NOTES

Part 1: Antebellum

1.		For a synopsis of the major schools of thought on Civil War causation, see: David Donald, “American Historians and the Causes of the Civil War,” South Atlantic Quarterly 59 (1960); Eric Foner, “The Causes of the American Civil War: Recent Interpretations and New Directions,” CWH 20 (1974); Edwin C. Rozwenc, ed., The Causes of the American Civil War (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1972).
2.		An excellent synopsis of the role of territorial expansionism in precipitating the Civil War can be found in James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 47–77.
3.		Gerald W. Wolff, “Party and Section: The Senate and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill,” in Beyond the Civil War Synthesis: Political Essays of the Civil War Era. Robert P. Swierenga, ed., (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1975), 179–83.
4.		Wolff, “Party and Section,” 169.
5.		For an examination of the reconciliation theme in post–Civil War America, see Alan T. Nolan, Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 25–26; and Bruce Chadwick, The Reel Civil War: Mythmaking in American Film (New York: Knopf, 2001).
6.		Nolan, Lee Considered, 27–28. Stephens and Smith quoted in Charles R. Lee Jr., The Confederate Constitutions (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963), 110.
7.		Population based on the U.S. National Census.
8.		Some of the more prominent historians who regard the Civil War as a result of poor leadership and unwarranted extremism include Allan Nevins, Charles W. Ramsdell, Avery O. Craven, and James G. Randall.
9.		See also Michael F. Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s (New York: Norton, 1978), 183–85.
10.		Robert A. Rutland, The Newsmongers: Journalism in the Life of the Nation, 1690–1972 (New York: Dial Press, 1973), 178.
11.		Johnson quoted in Carl N. Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 148; London News, March 12, 1861, quoted in Philip Van Doren Stern, Secret Missions of the Civil War (New York: Random House, 1987), 20.
12.		Rutland, Newsmongers, 188.
13.		John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Knopf, 1993) 305–6; J. G. Randall and David H. Donald, The Civil War and Reconstruction (Lexington, KY: Heath, 1969), 8. See also J. Matthew Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War: The Home Front (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1994).
14.		Mills Lane, ed., Neither More nor Less Than Men: Slavery in Georgia (Savannah, Ga.: Beehive Press, 1993), xxxv.
15.		John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 183; Stephen B. Oates, The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner’s Fierce Rebellion (New York: Harper Perennial, 1990), 98–99, 121–23.
16.		John Patrick Daly, When Slavery Was Called Freedom (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 47.
17.		Kent Blaser, “North Carolina and John Brown’s Raid,” CWH 24 (1878), 199–201. For a review of topics on religion and the coming of the Civil War, see Randall M. Miller, Harry S. Stout, and Charles Reagan Wilson, Religion and the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
18.		James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 438.
19.		For an overview of states’ rights as part of Southern politics in the antebellum period, see Lewis O. Saum, “Schlesinger and ‘The States’ Rights Fetish’: A Note,” CWH 24 (1978).
20.		Lincoln quoted in David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 206.
21.		Merton Dillon, The Abolitionists: The Growth of a Dissenting Minority (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1975), 175–76; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 80–81.
22.		Herbert Aptheker, Abolitionism: A Revolutionary Movement (Boston: Twayne, 1989), 30. For details on the actual case and Taney’s position, see Benjamin C. Howard, Report of the Decision of the Supreme Court of the United States and the Opinions of the Judges Thereof in the Case of Dred Scott versus John F. A. Sandford (Washington, D.C.: Cornelius Wendell, 1857).
23.		Bruce Collins, The Origins of the American Civil War (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), 109–10.
24.		Historian Steven Mintz estimates more than 23 million Africans were exported for slavery, with 11.7 million sold to South and North America and 2 million of the latter dying during the Atlantic voyage; see Mintz, ed., African American Voices: The Life Cycle of Slavery (St. James, N.Y.: Brandywine Press, 1993), 2–10.
25.		John B. Boles, Black Southerners, 1619–1869 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), 41–42, 68–70.
26.		Ibid., 53, 61–62. See also Edward E. Baptist, “The Migration of Planters to Antebellum Florida: Kinship and Power,” Journal of Southern History 62 (1996), 533–34.
27.		James L. Abrahamson, The Men of Secession and the Civil War, 1859–1861 (Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 2000), 84–86; Randall M. Miller and John David Smith, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 699–701.
28.		William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 135–36; Miller and Smith, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, 699.
29.		Charles S. Sydnor, Slavery in Mississippi (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1965), 245.
30.		Larry E. Rivers, Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000), 2; Miller and Smith, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, 487–91.
31.		Lane, Neither More nor Less Than Men, vii–viii.
32.		Ibid., xxiii; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 6–7, 39; see also Clarence L. Mohr, On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986).
33.		Joseph K, Menn, The Large Slaveholders of Louisiana—1860 (New Orleans: Pelican, 1964), 2–3. Following description of Jim Bowie’s slave activities in Miller and Smith, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, 413.
34.		Menn, Slaveholders of Louisiana, 1, 5, 9.
35.		James B, Sellers, Slavery in Alabama (Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 1950), 42.
36.		Rivers, Slavery in Florida, 252–54; Julia Floyd Smith, Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860 (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1973), 10.
37.		Rivers, Slavery in Florida, 253–54; David M. Kennedy and Thomas A. Bailey, The American Pageant, 2 vols. (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1986), 1:139.
38.		Accounts of slaveholder migrations south and west in Baptist, “The Migration of Planters to Antebellum Florida,” 533–34, and David S. Cecelski, The Waterman’s Story: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 105–6, 117. Account of poisonings and executions in North Carolina in Miller, 543.
39.		Frederic Bancroft, Slave-Traders in the Old South (Baltimore: J. H. Furst Co., 1931), 237, 384–86.
40.		Randolph B. Cambell, The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 252.
41.		Campbell, 56, 252. Following prices on slaves and acreage from Miller and Smith, Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery, 727.
42.		Thomas Goodrich, War to the Knife: Bleeding Kansas, 1854–1861 (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1998), 124–27.
