Carthage, which resulted in a complete Roman victory. Among its spoils of war were three islands: Sardinia, Elba, and Corsica. All three remained Italian long after the fall of Rome.

In the years leading up to Napoleon’s birth, Italy was not the unified nation that we know today. What is today modern Italy was actually a collection of republics, kingdoms, and Papal States (governed by the Pope). One of the republics was the Republic of Genoa, which had owned Corsica since 1284. The official language of Corsica (and hence of Napoleon and his family) was Italian. The local rulers of Corsica were appointed by Genoa, and the Corsicans were none too happy about it.

In time, the Corsicans began to demand independence from Genoa. By 1755, they managed to force the local Genoese governors from the island. Led by Pasquale Paoli, the Corsicans were convinced that complete independence lay just around the corner. Paoli took charge of island government and was quite successful, and popular, in his new role.

Battling a new enemy

Unfortunately for the Corsicans, the Genoese decided to cut their losses and make a nice profit in the bargain. At first, they simply transferred their rights to Corsican ports to France. The King of France, Louis XV, was anxious to expand French hegemony in the area, and Corsica was key to his success. A few years later, in 1768, Genoa sold Corsica outright to a grateful King Louis. France had already sent soldiers to occupy the ports, and after the sale, King Louis sent more troops, commanded by Lieutenant General Count Charles René Marbeuf.

Corsican patriots, led by Paoli, were outraged and immediately began to fight for their independence from France. This task was much more difficult than rebelling against Genoa, however, as the French garrison was large and Louis was determined to hold on to his new purchase. Paoli sought help from the British, who were quite willing to give support to anything that might increase their influence in the area.

Stalemate

The British assistance promised was considerably more than the British assistance rendered. Paoli soon found that he was on his own. The Brits sent money but no troops. The French troops, in the meantime, had gained control of most of the cities and ports, while the Corsican nationalists held sway in the interior.

By 1769, a stalemate seemed certain, but Paoli blundered into a confrontation that ultimately cost him much of his fighting force. The French, meanwhile, had gained a new commander, Lieutenant General Comte de Vaux, who was determined to end the stalemate once and for all.

Checkmate

General de Vaux was as good as his word. Slowly and methodically, he pushed Paoli and his soldiers back. At the battle of Ponte Nuovo on May 9, 1769, he administered a deathblow — a coup de grâce — to Paoli’s forces. Those that survived fled to parts unknown. Paoli and a few of his closest companions managed to get aboard a British ship and flee to London.

The fight for Corsican independence was over, at least for the moment. General de Vaux, realizing that compassion now would reap rewards later, offered a general amnesty, which was gratefully accepted by virtually all Corsicans.

Coming under French rule

Even though the fighting was over, for many Corsicans, the dream of independence would never die. Corsica soon became divided between those who were quite willing to accept French rule, which proved to be fairly enlightened, and those who simply bided their time waiting for Paoli to return. Those Corsicans who lived in the cities did reasonably well under French rule. Poorer folk, mostly in the countryside, were less happy. To them, Paoli took on almost Christ-like imagery as they awaited his return.

Accepting amnesty

One of the families that accepted General de Vaux’s amnesty was that of Carlo and Leticia Buonaparte. No, that’s not a typo; Buonaparte is the Italian way of spelling Bonaparte. (I use the latter spelling throughout this book, but the earlier spelling pops up from time to time.)

Carlo had good reason to accept the offer of amnesty and be glad of the chance. His beautiful, 19-year-old wife was quite pregnant. Fleeing French soldiers in the mountains is not exactly ideal for a pregnant woman, so the family was happy to return to their home in Ajaccio.

Napoleon’s birthplace today

Napoleon’s home on Corsica is, not surprisingly, a major tourist attraction. The house is an imposing sight, but you must remember that during Napoleon’s childhood the family owned only a few rooms. (They gradually expanded their holdings until they owned the entire house.)

