Port of Alexandria (D. Roberts, 1996, courtesy of the American University, Cairo).
Mohamed Abdel Aziz, Tarek Torky
VI.1.b The Walls and Towers of the Old City
Port of Alexandria (D. Roberts, 1996, courtesy of the American University, Cairo).
Known as the “Bride of the Mediterranean”, the city of Alexandria is 220 km. to the north west of Cairo. The city can be reached either by bus (just over 3 hours) along the desert road, by train (two and a half hours) or by car. Take Shari’ al-Ahram (Pyramid Avenue) out of Cairo on the edge of El Giza and from there, past the necropolis of Abu Rawash, the main road passes through agricultural land. Continue towards the coast and enter Alexandria from the west after driving around Lake Maryut.
The City of Alexandria is situated on the eastern edge of the Nile delta. The city considered one of Egypt’s major seaports keeps watch over the Mediterranean.
Following the conquest of Egypt in 332 BC, Alexander the Great founded the city on the site of the town named Raquda (Rakotis), where a community of fishermen lived alongside a military garrison. The architect Dinocrates was given the task of planning the city, the urban layout of which he based on a Greek model. The city’s rectangular area measured 3 km. in length and 1 km. in width. It was based on a grid structure of eight by eight streets, enclosed by city walls built of stone, which over the centuries have successively been restored and reconstructed. The historian Yaqut al-Hamawi records in his work Mu‘jam al-buldan, that Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia, gave his name to some 13 cities founded by him. Although in later times (by the 7th/13th century) it was only the great Egyptian city which was to hold on to his name.
With the death of Alexander, his General Ptolemy I founded the Ptolemaic dynasty and work began on the construction of a lighthouse on the Island of Pharos to guide ships in to her harbour. It is thought to have been joined to the mainland by a quay. Work finished on the lighthouse between 280 and 279 BC during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphos (r. 285-246 BC). The Museum was founded in the Royal Quarter along with the House of Science frequented by poets, philosophers and the most illustrious of learned men from the Hellenic world.
The Ptolemies continued to govern Egypt until she fell to the Romans under Emperor Augustus in 30 BC in the Battle of Actium, which resulted in her becoming a territory annexed to Rome.
In around AD 40 the evangelisation of the city began and by the 2nd century Christianity had gained such a following that Alexandria became a major religious centre wherein many churches were built; among them, the Church of Saint Mark the Evangelist and the Church of Saint Ignatius.
The century that followed was marked by the persecution of followers of the new religion and Alexandria fell into a period of decline, which was to end with the taking and pillaging of the city by Dioclesianus in the year 295. By the end of the following century, the population had recovered but the city continued to be the scene of frequent acts of violence causing the destruction of a considerable part of the monumental heritage from that era. In 21/642 Alexandria was the capital of Egypt. However, following the protracted siege and conquest of the city by the Arabs in that year the capital was transferred to Fustat, founded by the Arabs as the first Islamic capital of Egypt. Nevertheless, the Arabs greatly admired Alexandria and within the original urban area of Alexandria, numerous Arab tribes settled, bringing with them an increase in building activity city and in particular in the construction of mosques. The new Governor of Alexandria undertook the task of fortifying the coasts exposed to attack from the sea and ‘Abd Allah Ibn Abi al-Sarh, the second Arab Governor of Egypt, had a shipyard built there.
In the Abbasid era a new enclosure was built to protect the inhabited areas of the city where her walls had previously stood, with four gates located on the original axis of the city. To the east, the Rosetta Gate; to the west, the Cemetery Gate; to the south, Bab Sidra and to the north, Bab al-Bahr or the Gate of the Sea.
During the Fatimid era (358/969-569/1171) Alexandria regained her former glory playing a role in many of the political events in Egypt, primarily recognised as a base for the Fatimid Caliphate’s fleet of ships.
In 404/1013, on the orders of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, her canal was dredged to help navigation between the city and the Nile, an event that served to strengthen ties with other provinces in the country.