43.		Mason Lowance, ed., Against Slavery: An Abolitionist Reader (New York: Penguin, 2000), 241.
44.		Phillips quoted in ibid., 88; James B. Stewart, Wendell Phillips: Liberty’s Hero (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986), 172; and Irving H. Bartlett, Wendell and Ann Phillips: The Community of Reform, 1840–1880 (New York: Norton, 1979), 53.
45.		Herbert Aptheker, Abolitionism: A Revolutionary Movement (Boston: Twayne, 1989), 88; Stewart, Wendell Phillips, 100–101; Stewart, “Heroes, Villains, Liberty, and License: The Abolitionist Vision of Wendell Phillips,” in Antislavery Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Abolitionists, ed. Lewis Perry and Michael Fellman (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 168–69.
46.		Lowance, Against Slavery, 92.
47.		David B. Chesebrough, Frederick Douglass: Oratory from Slavery (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998), 16. Garrison quoted in Avery Craven, An Historian and the Civil War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 37.
48.		Lowance, Against Slavery, 92; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “William Lloyd Garrison and the Antislavery Unity,” in The Abolitionists, ed. Richard O. Curry (Hindsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press, 1973), 90–92.
49.		Stanley Harrold, The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), 6; Wyatt-Brown, “William Lloyd Garrison and the Antislavery Unity,” 93–95.
50.		David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 2.
51.		Ibid., 26.
52.		Douglass quoted in Chesebrough, Frederick Douglass, 55–56.
53.		Blight, Frederick Douglass’ Civil War, 2, 16–17, 148–49; Chesebrough, Frederick Douglass, xvi; John Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 161.
54.		The following account of Douglass’s trip to England in Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 158–61; Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1990), 16.
55.		Gerald Sorin, The New York Abolitionists: A Case Study of Political Radicalism (Westport: Greenwood, 1971), 27–30; Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 120.
56.		Sorin, The New York Abolitionists, 35; Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 135, 157; Lowance, Against Slavery, 192.
57.		Otto J. Scott, The Secret Six: John Brown and the Abolitionist Movement (New York: Times Books, 1979), 70–71; Wyatt-Brown, 94; Sorin, The New York Abolitionists, 36; Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 240–45, 267.
58.		Smith quoted in Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 266.
59.		Lowance, Against Slavery, 292.
60.		Dillon, The Abolitionists, 191–92; Lowance, Against Slavery, 292.
61.		Patricia R. Hill, “Writing Out the War: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Averted Gaze,” in Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War, ed. Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 247–53.
62.		Phillips quoted in Stauffer, The Black Hearts of Men, 118.
63.		Robert H. Abzug, Passionate Liberator: Theodore Dwight Weld and the Dilemma of Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 4–5.
64.		Lowance, Against Slavery, 53; Benjamin P. Thomas, Theodore Weld: Crusader for Freedom (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1950), 168–72.
65.		Abzug, Passionate Liberator, 219, 246, 259.
66.		Charles L. Blockson, Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1994), 24; Louis Filler, The Crusade Against Slavery, 1830–1860 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), 163.
67.		Blockson, Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad, 24.
68.		Filler, The Crusade Against Slavery, 163; Stewart Sifakis, Who Was Who in the Civil War (New York: Facts on File, 1988), 240.
69.		Charles E. Heller, Portrait of an Abolitionist: A Biography of George Luther Stearns (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996), 84; Scott, The Secret Six, 245; Frank P. Stearns, The Life and Public Services of George Luther Stearns (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1907), 105, 118–19.
70.		Sifakis, Who Was Who in the Civil War, 618.
71.		Rhett quoted in Democracy on Trial: A Documentary History of American Life, 1845–1877, ed. Robert W. Johannsen (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 144.
72.		David M. Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), 105. Charleston Mercury quoted in Michael F. Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s (New York: Norton, 1978), 223.
73.		James L. Abrahamson, The Men of Secession and the Civil War: 1859–1861 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 33–36; William C. Davis, “A Government of Our Own”: The Making of the Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1994), 12.
74.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 92, 111, 204.
75.		Eric H. Walther, The Fire-Eaters (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 54.
76.		Ibid., 55.
77.		Potter, Impending Crisis, 408.
78.		Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 172–73. Yancey’s departure from the 1848 Democratic Party National Convention documented in William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 534–35.
79.		John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 184.
80.		Freehling, Road to Disunion, 257–59.
81.		Calhoun quoted in ibid., 282.
82.		John C. Calhoun and Daniel Webster, Speeches of Hon. John C. Calhoun and Hon. Daniel Webster (New York: Stringer & Townsend, 1850), 7, 12.
83.		Niven, Calhoun and the Price of Union, 184.
84.		Abrahamson, Men of Secession, 42–43.
85.		Ibid., 43–44.
86.		Thomas, Confederate Nation, 92–93.
87.		Walther, Fire-Eaters, 229–30.
88.		Abrahamson, Men of Secession, 37.
89.		Keitt quoted in Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s, 242.
90.		Keitt quoted in Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 125. Keitt’s poor memory described in ibid., 47.
91.		Abrahamson, Men of Secession, 39.
92.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 412.
93.		Walther, Fire-Eaters, 202.
94.		Ibid., 215.
95.		De Bow quoted in Abrahamson, Men of Secession, 40. “Inferior” comment from De Bow’s Review 27 (1859), 267. Nonslaveholder article quoted from Johannsen, Democracy on Trial, 52.
96.		Walther, Fire-Eaters, 270–78.
97.		Miles quoted in ibid., 287.
98.		Nolan, Lee Considered, 20–21.
99.		Cobb’s excerpt from his Law of Negro Slavery quoted in Bancroft, Slave Trading in the Old South, 344.
100.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 121.
101.		Ibid., 233–50.
102.		Preston quoted in Charles B. Dew, Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the Causes of the Civil War (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001), 75.
103.		Ibid., 74–75.

Part 2: Politics

1.		Felicity Allen, Jefferson Davis, Unconquerable Heart (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 20, 114–16, 448–52; Bruce Chadwick, The Two American Presidents (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1999), 5–7, 27–33; Clement Eaton, Jefferson Davis (New York: Free Press, 1977), 44; Douglas Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Knopf, 1998), 76–85.