If you visit his birthplace, you can see

The room and couch where Napoleon is said to have been born

A gallery that seems like a miniature hall of mirrors from Versailles

A room with a trap door that Napoleon could use to leave the house to avoid his many admirers

Leticia’s bedroom

The room where Napoleon stayed in 1799 on his way home from Egypt, the last time he set foot on the island

In addition, the city of Ajaccio is filled with statues, museums, and historical sites dedicated to Napoleon. Of special interest is the Ajaccio Cathedral, where Leticia first felt the pains of labor for Napoleon’s birth. There is also the Imperial Chapel, where Napoleon’s parents, his uncle Joseph Fesch, and some of his siblings are buried. The Place de Gaulle has large statues of Napoleon and his brothers. Nearby is the grotto where the young Napoleon is said to have gone to daydream from time to time. In the countryside around the city, you can visit the Bonapartes’ country home, with a huge olive press on the ground floor.

Entering the world

There, life settled down to something far more normal. Until August 15, that is. On that day, Leticia was attending Mass in the family church when she felt the onset of labor. She walked the narrow streets back to her home, which consisted of part of a large house in a central part of town. Soon after, she gave birth to her second son, Napoleon. (Today, you can still visit the church, walk down the streets, and see the very bed on which Napoleon Bonaparte was born; see the sidebar “Napoleon’s birthplace today.”)

Getting to Know Napoleon’s Family

Part of the Corsican cultural heritage is a reliance on and loyalty to one’s family. The positive aspect of this heritage is that it can provide an emotional and economic support system invaluable to each member of the family. But this family loyalty can also lead to generations-long vendettas; Corsican history can attest to the existence of such family feuds. As Napoleon would learn, loyalty toward family members can also become problematic if those family members are of lesser ability or lesser loyalty than yourself.

Throughout his life, Napoleon experienced both the good and bad consequences of the tradition of family loyalty he was born into. In this section, I introduce you to the members of his immediate family and explain a bit about the role they played in Napoleon’s life.

Napoleon’s father, Carlo

Napoleon’s father was trained in the law. After participating in the failed effort for Corsican independence, Carlo (1746–1785) quickly accepted a position working for the local court. He became active in politics and gained some modest importance. Despite his previous fight for Corsican independence from Genoese rule, Carlo established good relationships, even alliances, with French officials on the island and in Paris. He became especially close to Count Marbeuf, who was then the governor of the island.

Napoleon must have heard stories of his father’s bravery during Corsica’s struggle for liberation and was no doubt impressed with Carlo’s willingness to put his life on the line for a patriotic cause, even exposing his family to danger. At the same time, Carlo’s willingness to switch sides when the victor became clear taught Napoleon a valuable lesson in practical politics.

Carlo came from a family of some wealth and importance, even of noble title, but most of the wealth had been dissipated and the title somehow lost. Indeed, one of the things Carlo did that would have the most influence on Napoleon’s future — and the entire family’s — was to doggedly petition to have his title of nobility restored. He succeeded, with the important intervention of his friend, Governor Count Marbeuf. As I explain later in the chapter, this noble title made Napoleon’s French military education possible.

His restored title also allowed Carlo to advance politically. He was soon a member of the Council of Twelve Nobles. His lack of any real wealth notwithstanding, Carlo played his role to the hilt, becoming known for his outlandish clothes and acquiring the title (not necessarily complimentary) of “Buonaparte the Magnificent.”

Carlo died while Napoleon was still a young student in France, but his influence on his son’s life was positive and long-lasting.

Napoleon’s mother, Leticia

The real head of Corsican families was the mother, and the Bonapartes were no exception. Young and beautiful, Leticia (1750–1836) held the family together during times of adversity and was an inspiration to all who knew her. She had been raised in the countryside and knew well the Corsican traditions, both good and bad. She had witnessed first-hand the results of vendettas and had seen how important it was that families stick together.

In the Corsican tradition, Leticia married young; she was 14 when she married Carlo. After losing her first two children, she gave birth to her first son, Joseph, a year before she bore Napoleon. She went on to have three more sons and three daughters after Napoleon was born. A woman of great intelligence and a forceful personality, Leticia encouraged her children to get the best education possible and was especially supportive of Napoleon throughout his career.

Leticia’s beauty and charming personality made her popular with all who knew her. One of her admirers was Governor Marbeuf. More than 40 years her senior, Marbeuf took a real liking to the wife of his friend Carlo, and he and Leticia were known to take long walks together. This caused some tongues to wag, and some historians’ tongues are wagging to this very day. There is no evidence, however, that any hanky-panky ever occurred. (And there’s certainly no evidence that Marbeuf was actually Napoleon’s father, as some people have speculated.) That said, it is likely that his affection for Leticia was one of the reasons Marbeuf was so willing to help the Bonaparte family.