Among the most famous mosques of the era is the Mosque of al-’Attarin. Due to the fact her inhabitants were followers of the Sunni doctrine, Alexandria was the first city to stop preaching the Friday sermon in the name of the Fatimid Caliph. From the end of this period, several madrasas were built in order to put an end to the Shi’ite doctrine and to promote Sunni principles. Among the schools, the most noted are the al-Sufiyya Madrasa (or Madrasa of the Sufis) and the al-Salafiyya Madrasa (or Madrasa of the Precedence).
The Citadel of Qaytbay, main tower, Alexandria.
Historical sources recount how on Salah Al-Din al-Ayubbi’s visit to Alexandria in 572/1176, he showed great interest in her defence system, in the renovation of her fleet, and that he personally took part in the restoration of her city walls. During the Ayyubid period (569/1171-648/1250) Alexandria became the centre of world trade where products from the East were unloaded, among which spices and perfumes were highly valued. The 7th-century Jewish traveller from Spain, Ibn Jubayr (Benjamin of Tudela), recorded 28 cities or countries as having trading relations with Alexandria, each of which had a funduq available in the city for its citizens to store their wares and to lodge. In 569/1173, however, the city again faced invasion, this time by the King of Sicily, an attempt conspired along with the Franks and the Hashashin Ismailis, to retake the city for the Fatimid State, a plot that nevertheless failed.
Old City, ruins of the west wall, Alexandria.
With the Bahri and Burgui Mamluks Alexandria saw her activity reach its zenith, and its greatest period of wealth under Islamic rule. The city became one of Egypt’s most important seaports and the greatest trading centre in the Islamic world of its time. Such events coincided with the loss of protagonism of the port of Damietta. This was due in part to the continuous attacks on the city by Crusaders but was also partly due to the difficulty of navigating its river, the mouth of which had become blocked causing many merchants to abandon this route. In spite of the problems threatening to undermine his government, Sultan Baybars al-Bunduqdari (r.658/1260-676/1277) is thought to be the first sultan to pay particular attention to the port of Alexandria. He ordered its walls to be reconstructed and a port built in Rosetta, which would also serve as an observation post from which to guard and control the coast. Sultan Baybars al-Bunduqdari undertook the renewal of the fleet based there, equipping it with warships and ordering that all the trees necessary for their construction should be felled.
Following the Cypriot attack of 767/1365, the Mamluk Sultans reinforced fortifications in Alexandria to dissuade the Crusaders, who had already made two failed attempts on Damietta during the reign of the Sultans al-Kamil and al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub.
Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad had the Alexandria canal re-dredged and widened from its starting point at the city of Fuwa where the river forks to the city. This event had a significant effect in increasing trade during the Mamluk era. In addition, Sultan al-Nasir had the lighthouse of Alexandria rebuilt following considerable damage caused by the 702/1302 earthquake.
We know from historical sources that the city largely held onto its ancient urban structure in the second half of the 8th/14th century. The main transport artery (nowadays Gamal ‘Abd al-Naser Street) crossed the city from east to west from the Rosetta Gate to the Cemetery Gate. Another main artery crossed the city from north to south and linked the Gate of the Sea to Sidra Gate. It is also interesting to note that the Alexandria canal was divided into a network of smaller underground channels carrying water to houses and gardens. Outside the Gate of the Sea, there was an area of open level ground, stretching as far as the ancient lighthouse, where the Citadel of Qaytbay was later built. Known as “the square”, it provided a field in which the sultans set up camp and played ball games with the amirs, evidence of which we have from Qaytbay and Al-Ghuri during their travels to the city. When sultans visited Alexandria, the city was decked out in their honour, lamps hung from the battlements of the city wall, flags were hoisted and bells and trumpets sounded from the towers. Alexandria’s prosperity depended largely on navigating the channel connecting the city with the Nile. The ability to transport goods between the river and the port at any time of year was absolutely essential for the Mamluk economy, which relied heavily on the trade between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. All manner of goods from East and West were bought and sold in the port markets, many of which specialised in spices, pepper, coral, slaves, linen, silk, cotton and much more. These products were subject to customs tariffs, taxes and fees, which filled the State coffers with large sums of money. Domestic agricultural produce such as cereals and wax, or industrial goods such as sugar, and handcrafted products such as glassware, were exported through her port. The famous cloths of Alexandria, sought after in both Eastern and Western high society, were manufactured in her workshops, which could be counted in thousands. Every traveller who stopped in Alexandria marvelled at the bustling activity and great wealth of her inhabitants. For the famed traveller Ibn Battuta, Alexandria was one of the most important ports in the world.