2.		Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 4–5, 25–29; William J. Cooper Jr., Jefferson Davis, American (New York: Knopf, 2000), 8.
3.		Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 17.
4.		Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 34–35; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 89–90.
5.		Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myth (New York: New American Library, 1984), 6, 21, 40–41, 89–90; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 4–6.
6.		Allen, Jefferson Davis, 9, 25, 68–69, 93, 197–98, 251, 348, 434–35; Mark Grimsley. “‘We Will Vindicate the Right’: An Account of the Life of Jefferson Davis,” Civil War Times Illustrated (July– August 1991), 30–35.
7.		Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 254–55.
8.		Ibid., 238–39.
9.		Allen, Jefferson Davis, 121–23, 213–15; Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 51–52, 66–67.
10.		James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 48.
11.		Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 13–14, 46–47; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 104.
12.		William E. Gienapp, Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 51, 111–12; Oates, Lincoln, 101.
13.		David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 235–36.
14.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 216–21; Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln (New York: Modern Library, 1968), 208–14.
15.		William C. Davis, “A Government of Our Own”: The Making of the Southern Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1994), 120, 127–28, 131–32.
16.		Jefferson Davis quote from Cooper, Jefferson Davis, 301; James L. Abrahamson, The Men of Secession (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 7.
17.		Oates, Lincoln, 77–78; Lincoln quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 212.
18.		Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 117.
19.		Abrahamson, Men of Secession, 109–11; Allen, Jefferson Davis, 185, 189; Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 154.
20.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 241.
21.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 259–61, 353–56, 700-702; John C. Waugh, Reelecting Lincoln (New York: Crown, 1997), 6, 53–57.
22.		Donald, Lincoln, 277–78.
23.		Chadwick, Two American Presidents, 135–37; Robert Dardenne, “Devil to Clown: News Coverage of the Capture of Jefferson Davis”; David B. Sachsman, S. Kittrell Rushing, and Debra Reddin van Tuyll, eds., The Civil War and the Press (New Brunswick, Conn.: Transaction, 2000), 389–406.
24.		For a synopsis of the members of the Confederate Convention, see Charles R. Lee Jr., The Confederate Constitutions (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963), 153–58.
25.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 224–29. For further comments and details on the Provisional Confederate Constitution, see Lee, Confederate Constitutions, 60–81; Jefferson Davis, A Short History of the Confederate States of America (New York: Belford, 1890), 67. Historian Emory M. Thomas makes the intriguing observation that the Articles of Confederation were not considered as a viable alternative: Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 63.
26.		Thomas, Confederate Nation, 63.
27.		The original Permanent Constitution of the Confederate States of America currently resides at the University of Georgia. The Provisional Constitution is on display at the Confederate Museum in Richmond. For text of the Permanent Confederate Constitution, see Henry S. Commager, The Civil War Archive: The History of the Civil War in Documents (New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2000), 56–57; Lee, Confederate Constitutions, appendices; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 307–22.
28.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 227, 246–47; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 63.
29.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 228, 249, 252–53; Clement Eaton, A History of the Southern Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1965), 50; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 65.
30.		James G. Randall, Lincoln: The President Midstream (New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1953), 66.
31.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 226, 237.
32.		Ibid., 245; Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 52.
33.		James G. Randall and David H. Donald, The Civil War and Reconstruction (Boston: Heath, 1961), 256–64.
34.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 227.
35.		For an intriguing collection of letters and dissertations from several prominent political figures in early national politics, see Norma Cousins, ed., “In God We Trust”: The Religious Beliefs and Ideas of the American Founding Fathers (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958).
36.		Harry S. Stout and Christopher Grasso, “Civil War, Religion, and Communications: The Case of Richmond,” in Religion and the American Civil War, ed. Randall M. Miller, Harry S. Stout, and Charles Reagan Wilson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 321–22; Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 71–72.
37.		Thomas, Confederate Nation, 32–33.
38.		Davis, “A Government of Our Own,” 248, 250.
39.		Alternative names contemplated for the Confederacy are noted by ibid., 103, and Lee, Confederate Constitutions, 67.
40.		Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (New York: Modern Library, 1968), 377–78; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 150–52; Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 66.
41.		Russell F. Weigley, A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 180–82.
42.		Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 222–23; Weigley, Great Civil War, 184–85.
43.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 354–56.
44.		Oates, Lincoln, 105–6; Phillip S. Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), 145–46.
45.		Synopsis of Homestead Act in Commager, Civil War Archive, 813–14.
46.		Notes and text of the Pacific Railway Act available in ibid., 814–16.
47.		See C. F. Cross, Justin Smith Morrill: Father of the Land-Grant Colleges (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1999).
48.		Philip Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared: World Aspects of the American Civil War (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 156.
49.		Davis quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 566. London Times, October 21, 1862, quoted in Belle B. Sideman and Lillian Friedman, eds., Europe Looks at the Civil War (New York: Orion, 1960), 192.
50.		James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 124–25; Larry E. Nelson, Bullets, Ballots, and Rhetoric: Confederate Policy for the United States Presidential Contest of 1864 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1980), 170.
51.		For a condensed version of the Emancipation Proclamation and reactions from outside parties, see Commager, Civil War Archive, 577–81. For the gradual transformation of the proclamation from first draft to final signature, see Thomas, Lincoln, 333–64.
52.		Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 227.
53.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 616; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 198.
54.		Thomas, Lincoln, 493–94.
55.		Oates, Lincoln, 116–17.
56.		Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 18.
57.		Nelson, Bullets, Ballots, and Rhetoric, 167; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 290–91.
58.		Michael Fellman, The Making of Robert E. Lee (New York: Random House, 2000), 213–17; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 831–37.
59.		Synopsis of amnesty text in Commager, Civil War Archive, 802.
60.		For further reading on international relations and the Civil War, see R.J.M. Blackett, Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001); Henry Blumenthal, “Confederate Diplomacy: Popular Notions and International Realities,” Journal of Southern History (1966) 32:151-171; Harold Hyman, ed. Heard Round the World: The Impact Abroad of the Civil War (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1968); John M. Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: Brassey’s, 1991).