Napoleon was deeply attached to his mother. Years later, in exile on the island of St. Helena, Napoleon said that Leticia “deserves all kind of veneration.” Having been taught the importance of family loyalty, Napoleon would put the care and protection of his family very high on his list of priorities. Some family members did not always deserve this loyalty, but his mother deserved it and reciprocated in kind: She was loyal to Napoleon to the very end. She was known to the family — and to history — by the affectionate and respectful title Madame Mère (literally, “Madame Mother”).

Napoleon’s siblings

Napoleon’s brothers and sisters would prove to be a decidedly mixed blessing throughout his career. Their parents couldn’t possibly have imagined what lay in store for these very special children.

Joseph

As the eldest brother, Joseph (1768–1844) may have expected to be the dominant sibling, but with a brother like Napoleon, that wasn’t very likely! Joseph was not as bright and didn’t have the same leadership qualities as his younger brother. (Then again, Napoleon was unique in both categories.) Joseph was loyal to Napoleon and was generally willing to do whatever Napoleon asked him to do.

Joseph married a young woman named Julie Clary, who was the sister of Napoleon’s first true love, Désirée Clary. (For more on Désirée and Napoleon’s other loves, see Chapter 5.)

It didn’t hurt Joseph to be the brother of his rising star of a brother who gave him a variety of administrative and diplomatic positions, most of which he fulfilled successfully.

In 1806, Napoleon made Joseph the King of Naples, and in 1808, he made him the King of Spain. In both positions, Joseph was well-meaning and somewhat successful at bringing Napoleonic reforms to his kingdoms, but his overall lack of leadership was telling. Never was it more of a problem than in 1814 when he was unsuccessful in his duties to defend Paris against the oncoming Russians, Prussians, and Austrians (see Chapter 14).

After Napoleon’s fall in 1815, Joseph spent most of the rest of his life in the United States, in Philadelphia. He moved to Florence, Italy, three years before his death.

Lucien

In the early days of Napoleon’s rise, it seemed that Lucien (1775–1840) might be Napoleon’s most valuable brother. He became active in Revolutionary politics. Closely associated with the radical politics of the day, Lucien both helped and hurt Napoleon’s early career.

Later, during Napoleon’s rule as First Consul, Lucien accepted positions as Minister of the Interior and ambassador to Spain. Lucien and Napoleon had a significant falling out when Lucien married a woman of whom Napoleon disapproved. Napoleon would offer Lucien several nice positions, but all on the condition that he leave his wife. Lucien refused.

Napoleon’s fall from power led to a complete reconciliation. Lucien was with Napoleon throughout the Hundred Days (when Napoleon returned from his first exile) and at Waterloo (see Chapter 15). When Napoleon was in exile on the island of St. Helena, Lucien attempted to join him there but was refused this opportunity by the British government. He spent the rest of his life in Italy.

Louis

Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846) began his career in the military. Napoleon had taken him under his wing by supporting him on a meager lieutenant’s pay while Louis was in school. Later, in Napoleon’s 1796 campaign in Italy (see Chapter 6), Louis was on board as an aide-de-camp (chief military aide). Louis also joined Napoleon in Egypt (see Chapter 7) and by 1804 had risen to the position of general of division.

In 1802, Napoleon more or less forced his younger brother to marry Josephine’s daughter, Hortense. This marriage made no one happy, least of all the newly married couple. Louis became embittered toward his brother. He had a son with Hortense — a possible successor to Napoleon — but the boy died young.

In 1806, Louis was made King of Holland. While he implemented several reforms, he argued bitterly with Napoleon over various economic issues and abdicated his throne in 1810. He lived most of the rest of his life in Italy.

Louis and Hortense did make one lasting contribution to French — and Napoleonic — history. One of their children, Charles Louis Napoleon, eventually became president and then emperor of France, ruling as Napoleon III.

Jérôme

Like Napoleon’s other brothers, Jérôme (1784–1860) would prove to be both good news and bad news for Napoleon. When Napoleon became First Consul (ruler of France) in 1799 (see Chapter 8), Jérôme left school and, at the ripe old age of 15, joined the navy. Not surprisingly, given his older brother’s political prominence, he soon rose through the ranks and was an admiral by 1806. While Jérôme was on duty in the West Indies, a British blockade afforded him the opportunity to travel throughout the United States. While there, he fell in love with a young woman named Elizabeth Patterson, and they married in 1803. Napoleon was furious, and nothing Jérôme did persuaded Napoleon to accept the marriage. Elizabeth was not allowed to set foot on French soil. After bearing Jérôme a son while in England, she eventually returned to the United States.