On the death of Sultan Qaytbay, which coincided with the Portuguese discovery of the sea route East via the Cape of Good Hope, and their resultant domination of trade with the Orient, the City of Alexandria began to fall into decline. Trade subsequently stopped causing depression of the Egyptian economy and the eventual fall of the Mamluks. In addition to this the Ottoman conquest of Egypt caused Alexandria to lose her position as a major trading centre and with it the contact she had maintained with other countries, her hitherto trading partners, and the ports of Damietta and Rosetta eclipsed that of Alexandria. The ports of Syria and the Ottoman State were likewise affected. Of the Ottoman era in Alexandria, only a few vestiges remain: some small buildings such as the Mosque of Ibrahim Tarbana and the Mosque of ‘Abd al-Baqi Yurbagui, built in 1097/1685 and 1171/1758, respectively.
VI.1.a The Citadel of Qaytbay
The Citadel is located in an area known as al-Anfushi (Eastern Port), to the far west of the promenade along the seafront in Alexandria. There is a cafeteria and public conveniences in the Citadel.
Opening times: 09.00 to 15.00 in winter, 09.00 to 17.00 in summer. Although the building is currently under restoration, visitors are allowed inside.
As its name indicates the Citadel in Alexandria was commissioned by Sultan Qaytbay who came to power in 872/1467. On visiting the city and ruins of her ancient lighthouse in 882/1477, he ordered a burg to be built on the site of its foundations and set up several waqfs to finance its construction. The work took two years to complete costing over 100,000 dinars. Ibn Iyas recounts how it was equipped with a congregational mosque, bakery, oven and armouries.
The Citadel of Qaytbay, main burg, view from the parapet, Alexandria.
The Citadel of Qaytbay, main burg, detail of entrance arch, Alexandria.
The Citadel was built on land of an area larger than two faddans (over 8,400 sq. m.), and its walls constructed of huge blocks of stone giving it the appearance of a beautiful yet solid construction in keeping with its role of an impregnable fortress. Comprising two enclosures and the burg to the north east of the great courtyard, the outer wall of the Citadel surrounds the enclosure on all four sides. The eastern stretch of wall, 2 m. thick and 8 m. high, on the seaboard side has no towers, whereas the western face has three semi-circular towers along its length. This western face is the oldest and thickest and palm and other tree trunks can be seen inserted in its length. The south wall has three towers along its length facing the east gate. In its centre is the present-day main gate to the Citadel. The north stretch of wall overlooks the sea and is built on two levels. The lower part, a long covered passageway stretching the length of the wall, is divided into several square sections each with an arched opening into which cannons were placed. The upper level is a parapet walk with narrow openings which is now mostly in ruins.
The inner wall surrounds the Citadel courtyard on three sides (east, west and south) and the distance between the inner and outer walls varies between 5 and 10 m. Set into the thick wall are small rooms which served as barracks for the soldiers. In the centre of the length of wall is the second gateway to the Citadel (opposite the outer wall gateway). Above the entrance a marble plaque bears the decree issued by Sultan al-Ghuri in 907/1501 prohibiting the removal of arms, rifles or gunpowder from the Citadel and that anyone found guilty of doing so would be hung from the burg gate. Sultan al-Ghuri had the Citadel equipped with facilities for arms and chain-mail manufacture and increased the number of soldiers stationed there.
To the north east of the Citadel courtyard and built on the foundations of the ancient lighthouse, is the burg. It has a square base with sides of 30 m. measuring 17 m. in height and was built on three levels. The walls are crowned with battlements and each of the corners is reinforced with round towers. A machicolation is located above the gate, supported on square brackets with loopholes in the floor through which the entrance gate was defended.