61.		Charles M. Hubbard, The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998), 23; Robert E. May, ed., The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1995), 4–5.
62.		Yancey letter dated July 3, 1861, quoted in Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 19.
63.		Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 18; Brian Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), 79; Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 9–10.
64.		May, The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 11.
65.		Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 63. For definitions in international law during the Civil War, see Black’s Law Dictionary, 4th ed. (St. Paul, Minn.: West, 1951).
66.		May, The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 10. See also Mark E. Neely Jr, “The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War,” CWH 32 (1986).
67.		Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 180.
68.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 380.
69.		Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 143–49.
70.		May, The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 11.
71.		Ibid., 4–5. See also Gavin Wright, “Slavery and the Cotton Boom,” Explorations in Economic History 12 (October 1975).
72.		Jenkins, Britain and the War, 79; Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 64; Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 21. For a more detailed perspective on the relationship between the free labor Union and free labor Britain, see Philip S. Foner, British Labor and the American Civil War (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981).
73.		Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 27.
74.		Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 1999), 58–59.
75.		Ibid., 61–63.
76.		Gordon H. Warren, Fountain of Discontent: The Trent Affair and Freedom of the Seas (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1981), 206.
77.		Ibid., 205–12.
78.		May, The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 8; Warren, Fountain of Discontent, 212. See also Norman Ferris, The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977).
79.		Frank L. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 88.
80.		Thomas Schoonover, “Napoleon Is Coming! Maximilian Is Coming? The International History of the Civil War in the Caribbean Basin,” in May, The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim, 101–2.
81.		Jones, Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 182–83; Schoonover, “Napoleon Is Coming!” 105, 121.
82.		Jones, Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom, 184–85. See also Colin M. MacLachlan and William H. Beezley, El Gran Pueblo: A History of Greater Mexico (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1994).
83.		Jenkins, Britain and the War, 81.
84.		Lincoln quoted in Donald, Lincoln, 189.
85.		Albert A. Woldman, Lincoln and the Russians (Cleveland: World, 1952), 141.
86.		Welles quoted in Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 233. An account of Lincoln’s ambassadors to Russia is in Donald, Lincoln, 412–13.
87.		Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 498–99.
88.		Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared, 235–36. Letter from Davis to Pope Pius IX quoted in Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 501.
89.		Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy, 502–6.
90.		Robin W. Winks, Canada and the United States: The Civil War Years (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960), 3.
91.		Ibid., 265.
92.		Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 166; Winks, Canada and the United States, 272–77, 285, 291, 297.
93.		Winks, Canada and the United States, 298–301, 334. On ex-slaves in Canada in 1860, see ibid., 7–8.
94.		Hubbard, Burden of Confederate Diplomacy, 171; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 837–38.

Part 3: Military Life

1.		For another story on sticks and stones breaking Federal bones, see Stephen D. Lutz, “Stick Charge at Stone’s River,” CWTI (December 2002), 60–72.
2.		Gregory A. Coco, The Civil War Infantryman (Gettysburg, Pa.: Thomas, 1996), 65–66.
3.		Bell I. Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1999), 288, 289.
4.		Ibid., 55–56.
5.		Detailed descriptions of the Springfield and Enfield appear in Philip Katcher, The Civil War Source Book (New York: Facts on File, 1995), 55–59; and Jack Coggins, Arms and Equipment of the Civil War (Wilmington, N.C.: Broadfoot, 1990), 31–32.
6.		Mark M. Boatner III, The Civil War Dictionary (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 52, 260; Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 29.
7.		On the battle of Corinth, see Peter Cozzens, The Darkest Days of the War: The Battles of Iuka and Corinth (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997) 183; William F. Fox, Regimental Losses in the Civil War (Albany: Albany Publishing Co., 1898), 77; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 659. “Bayonets” and other nicknames for the common soldier can be found in Webb Garrison, The Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage (Nashville, Tenn.: Cumberland House, 2001).
8.		Katcher, Civil War Source Book, 60–61; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 296–97. The story of Richard Brooke Garnett can be found in Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Gray (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959), 99.
9.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 167; William A. Albaugh III and Edward N. Simmons, Confederate Arms (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1957), 9.
10.		Bell I. Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1978), 64; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 294; Bruce Catton, Glory Road (New York: Doubleday, 1952), 245–46.
11.		William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General W. T. Sherman (New York: Literary Classics, 1990), 219; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 286.
12.		Coco, The Civil War Infantryman, 67.
13.		Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 58–59; Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, 63. For Lincoln and his fondness for testing weapons, see David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 431–32; Robert V. Bruce, Lincoln and the Tools of War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956).
14.		Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 97–98.
15.		Jeffry D. Wert, General James Longstreet: The Confederacy’s Most Controversial Soldier, A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 352.
16.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 168.
17.		Ibid., 119.
18.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 298.
19.		Ibid., 295–96.
20.		The battle of Valverde is described in Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 865.
21.		Ibid., 68
22.		Milton F. Perry, Infernal Machines: The Story of Confederate Submarine and Mine Warfare (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1965), 199–201.
23.		Letter from Lt. John Burnham, Sixteenth Connecticut, to his family, October 4, 1862, from Annette Tapert, ed., The Brothers’ War (New York: Time Books, 1988), 92.
24.		John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Knopf, 1993), 305–6; Robert C. Black III, The Railroads of the Confederacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 198; Catton, Glory Road, 109.
25.		George W. Adams, Doctors in Blue (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1996), 205; Tapert, Brothers’ War, 92; Description of the role of water in the battle of Perryville in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 519–20.
26.		John D. Billings, Hardtack and Coffee (Chicago: Donnelley & Sons, 1960), 122.
27.		Ibid., 110, 119.
28.		Ibid., 114–15; Robert Paul Jordan, The Civil War (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1969), 92, 96.
29.		Battle of Allatoona, Ga., October 5, 1864. See Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 8.
30.		Billings, Hardtack and Coffee, 109; Hans Halberstadt, The Soldier’s Story (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 2001), 112.
31.		Bruce Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army (New York: Doubleday, 1962), 181; Michael J. Varhola, Everyday Life in the Civil War (Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books, 1999), 89–95.