In contrast, Napoleon admired Jérôme’s military actions and made him a prince. After his first marriage was annulled by Napoleonic decree, Jérôme married Princess Catherine of Württemberg in 1807. That same year, he became king of a new country, Westphalia, which was created from some of Napoleon’s conquests in Germany.

Like Louis, Jérôme ran his country as he saw fit and was rather fond of the perks that came with being king. He spent far too much money on himself and not nearly enough on the kingdom. A furious Napoleon did all he could to turn Jérôme around, but it didn’t work. The two grew apart, and in 1813, Westphalia fell to the Sixth Coalition allies.

Upon Napoleon’s return from exile in Elba, Jérôme rejoined his brother, who welcomed him back into the fold. Jérôme was given a significant command at Waterloo (see Chapter 15). When Napoleon III took power, Jérôme was made governor of the Invalides (a retired soldier’s home in Paris where Napoleon is now buried) and a marshal of France.

Elisa

Napoleon’s eldest sister, Elisa (1777–1820), was generally a thorn in Napoleon’s side (much like many of her siblings). But Napoleon’s devotion to providing for his family naturally extended to her. In 1797, she married a minor Corsican nobleman named Felix Pasquale Bacciochi, despite her family’s opposition to the marriage. Napoleon rewarded Elisa’s husband the title of Prince of Piombino (a city in Tuscany, Italy), which made his sister the princess.

Like her famous brother, Elisa displayed remarkable administrative talents. She made significant improvements in her territory, which expanded as Napoleon gained greater control over the broader region. In governing, as well as in many affairs, Elisa generally ignored her husband. When Napoleon added Tuscany to her territory, Elisa was given the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany, which she held from 1809 to 1814.

Elisa began to fancy herself an heir to the famous Medici family of Italy and a great patron of the arts. When Napoleon’s fortunes were falling in 1814, Elisa’s only real concern was to preserve her own position, but she failed in those efforts. She eventually retired to Trieste, where she lived the rest of her life.

Pauline

Without a doubt, Napoleon’s sister Pauline (1780–1825) was the most interesting of the siblings. She was also the only sister who remained truly loyal to and appreciative of her imperial brother. Perhaps because of that, she is generally considered to have been Napoleon’s favorite.

After a torrid affair with Louis Marie Stanislas Fréron (see Chapter 3), Pauline married General Victor Leclerc in 1797, but he died in 1802 in Haiti. By then, Pauline had developed a much-deserved reputation for enjoying a life of, shall we say, pleasure. Napoleon, who was actually something of a prude, did not approve of this sort of behavior, but he would soon learn that there was little to be done about it. Anxious to live a lifestyle of the rich and famous, Pauline married Italian Prince Camillo Borghese in 1803. Between his wealth and a substantial dowry granted by Napoleon, she was set.

The marriage, however, was less than successful. Pauline and the prince each entertained a substantial number of lovers in a lifestyle that some found fascinating and others found scandalous. A well-known seductress, Pauline was fond of posing in the nude. A drinking cup was even molded from her breast. (It would fetch a pretty price on eBay today!)

Of all Napoleon’s siblings, Pauline was the most loyal during times of difficulty. She joined him in exile on Elba and used her great wealth to help him out. She followed him to Paris for the Hundred Days (see Chapter 14), but after Waterloo her health deteriorated and she moved to Rome. Reconciled with her husband by none other than the Pope (these people ran in high circles, folks), she managed to recover. Hearing of Napoleon’s ill health on St. Helena (see Chapter 16), she petitioned to join him in exile. Her petition was granted, but Napoleon died before she could leave. Her health once again crushed, she lived out her days with her husband in Rome and Florence.

Caroline

If Pauline was the most loyal to Napoleon, Napoleon’s youngest sister, Caroline (1782–1839), was the most disloyal and unappreciative of all of the family. Deeply resentful of Josephine and her family, Caroline eventually married Joachim Murat, one of Napoleon’s friends and a general in the army. When Murat was stationed in Paris, Caroline began to display an ambition that would eventually spell trouble for Napoleon and even her husband.