The Citadel of Qaytbay, plan, Alexandria.
The Citadel of Qaytbay, main burg, passageway to the mosque, Alexandria.
The Citadel mosque occupied over half of the ground floor. The mosque comprised a square courtyard with four iwans and its floor was decorated with a marble mosaic of various colours in geometric shapes. By descriptions which have come down to us from travellers, we know that the minaret, now gone, was located in the upper part of the burg and that it was constructed in keeping with the predominant style of the Qaytbay era. The second floor has several small rooms interconnected by corridors, while the third floor has one large room located in the centre of the south end. The latter is mentioned by the Ibn Iyas as al-maq’ad, or a reception hall. This burg is similar to that in the Citadel of Qaytbay in Rosetta (VII.1.a) and to the one in Ra’s al-Nahr in Tripoli, Syria. Sultan Qaytbay had them all built over a similar period, though the latter on a smaller scale.
From the top of the Citadel towers there is a fantastic view of the Alexandria promenade, East Port and al-Raml Square.
VI.1.b The Walls and Towers of the Old City
The stone walls around the city of Alexandria were still standing in 1234/1818. There were two walls one inside the other and separated by a distance of between 10 and 12.5 m; the outer wall was 10 m. high with two towers along its length. The inner wall was higher and 6.5 m. thick.
Walls of the Old City and Towers, ruins of the west stretch of wall and rectangular tower, Alexandria.
Al-Nuwiri al-Skandari described Sultan Sha‘ban’s visit to Alexandria in 746/1345 and in his writings records each of the city gates as having three iron doors: such a feature is similar in design to the Cordoba Gate in Seville, Spain. From his account we also understand that the north stretch of wall between the Sea Gate and the Green Gate (or Cemetery Gate) was a double wall and followed the predominant models of Byzantine constructions and those of military architecture in al-Andalus, Spain.
Restored and rebuilt on several occasions throughout history, the Mamluk Sultans took care to preserve the wall as best they could to defend the city. In 659/1260 Sultan Baybars, fearful of invasion from the sea, ordered the walls to be strengthened. The city walls were rebuilt while al-Nasir Muhammad was in power following the earthquake of 702/1302, which according to al-Maqrizi destroyed 46 buttresses and 17 towers. Ibn Battuta vouched for the indomitable strength of the walls of Alexandria on his visit in 725/1324. Later, Sultan al-Ghuri directed part of the money collected through taxes to the restoration of the walls, a task included in his programme of strengthening and reorganising the fortresses of the Mamluk territory. In addition to the four main gateways from the Abbasid era (Gate of the Sea, Rosetta Gate, Sidra Gate and the Cemetery Gate), according to most historians another four gates were opened in the city walls in the Mamluk era, at the beginning of Baybars’ reign.
East Wall and Towers
Walk along the Corniche from the Citadel and turn right into Nabi Daniel Street. From there, go down Gamal ‘Abd al-Naser Street, on the left, and continue as far as the crossroads with Shahid Salah Mustafa.
The Rosetta Gate was located on this stretch of wall where Gamal ‘Abd al-Naser Street and Shahid Salah Mustafa Street meet. It was the main gateway to the city through which sultans passed on visiting the port of Alexandria. The Rosetta Gate was used also by people coming from the capital, hence its popular name, the Cairo Gateway. During the Cypriot siege of 767/1365, this gateway was the scene of the flight of many of her inhabitants from the city. Her people also set fire to the gateways to prevent the enemy from hiding within her walls, and to secure access for Mamluk troops coming from Cairo to liberate the city.
In 1882 the Rosetta Gate was left to fall into ruins and within three years it had disappeared completely. Nevertheless, two traces of the east walls can still be seen in the area of the waterfall gardens. One such example can be found to the north of the Rosetta Gate site; two towers can be made out, one semi-circular and the other rectangular. The rusticated stones are worth noting as they were widely used during the Ayyubid era, and closely resemble those used on the Salah al-Din city walls in Cairo. These stones were also used on a number of towers in the Citadel in Cairo. The second vestige of the original wall is found among modern buildings to the south of the waterfalls.