32.		An enlightening example of Confederate ingenuity with salt pork and other meats can be found in Jefferson D. Freeman, Reprint of Rare Confederate Cookbook (Union City, Tenn.: Pioneer Press, 2000).
33.		Billings, Hardtack and Coffee, 125.
34.		Dorothy D. Volo and James M. Volo, Daily Life in Civil War America (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998), 122. Craig L. Symonds, Stonewall of the West (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1997), 89; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 92–93; Sam R. Watkins, “Co. Aytch”: A Side Show of the Big Show (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 81, 92.
35.		Billings, Hardtack and Coffee, 112, 138; Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army, 182.
36.		David Madden, Beyond the Battlefield (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 136.
37.		Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army, 182.
38.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 94.
39.		Ibid., 102–3.
40.		Volo and Volo, Daily Life in Civil War America, 120; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 95.
41.		Coco, The Civil War Infantryman, 25. Term “goober grabbers” from Garrison, Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage, 96.
42.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 91, 98; Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army, 182; Ella Lonn, Desertion During the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 9–10. Term “eating salt” from Garrison, Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage, 219.
43.		Quote of soldier’s bout with bad fruit from John T. Greene, ed., The Ewing Family Civil War Letters (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994), 101.
44.		Lost or inaccurate records, reenlistments, bounty jumping, desertions, and early discharges make a grand total of Civil War veterans difficult to ascertain, and historical estimations vary by hundreds of thousands. There is a general consensus that approximately one million served in the Confederate military and two million in the Union. The total number of regulars or professional soldiers remained near their prewar levels, but the rest of the ranks were volunteers, draftees, and militia, making the Civil War definitively a citizens’ war.
45.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 605–6.
46.		Ibid., 177–201; Varhola, Everyday Life During the Civil War, 131–32, 203–4.
47.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 177.
48.		James I. Robertson Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 23–24.
49.		Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, 320.
50.		For the Union roughly 80 percent of those in the land forces served in the infantry, 14 percent in the cavalry, and 6 percent in the artillery. Confederates divided their ground forces into 75 percent infantry, 20 percent cavalry, and 5 percent artillery.
51.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 612; Coco, The Civil War Infantryman, 10; Halberstadt, The Soldier’s Story, 26.
52.		Robertson, Soldiers Blue and Gray, 21–22.
53.		Halberstadt, Soldier’s Story, 26.
54.		Account of file-closers in Webb Garrison, The Amazing Civil War (New York: MJF Books, 1998), 155.
55.		Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army, 179; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 106.
56.		Cozzens, Darkest Days, 207, 305, 319, 326–27; Steve Meyer, Iowa Valor (Garrison, Iowa: Meyer, 1994), 123–25; Iowa Adjutant General’s Office, Roster and Record of Iowa Soldiers in the War of the Rebellion, 6 vols. (Des Moines, Iowa: E. H. English, 1908–11), 1:199.
57.		John Duffy, The Healers: A History of American Medicine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), 171–72.
58.		Ibid., 214–16. Daniel Kilbride notes that many Southern physicians had actually trained in the North: Kilbride, “Southern Medical Students in Philadelphia, 1800–1861: Science and Sociability in the ‘Republic of Medicine,’” Journal of Southern History 65 (1999), 697–732. For glimpses into the harsh conditions of hospital life, see Louisa May Alcott, Hospital Sketches (1863; reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960); Henry S. Commager, The Civil War Archive (New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2000), 521–38; and Glenna R. Schroeder-Lein, Confederate Hospitals on the Move (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994).
59.		For an excellent assembly of primary and secondary sources on the subject of Civil War medicine, see Frank R. Freemon, Microbes and Minie Balls: An Annotated Bibliography of Civil War Medicine (Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1993).
60.		John S. Haller Jr., American Medicine in Transition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), 83, 88, 89; Stewart M. Brooks, Civil War Medicine (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1966), 64.
61.		George W. Adams, Doctors in Blue (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1980), 123; Stephen B. Oates, A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1994), 48; Charles Beneulyn Johnson, Muskets and Medicine (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1917), 130.
62.		Duffy, The Healers, 212–13; Haller, American Medicine in Transition, 86–87.
63.		Johnson, Muskets and Medicine, 130.
64.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 140.
65.		Brooks, Civil War Medicine, 70.
66.		Frank R. Freemon, Gangrene and Glory (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1988), 218.
67.		Symonds, Stonewall of the West, 4. For the effects of opiates upon veterans, see David T. Courtwright, “Opiate Addictions as a Consequence of the Civil War,” CWH, 24 (1978).
68.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 125–26.
69.		Walter D. Farr, “Samuel Preston Moore: Confederate Surgeon General,” CWH, 41 (1995), 50; Brooks, Civil War Medicine, 85.
70.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 48–49.
71.		C. Keith Wilbur, Civil War Medicine, 1861–1865 (Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot, 1998), 14–15.
72.		Farr, “Samuel Preston Moore,” 50. Account of POW amputating his own feet is in Johnson, Muskets and Medicine, 258, and Lonnie R. Speer, Portals to Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1997), 276.
73.		Farr, “Samuel Preston Moore,” 40, 50; Adams, Doctors in Blue, 123; Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 48–49.
74.		Alexander quote from J. Cutler Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), 39. Descriptions of horsehair sutures are in Brooks, Civil War Medicine, 86–87, and Farr, “Samuel Preston Moore,” 50.
75.		Alcott, Hospital Sketches, 87–88.
76.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 122–24.
77.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 48.
78.		Wilbur, Civil War Medicine, 52–55.
79.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 131, 133–34.
80.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 48; Brooks, Civil War Medicine, 65–66.
81.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 48.
82.		Stonewall Jackson quote from John Bowers, Stonewall Jackson: Portrait of a Soldier (New York: Morrow, 1989), 423.
83.		United States, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, 2 vols. (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 1:365. In 1850, while approximately 85 percent of the U.S. free population was literate, much of the rest of the world lagged far behind. Comparatively, 67 percent in Britain and 25 percent in Eastern Europe could read and write. See McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 19–21; Brayton Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 2000), 11.
84.		Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, xxi.