In 1804, Murat was made a Marshal of the Empire, and Caroline became increasingly important in the new social order. Jealous of the positions given to Josephine’s daughter, Hortense, Caroline sought some level of revenge by arranging for mistresses for Napoleon, all the while lobbying for a title for herself and her husband. They were eventually awarded the Grand Duchy of Berg and Cleves, and later the Kingdom of Naples.

You may think that being Queen of Naples would be a nice life to which one could quickly become accustomed. Not so Caroline. She soon became involved in a struggle for power with her husband, the king! The smart money was on her, and she soon became the dominant force. When Murat, who was still a marshal and had military duties in Napoleon’s army, was away on campaign in 1812, Caroline ruled as though he didn’t exist.

When Napoleon began to fall from power after 1812, Caroline, with a somewhat reluctant Joachim in tow, tried to negotiate a treaty with the Austrians that would allow them to keep their thrones if they turned on Napoleon. Talk about sibling rivalry! The deal was cut, but when King Murat saw Napoleon return for the Hundred Days, he turned on his Austrian allies and attacked them, hoping to help Napoleon. His actions had the opposite effect; they infuriated the Austrians, who not only drove Murat out of Italy but were unwilling to trust Napoleon and allow him to rule after his return to France (see Chapters 14 and 15).

In the end, Murat was executed by his own people and Caroline sent into exile in Trieste, where she married another Napoleonic figure, General Etienne-Jacques MacDonald. Caroline returned to Paris, where she was granted a nice pension by France. She lived out her days in Florence, Italy.

Educating a Genius

Napoleon’s family was not impoverished, but it was by no means wealthy. During Napoleon’s childhood, the Bonapartes owned only a few rooms of a large house (which they would eventually own in its entirety).

The Bonapartes were greatly helped when Carlo applied for and received recognition as a member of the noble class. This allowed Carlo to pursue his political career and gave him advantages as a lawyer as well.

Even so, Carlo’s salary was never great. Like parents everywhere, Carlo and Leticia wondered how they would afford their children’s education. And like people throughout history, they would find that it never hurt to have good connections. Their connection in this case was substantial: Count Marbeuf, the French governor of Corsica.

Getting a helping hand from Marbeuf

By all accounts, Count Marbeuf was an outstanding governor of Corsica. He had been sent at a time when emotions were high and the French were not universally loved. But he worked hard to organize reforms and to improve life for average Corsicans. He lowered taxes and organized numerous building projects. This was made easier by the fact that the French government in Paris recognized the delicate nature of his position and supported him with adequate funds to try to make the Corsicans happy with his rule. He even worked on speaking the Corsican dialect of French so that he could better communicate with the common people on the island. In short, he was about as good as the islanders could have ever hoped to get.

When Marbeuf first arrived on the island, he actually stayed at the Bonaparte home. Carlo and Marbeuf hit it off quite well and developed a mutually useful relationship. Both men had a strong interest in agriculture and worked together on a couple of projects. They were also both interested in politics, and each supported the French presence on the island. Marbeuf might have helped the Bonapartes regardless of any other factors.

But there was another factor, of course. As I mention earlier in the chapter, Marbeuf developed quite a strong interest in Carlo’s wife, Leticia. With great beauty and a pleasing personality, she no doubt attracted the eyes and inspired the hopes of more than one man on the island. But Marbeuf, of course, was quite different than other men. At 64, he was much older, but more importantly, he was the governor and could offer favors the others could not.

Leticia was interested only in a friendly relationship, which seems to have been enough for Marbeuf. They took long walks and had nice talks. Marbeuf treated her family as though they were his own. It was Marbeuf who helped Carlo prove his nobility, and it was Marbeuf who told Carlo of the existence of free scholarships for education in France. With the right recommendation, boys could attend the seminary in Aix, France or a military academy, while girls could go to finishing school at Saint-Cyr — all paid for by the king!

This news was almost too good to be true, and Carlo was quick to take advantage of it. In 1777, Marbeuf forwarded his recommendations, and soon Napoleon was accepted to the military academy at Brienne and Joseph was accepted to the seminary at Aix. But Joseph was too young to start seminary, and Napoleon had to await further processing before he could enter the academy. Again Marbeuf stepped in and sent both boys to stay (at his expense) with his nephew at the college of Autun, where they could learn French. (Marbeuf’s nephew just happened to be the local bishop.) And just to help out a little more, Marbeuf arranged for Leticia’s half-brother, Joseph Fesch, to attend the seminary at Aix.