Walls and Towers of the Old City, ruins of the south stretch of wall and its west tower, Alexandria.
South Wall and Towers
Take al-Sutar Street in the area of the waterfall gardens. Nowadays, the tower is located within the Stadium of Alexandria.
There were two gates along this stretch of wall: Bab Sidra and Bab al-Zahri. Of the former, only the name remains, inherited by the street where it once stood. Of the latter, a section of the tower stands inside the sports stadium of Alexandria. In the circular tower, loopholes can be seen through which the enemy were fired upon below. This building is one of the few Islamic monuments remaining in Alexandria.
CENTRE OF THE SPICE TRADE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST
Tarek Torky
With the Arab Conquest of Alexandria completed, the city held onto her position as a major Mediterranean port on the main East-West trade route. Her strategic geographic location on the Mediterranean sea on the one hand, and the canal connecting the city to the Nile on the other, allowed Alexandria to maintain her position as a centre for trade throughout the Abbasid period, in spite of Baghdad’s dominant trade position throughout the Islamic world.
The Mamluk Sultans encouraged foreign traders to come to Alexandria to trade at the funduqs set up by different European peoples. When Acre fell to the Mamluks in 690/1291 the papacy tried to intervene in the religious affairs of European countries preventing them from trading with Egypt. The papacy put an economic blockade on the Egyptian coasts and declared trade between Egypt and the West illegal. To compensate, relations between the Europeans and the Mongols were promoted, the trading route through the Red Sea replaced by a route through the Persian Gulf and additional trading routes established through central Asia. Such attempts were, however, fruitless and the Italian Republics and other European States which had already established trading agreements with Mamluk Egypt, witnessed Egypt’s ability to maintain her independence and resist the Crusaders’ repeated and failed attacks. Furthermore, the European States saw that the Egyptian route through Alexandria was indispensable and channelled all their efforts into gaining favour with her sultans. They signed profitable trade agreements with Egypt and took great care to be represented in Alexandria by Consuls who defended their commercial interests. Several funduqs were built in the port, mostly near the Gateway of the Sea, and were reserved for the traders of each country.
Envoys were sent to Alexandria by the Kings of Aragon, Castile and France, the Dukes of Genoa and Venice, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Kings of Bulgaria and of the River Volga (main artery of Russian navigation) and by the Ottoman and Iranian courts.
The Genoese and Venetian merchants in Alexandria brought in essential products for the Egyptians; wood, cloth, animal skins, iron, tin, copper, oil, soap, leather and wax. In exchange, they exported from Egypt incense and spices such as pepper, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg and clove, all of which were originally imported from India, Yemen and Somalia. Ceramics from China and pearls from the Persian Gulf were also re-exported along with materials for curing leather, dyes, sugar, paint, resin, cotton, linen and silk, Egyptian alum, perfumes and medicinal plants. Each major product had its specialist market; the spice and pepper markets were centred in the al-‘Attarin market place.
Alexandria was one of the most important centres for the export of spice, on which the majority of trade between Egypt and Christian Europe was based, providing a vast income for the State coffers. The Mamluk Sultans relied on this trade to increase the sources of funds for the State. With a monopoly established on the spice trade and that of other products such as sugar and timber, their income increased yet further.
This monopoly reached its height with Sultan Barsbay, who, in 832/1428 issued a decree prohibiting the purchase of spices from any other marketplace outside the Sultan’s own stores. He subjected imports and exports to exorbitant taxes and declared the port of Alexandria exclusive to the spice trade. Such were the price increases on some products from the East such as spices and silk, that the foreign traders took offence. In 836/1432 Venetian representatives in Alexandria met Sultan Barsbay threatening to end relations with Egypt. They even sent their fleets to Alexandria to repatriate their traders, but on seeing such a reaction Barsbay came to his senses and agreed to better conditions for the International Spice Trade, though keeping his monopoly on pepper.