85.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 71.
86.		Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 20; Halberstadt, Soldier’s Story, 30–33.
87.		E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital: 1848–1875 (New York: New American Library, 1979), 59–61; Varhola, Everyday Life During the Civil War, 178.
88.		Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 106–7.
89.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 792; Rod Gregg, Civil War Quiz and Fact Book (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 146. On Lincoln and the War Department Telegraph Office, see Donald, Lincoln, 392; and David H. Bates, Lincoln in the Telegraph Office (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1939).
90.		Katcher, Civil War Source Book, 85.
91.		Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 107.
92.		United States, War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880–1901) (hereafter referred to as OR), ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 1, 199–207; Coggins, Arms and Equipment, 107.
93.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 7, 576–77; Gerald S. Henig and Eric Niderost, Civil War Firsts (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2001), 91.
94.		Madden, Beyond the Battlefield, 214–15.
95.		Ibid., 217–18; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 194.
96.		Clifford Dowdey, Lee’s Last Campaign (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1988), 298.
97.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 2. An account of the Union wounded at Fredericksburg shooting their rifles is in Commager, Civil War Archive, 192.
98.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 81–82.
99.		Herman Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 50.
100.		Shelby Foote, Fredericksburg to Meridian (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 459.
101.		Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War, 515; William E. Huntzicker, The Popular Press, 1833–1865 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 138, 151.
102.		Madden, Beyond the Battlefield, 165.
103.		Ibid., 112; Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, 179–83.
104.		Madden, Beyond the Battlefield, 113; Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, 25.
105.		Madden, Beyond the Battlefield, 11; Bob Zeller, The Civil War in Depth (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997), 13–17.
106.		Henig and Niderost, Civil War Firsts, 251–52.
107.		Ibid., 250–52.
108.		Number of dead are rounded estimates from OR; Thomas L. Livermore, Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America: 1861–1865 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957); Frederick Phisterer, Record of the Armies of the United States (New York: Scribner’s and Sons, 1893); and Paul E. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968).
109.		E. B. Long and Barbara Long, The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865 (Garden City, N.Y.: Da Capo Press, 1985), 713.
110.		Johnson, Muskets and Medicine, 131–32; Adams, Doctors in Blue, 114.
111.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 17–20.
112.		Ibid., 199–200, 225.
113.		Watkins, “Co. Aytch,” 79.
114.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 135–36.
115.		Johnson, Muskets and Medicine, 131.
116.		Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 253. The OR estimates the number of Union typhoid deaths to be nearer twenty-seven thousand.
117.		William A. R. Thompson, Black’s Medical Dictionary, 29th ed. (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1972), 318–19.
118.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 227.
119.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 206.
120.		For life and death in Civil War prisons, consult William B. Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1930) and Speer, Portals to Hell.
121.		Thompson, Black’s Medical Dictionary, 708.
122.		Brooks, Civil War Medicine, 77.
123.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 217.
124.		Ibid., 209.
125.		Benton McAdams. Rebels at Rock Island: The Story of a Civil War Prison (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 49.
126.		Adams, Doctors in Blue, 219–20.
127.		Thompson, Black’s Medical Dictionary, 914–15.
128.		Freemon, Gangrene and Glory, 210; Wiley, Life of Johnny Reb, 251; Wiley, Life of Billy Yank, 133.

Part 4: The Home Front

1.		Phillip S. Paludan, “A People’s Contest”: The Union and the Civil War, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 174.
2.		J. Matthew Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War: The Home Front (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1994), 74–75.
3.		Paludan, “A People’s Contest,” 186; Amy E. Holmes, “‘Such Is the Price We Pay’: American Widows and the Civil War Pension System” in Toward a Social History of the American Civil War, ed. Maris A. Vinovskis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 174.
4.		Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War, 76.
5.		Hogs consumed unburied dead after the first day of Shiloh. In many instances elsewhere, hogs routinely dug up shallow graves. See Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering (New York: Vintage, 2009).
6.		Douglas Fermer, James Gordon Bennett and the New York Herald: A Study of Editorial Opinion in the Civil War Era, 1854–1867 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1986), 279; E. B. Long and Barbara Long, The Civil War Day by Day, 1861–1865 (New York: Doubleday, 1971), 710–11.
7.		Gerald S. Henig and Eric Niderost, Civil War Firsts: The Legacies of America’s Bloodiest Conflict (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2001), 333.
8.		Jeanue Attie, Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), 244–45, 272–74; David T. Courtwright, “Opiate Addictions As a Consequence of the Civil War,” CWH, 24 (1978), 101. Statistic on artificial limbs from Shelby Foote, Red River to Appomattox (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 1040.
9.		Eric T. Dean, “‘We Will All Be Lost and Destroyed’: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Civil War,” CWH 37 (1991), 138–40, 148; James Marten, “Exempt from the Ordinary Rules of Life: Researching Postwar Adjustment Problems of Union Veterans,” CWH 47 (2001), 57, 62–64.
10.		Dean, “‘We Will All Be Lost and Destroyed,’” 140–42.
11.		Ibid., 146. See also Gerald F. Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1987); James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 43–45, 163–67. National divorce rate noted in Albert A. Nofi, Civil War Journal (New York: Promontory Press, 1993), 145.
12.		James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 384.
13.		Ibid., 440. Young Confederate quoted in Marilyn Mayer Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs: The Women of the American Civil War (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1991), 219.
14.		Dorothy D. Volo and James M. Volo, Daily Life in the Civil War (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998), 230–34.
15.		Michael Fellman, Lesley J. Gordon, and Daniel E. Sutherland, This Terrible War: The Civil War and Its Aftermath (New York: Longman, 2003), 197.
16.		For an account of the partisan Confederate attack on St. Albans, Vermont, see Philip Van Doren Stern, Secret Missions of the Civil War (New York: Random House, 1987), 242–46. See also Donald S. Frazier, “‘Out of Stinking Distance’: The Guerrilla War in Louisiana” in Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence on the Confederate Home Front, ed. Daniel E. Sutherland (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), 152; Michael Fellman, “Inside Wars: The Cultural Crisis of Warfare and the Values of Ordinary People” in Guerrillas, Unionists, and Violence on the Confederate Home Front, ed. Daniel E. Sutherland (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), 188–94.