On December 15, the two boys and Leticia’s half-brother left Corsica for the mainland of France. Napoleon was 9 years old and about to enter a world beyond anything he had ever imagined possible. (No one would ever say that these three young men squandered their educations; they would eventually become an emperor, a king, and a cardinal.)

Learning to speak French

While at Autun, Napoleon had to learn French; as of yet, the future Emperor of the French could hardly speak the language. The effort did not go well. Like many of us, Napoleon found memorizing difficult, and his natural inclination to hurry did not do him well in the study of language. Worse yet, his French had (and always would have) a strong Corsican accent, a fact that did him no favors throughout his schooling. Still, after three months at Autun, Napoleon had learned conversational French and was able to pass his language exams.

By May 1778, Carlo had secured the necessary documents so Napoleon could move to the military school at Brienne. Napoleon and Joseph were unhappy to have to part company for what might be a very long time. But Napoleon’s time at Autun had been well spent, and he was ready, at the ripe old age of 9, to move on.

Attending French military school

French military education in the late 18th century was not exactly a model of democracy. The opportunity to be an officer was reserved almost exclusively for the nobility and almost exclusively for native Frenchmen. To say that the system was elitist would be an understatement. Moreover, at least half the young students attended military school on expense accounts provided by their wealthy families. Scholarship recipients like Napoleon were looked down on by most of the students. Napoleon was poor by their standards, and it would show.

Worse yet, Napoleon wasn’t even French! True, Corsica had become a French territory, but the French had a very low opinion of Corsicans (noble or otherwise), seeing them as just this side of barbarians. Many of the cadets came from wealthy and powerful families, and they did not necessarily appreciate having to mix with the “rabble,” even that which was nobility. On Corsica, Napoleon’s family was fairly high on the social scale. At Brienne, he was virtually at the bottom.

Add to that the fact that Napoleon didn’t speak great French (and spoke it with a heavy Corsican accent), and it was clear that Napoleon was stepping into a situation that could prove to be very difficult. Young boys can be cruel in any circumstance, and this situation was made to order for bad behavior and bad attitudes.

Napoleon was assigned a small room in a dormitory. It was a Spartan existence, but that didn’t seem to bother Napoleon. If nothing else, the dorm situation put all cadets on a somewhat equal footing. All cadets wore a uniform, which was another equalizer.

Napoleon was determined to succeed and immediately settled in to his new routine. As a student, he began to excel. (He wasn’t a perfect student, though: His spelling and handwriting were quite bad. While this no doubt caused concern among his teachers, I’m afraid that I am personally in no position to criticize him on either count!) He was serious about his studies and spent much of his free time reading. Of course, with his lack of funds he could do little else.

Napoleon’s relations with the other cadets, however, did not go so well. The young boys of the elite nobility bullied Napoleon. Slight of build, he was less able to physically defend himself than he might have liked, though he did develop a reputation for generally holding his own against his larger adversaries. He began to withdraw somewhat, tending to keep to himself rather than socialize or engage in group activities. (He did enjoy gardening — each cadet was given a small plot of land.)

Dealing with poverty

Napoleon’s poverty continued to be a problem, isolating him from some of the other cadets and preventing him from buying some things he may have wanted. As the years went on, his poverty bothered him more, and he longed to be either removed from school or given an allowance. In 1781, at the age of 12, he wrote his father asking for an allowance or a withdrawal, saying “I am tired of exhibiting indigence, and of seeing the smiles of insolent scholars who are only superior to me by reason of their fortune.”

Carlo was in no position to give Napoleon any further assistance. His financial picture had not improved, and his health was deteriorating. He and Leticia were anxious for Napoleon to graduate as soon as possible to allow his brother Lucien to go to school on the same scholarship.

Condemned to poverty, Napoleon resolved to do all the better in school. Soon he began to excel in history, math, and geography. Math was likely the most important of the three for a military career, but history really captured Napoleon’s imagination (a fact that warms the hearts of all historians writing the story of his life!). Like many young men, Napoleon was especially taken with the stories of ancient heroes like Achilles, Alexander the Great, and Julius Caesar. No one could have suspected then that he would eventually join that elite group.