17.		Stephen V. Ash, When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 23; David E. Sutherland, “Guerrilla Warfare, Democracy, and the Fate of the Confederacy,” Journal of Southern History 68 (2002), 260–61.
18.		Long and Long, The Civil War Day by Day, 719.
19.		James Marten, The Children’s Civil War (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 8; James Lee McDonough and Thomas L. Connelly, Five Tragic Hours: The Battle of Franklin (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 166–67.
20.		Ernest B. Furgurson, Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War (New York: Knopf, 1996), 106–7; Allan Nevins, The Organized War, 1863–1864 (New York: Scribner’s, 1971), 354, 426.
21.		Ash, When the Yankees Came, 166.
22.		Mary E. Massey, Refugee Life in the Confederacy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964), 3–4.
23.		Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War, 83.
24.		Ibid., 66–67. Woman quoted in Bell I. Wiley, The Plain People of the Confederacy (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963), 68.
25.		Wiley, Plain People of the Confederacy, 39.
26.		Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 112–13; Catherine Cooper’s account can be found in ibid., 91.
27.		Paludan, “A People’s Contest,” 180.
28.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 438–39.
29.		Richard C. Burdekin and Farrokh K Langdana, “War Finance in the Southern Confederacy, 1861–1865,” Explorations in Economic History 30 (1993), 353; Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 210; Jean V. Berlin, “Did Confederate Women Lose the War? Deprivation, Destruction, and Despair on the Home Front” in The Collapse of the Confederacy, ed. Mark Grimsley and Brooks D. Simpson (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 173. Cost of Confederate dollar in Michael J. Varhola, Everyday Life During the Civil War (Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books, 1999), 44.
30.		Paludan, “A People’s Contest,” 181–86.
31.		Jack D. Coombe, Gunsmoke over the Atlantic: First Naval Actions of the Civil War (New York: Bantam Books, 2002), 94; Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War, 104.
32.		Mark M. Boatner III, The Civil War Dictionary (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 74.
33.		Carl N. Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 179–80.
34.		John B. Boles, Black Southerners, 1619–1869 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), 183–84; Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation, 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 236–37.
35.		Boles, Black Southerners, 183–84.
36.		Clement Eaton, A History of the Southern Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1954), 235–36. Account of the Confederate White House fire in Thomas, Confederate Nation, 241–42.
37.		McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 124.
38.		Degler, Other South, 171–73.
39.		Nevins, Organized War, 162–65.
40.		Wisconsin soldier quoted from McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 145. On Joseph E. Brown and peace considerations with the Union, see J. G. Randall and David H. Donald, The Civil War and Reconstruction (Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1969), 266–68. See also Frank L. Klement, Dark Lanterns: Secret Political Societies, Conspiracies, and Treason Trials in the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984).
41.		Gary W. Gallagher, The Confederate War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 30–31; Alan T. Nolan, Lee Considered (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 81–83.
42.		Joan E. Cashin, “Deserters, Civilians, and Draft Resistance in the North” in The War Was You and Me: Civilians in the American Civil War, ed. Joan E. Cashin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002), 165, 266; Gallagher, Confederate War, 32–33; James Marten, Texas Divided: Loyalty and Dissent in the Lone Star State, 1856–1874 (Knoxville: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), 94.
43.		Cashin, “Deserters, Civilians, and Draft Resistance,” 270; Gallagher, Confederate War, 31; McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 156; Nevins, Organized War, 120.
44.		Nevins, Organized War, 128–29.
45.		Marten, Texas Divided, 96; Cashin, “Deserters, Civilians, and Draft Resistance,” 275.
46.		Marten, Texas Divided, 95; Nevins, Organized War, 129. See also Albert B. Moore, Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (New York: Macmillan, 1924).
47.		Cashin, “Deserters, Civilians, and Draft Resistance,” 273–76.
48.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 609–11; Marten, Texas Divided, 88; Nevins, Organized War, 120–24.
49.		Thomas F. Curran, “‘Resist Not Evil’: The Ideological Roots of Civil War Pacifism,” CWH 36 (1990), 207.
50.		Ibid., 197–203; Eaton, History of the Confederacy, 91.
51.		See also Peter Brock, ed., Liberty and Conscience: A Documentary History of the Experiences of Conscientious Objectors in America Through the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
52.		Degler, Other South, 175.
53.		Ibid., 174–75.
54.		Boles, Black Southerners, 183; Webb Garrison, The Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage (Nashville: Cumberland House, 2001), 90.
55.		Allan Nevins, The Improvised War, 1861–1862 (New York: Scribner’s, 1959), 139–40.
56.		Edward Conrad Smith, The Borderland in the Civil War (New York: Macmillan, 1928), 358–60.
57.		Eugene C. Murdock, One Million Men: The Civil War Draft in the North (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971), 218–26.
58.		Account of bounty jumper’s demise near Indianapolis in ibid., 219–20. Use of photography to prevent desertion in ibid., 228.
59.		Eaton, History of the Confederacy, 234–35.
60.		Accounts of bread riots in ibid., 234–35; Thomas, Confederate Nation, 203–5.
61.		Marten, Texas Divided, 86.
62.		Nevins, Organized War, 354–61. Grant quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 623.
63.		Brayton Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 2000), 9.
64.		Richard B. Kiebowicz, “The Telegraph, Censorship, and Politics at the Outset of the Civil War,” CWH 40 (1994), 95–118; Louis M. Starr, Bohemian Brigade: Newsmen in Action (New York: Knopf, 1854), 258–59.
65.		J. Cutler Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), 514, 534–35.
66.		Ibid., 513; William E. Huntzicker, The Popular Press, 1833–1865 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1999), 132, 140; Donald E. Reynolds, Editors Make War: Southern Newspapers in the Secession Crisis (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1970), 3.
67.		Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War, 508.
68.		Robert A. Rutland, The Newsmongers: Journalism in the Life of the Nation, 1690–1972 (New York: Dial Press, 1973), 163, 189, 193.