While his poverty was certainly a source of difficulty for Napoleon, it almost certainly influenced his later behavior. For example,

Napoleon’s poverty may have inspired his later commitment to promoting equality in France and throughout his empire (see Chapter 19).

The treatment he received at the hands of the arrogant French noble cadets was also likely a major reason he developed strong feelings for Corsican independence. Notwithstanding the fact that he was receiving an excellent education at French expense, Napoleon began to dream of Corsican independence and to idolize Paoli. These feelings would shape much of his behavior throughout his early career (see Chapters 3 and 4).

Napoleon also began to develop some important friendships. Probably the most important was Louis-Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, who would later serve as Napoleon’s secretary. Napoleon also became friends with some of the adult staff. His relations with the other students improved somewhat, perhaps because they could see that he was exceptionally talented. His leadership was often sought for the periodic snowball fights that took place.

Moving to the next level

While Napoleon was at Brienne, Carlo’s health continued to get worse. Joseph, who had been very successful at Autun, decided not to enter the seminary and seek a career in the Church. Instead, he wanted to go into the military. (Napoleon opposed this decision and said so, but to no avail.) Lucien, meanwhile, was poised to enter Brienne, which he did in 1784. Unlike Napoleon, however, Lucien had no financial aid, hoping to pick up Napoleon’s scholarship upon his older brother’s graduation. And Caroline had been enrolled at the exclusive school at Saint Cyr, where Carlo had managed to get her a scholarship.

It was clearly in the family’s best interest for Napoleon to graduate as soon as possible. An islander by heritage, Napoleon applied for a position in the navy, but nothing came of that effort. Napoleon was very young, a fact that probably delayed his graduation and may well have prevented positive action on his request for naval service. Another factor was probably the death of the family benefactor, Count Marbeuf, who had been promoting Napoleon’s naval aspirations.

With Marbeuf gone, the Bonapartes were on their own, and Napoleon needed to move forward in his education. Fortunately, he passed his exams in October 1784 and was accepted to the Military School of Paris. He was only 15 years old.

Having excelled at math and geometry, Napoleon selected the military branch that made the best use of those subjects: artillery. This was an excellent decision for many reasons, including the fact that artillery was an elite branch that offered excellent career opportunities. Those opportunities would be greatly enhanced by Napoleon’s acceptance to his new school, which was essentially the equivalent of West Point in the United States or Sandhurst in the United Kingdom. Napoleon had really arrived: His nomination had been signed by no less than King Louis XVI.

With Napoleon graduated from Brienne, Carlo had hoped that Lucien would receive his scholarship, but that didn’t happen. Fortunately, Joseph was able to attend Brienne on a royal scholarship, which certainly helped the family finances.

Wowing them in Paris

In late October 1784, Napoleon arrived in Paris. It was by far the largest city he had ever seen, and he was completely taken by all the sights. He bought a book about the city and was prepared for a grand time. He would soon discover, however, that Paris was a reflection of the state of French society. It was a city of great wealth but with great poverty as well. A large gap between the rich and the poor is always problematic, and the gap in Paris and through- out France was enormous. As I discuss in Chapter 3, those who were poor found the whole situation, well, revolting.

None of that mattered much to Napoleon as he entered his new school. He was among the most elite of all France’s military leaders. In keeping with its clientele, the school was luxurious. While the quarters were a bit on the small side, the classrooms were large and elegant. Located at one end of the Champ de Mars (today, the Eiffel Tower is at the other end) and near the Hôtel des Invalides (the home for retired veterans), it was very much in the center of things. (In death, Napoleon would return to the area, with his final resting place being under the gold dome of the Invalides. An adjacent military museum is largely dedicated to his career.)

In Paris, life was in some ways much grander for Napoleon. The cadets ate five-course meals and had the very best teachers available. The student-teacher ratio was very nearly one to one, which was (and is) virtually unheard of in other schools. Napoleon actually objected to the extravagance of the meals and wrote a lengthy letter to that effect to the Minister of War. At the advice of his former director at Brienne, he dropped the matter.

Napoleon continued to be something of a loner. The French nobility at this school were even higher on the social scale than those at Brienne, and they never missed an opportunity to put Napoleon in his place. He had more than one altercation with his comrades. On the other hand, he continued to be a popular selection for snowball fights.

As a student, Napoleon continued to excel, though his grades were not as good as they had been in Brienne. In addition to history and math, he developed a strong interest in literature. Still hoping for a commission in the navy, he nevertheless excelled at artillery. His love of Corsica and dreams of her independence did not lessen, nor did the negative reaction of both his classmates and his teachers, who had to remind him from time to time that he was there courtesy of the French king.

Losing his father

Napoleon’s father continued to have serious health problems, and shortly after Napoleon entered school in Paris, Carlo went to southern France to seek diagnosis and treatment. He was told by doctors that his condition was terminal stomach cancer. He died in February 1785. As he had been in life, in death Carlo was deep in debt. If Napoleon thought he was poor when Carlo was alive, he was truly destitute with his father gone.

Napoleon was no doubt heartbroken with his father’s death, though he likely saw it coming. He showed his strength of character by immediately writing to his mother and even by refusing the usual priestly consolation. As the eldest, it fell to Joseph to return to Corsica to see to family affairs, which allowed Napoleon to remain in school.

Graduating ahead of his class

The normal course of study for artillery at the Military School of Paris was two years. But Napoleon, who worked hard and excelled in much of what he did, was able to graduate after only one year. Detractors love to point out that his score was not that high — he ranked 42nd of the 58 young men who passed their exams that year. But most of those 58 had been in school at least two years. Napoleon was the fourth youngest of his graduating class and the only one for whom French was not his native language.

At 16, Napoleon received his commission as a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. He was about to step out into the real world — a world that he would soon come to dominate.

Continuing education

One of Napoleon’s closest friends in both schools was fellow cadet Alexander des Mazis. Both young men were assigned to the La Fère Regiment in Valence in the south of France, fairly close to Napoleon’s family in Corsica. Though he had received his commission, Napoleon was really on probation and receiving what we might call on-the-job training. He worked with gunners who had far more experience than he, learning the ins and outs of what it took to be a successful artillery officer.

Napoleon took the idea of continuing education very seriously. If his days were spent learning his duties and the requirements of his career, his off time was spent reading. The one luxury he allowed himself was the periodic purchase of books. He read widely but with a heavy concentration on history. He also read Jean Jacques Rousseau, whose writings on human liberty led him to be considered the father of the French Revolution. Napoleon took copious notes on everything he read and often made marks and comments in the books. He kept many lists and compiled statistics on a wide range of subjects. Clearly, his quest for education did not end upon graduation.

Napoleon also continued his fascination with Corsica and his support of her independence. He read James Boswell’s book on Corsican history and began preliminary work on his own history of Corsica. (That project would consume much of his time and emotion for several years but would never be completed.) Though he was in the French army, he began to see France’s role in Corsica as tyrannical.

Heading Home

After Carlo’s death, the Bonaparte family fortunes were tenuous at best. Napoleon’s mother, Leticia, had lost an agricultural contract for her mulberry nursery, and Napoleon had been unsuccessful in his efforts to have it restored. Leticia’s treatment by the French government was clearly unjust and only served to make Napoleon even more determined that Corsica should become independent.

The family had been helped by Napoleon’s grand uncle, but his health was failing as well. Napoleon received permission to take leave to visit his family on Corsica. He left in September 1786 and visited his Uncle Fesch and brother Lucien along the way. His mother and siblings, led by Joseph, were elated to see him. His education and career had gone quite well, and Napoleon was pretty clearly the leader of his family and the one most able to provide support.

Napoleon stayed for quite some time, helping his mother with her grape harvest, visiting with family and friends, and exploring the island. He and Joseph spent a great deal of time together, time they both would later recall with great fondness. With Napoleon there to help, Joseph was able to leave to study law in Pisa, Italy.

Napoleon was granted an extension of his leave and was able to stay until September 1787. (Such long leaves, which seem unusual to us, were actually fairly common in those days.) All good things come to an end, however, and Napoleon had to return to duty.

Well, not quite. He actually went to Paris, where he tried to personally intervene in the dispute over Leticia’s mulberries. He failed in the effort but managed to get an additional leave to Corsica, returning to continue writing his history and visiting with his fellow islanders.

His leave finally up, Napoleon was required to return to his military duties in 1788. His regiment had been transferred to Auxonne, and as summer approached, he reported there for duty. In Auxonne, his education — and his life — would take a giant step forward.