69.		J. Cutler Andrews, The North Reports the Civil War (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 19–21.
70.		Alfred Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000) 122; Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 21, 145, 167; account of First Manassas from New York Herald, July 24, 1861.
71.		Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 315.
72.		Rutland, The Newsmongers, 168–69.
73.		Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 162–63; Andrews, The North Reports the Civil War, 368–69.
74.		Report on Antietam in New York Times, September 20, 1862; Confederate troop count estimation quoted by Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 277. Gatling gun story in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 280.
75.		Greeley quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 5.
76.		Tribune headlines on Douglas quoted in Rutland, The Newsmongers, 188. Tribune quotation on McClellan in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 145.
77.		Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 56–60.
78.		Meyer Berger, The Story of the New York Times, 1851–1951 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1951), 23. Harper’s Weekly editorial on Fredericksburg quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 238.
79.		Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War, 32–33.
80.		Ibid., 319. Daily Dispatch comment on Bragg quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 169. Daily Dispatch account of Winchester quoted in ibid, 293.
81.		Daily Dispatch quoted in William J. Kimball, ed., Richmond in Time of War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960), 134.
82.		Andrews, The North Reports the Civil War, 32.
83.		John Tebbel and Mary Ellen Zuckerman, The Magazine in America, 1741–1990 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 23. Account of the Peninsula campaign in Harper’s Weekly, April 19, 1862. Account of Second Manassas in Harper’s Weekly, November 8, 1862.
84.		Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War, 36–37.
85.		Charleston Mercury quoted in William J. Cooper Jr., Jefferson Davis, American (New York: Knopf, 2000), 361.
86.		On Rhett’s aspirations for the Confederate presidency, see William C. Davis, “A Government of Our Own”: The Making of the Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1994), 32, 90, 111. On Lincoln subscribing to the Mercury: technically the Springfield, Illinois, law office of Lincoln and Herndon subscribed to the Richmond Enquirer and the Charleston Mercury. See David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 187.
87.		Huntzicker, The Popular Press, 142–43; Starr, Bohemian Brigade, 241.
88.		Starr, Bohemian Brigade, 240.
89.		Chicago Times Gettysburg Address comments quoted in Huntzicker, The Popular Press, 154, and Donald, Lincoln, 466. Second Inaugural comments quoted in Donald, Lincoln, 568.
90.		For an in-depth examination of Burnside’s temporary closure of the paper, see Craig D. Tenny, “To Suppress or Not to Suppress: Abraham Lincoln and the Chicago Times,” CWH 27 (1981), 251.
91.		Enquirer account of Peninsula campaign from Stephen W. Sears, To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992), 343. Enquirer report on Antietam quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 183.
92.		Ernest B. Furguson, Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War (New York: Knopf, 1996), 165.
93.		Quotes from Richmond Enquirer, June 2, 1864. Enquirer support of arming slaves described in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 304.
94.		Andrews, The South Reports the Civil War, 29–32.
95.		Examiner account of Bragg quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 175. Examiner account of slaves quoted in William Barney, The Road to Secession: A New Perspective on the Old South (New York: Praeger, 1972), 3.
96.		Richmond Examiner quoted in Foote, Red River to Appomattox, 95. Examiner call for Davis’s overthrow in Foote, Red River to Appomattox, 768. Examiner comment on Union army quoted in Harris, Blue and Gray in Black and White, 55–56. Examiner comment on Lincoln quoted in Herbert Mitgang, Abraham Lincoln: A Press Portrait (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971), 364. Daniels’s comment on Lincoln’s appearance quoted in Furguson, Ashes of Glory, 27.
97.		Arguably the leading anti-administration newspapers in the South were the Richmond Examiner, Raleigh Standard, Richmond Whig, and Charleston Mercury. Clement Eaton, Jefferson Davis (New York: Free Press, 1977), 222. Account of Daniel’s run-in with Edgar Allan Poe in Furguson, Ashes of Glory, 27.
98.		Lincoln quoted in Rutland, The Newsmongers, 194.
99.		Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press, 30, 121; London Times, July 20, 1863.
100.		London Times depiction of Sherman’s March to the Sea in Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press, 131–32. Times quotes from January 6, 1865, quoted from Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press, 131–32.
101.		See also Grant, The American Civil War and the British Press, 122–24; Brian Jenkins, “Frank Lawley and the Confederacy,” CWH 23 (1977), 144–60.
102.		Robert E. Lee quoted in Steven Cornelius, Music of the Civil War Era (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 174. Music historian E. Lawrence Abel also estimates song popularity in the South by calculating how many editions they went through, which this list takes into consideration. See Abel, Singing the New Nation: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861-1865 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2000), 264.
103.		Paul Glass, Singing Soldiers: A History of the Civil War in Song (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1968), 8-10; Kenneth A. Bernard, Lincoln and the Music of the Civil War (Caldwell, ID: Caxton, 1966), 153.
104.		Bernard, 251 n, 281; Cornelius,43; Glass, xiv.
105.		Cornelius, 32-33; Glass, 11; Henry C. Whitney, Life on the Circuit with Lincoln (Caldwell, ID: Caxton, 1940), 102-103, 161. “I have always thought ‘Dixie’…” in Kenneth A. Bernard, Lincoln and the Music of the Civil War (Caldwell, ID: Caxton, 1966), 300. Lincoln’s statement of “a lawful prize” from David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Touchstone, 1996), 581.
106.		George Templeton Strong quoted in Kenneth A. Bernard, Lincoln and the Music of the Civil War (Caldwell, ID: Caxton, 1966), 51 n.13.
107.		Cornelius, 26.
108.		Abel, 83. Cornelius, 29. Glass, 4.
109.		Bell I. Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 159–160; Glass, 4.
110.		Samuel Melvin’s diary quoted in William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 202, 203.
111.		Bernard, 143. Bruce Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1962), 178. “You Yankees...” quoted in Bernard, 219.
112.		Bernard, 299. Concerning Union officers forbidding their troops to play “Home Sweet Home,” see Ernest L. Abe, “’Home Sweet Home’: A Civil War Soldier’s Favorite Song,” America’s Civil War (May 1996).
113.		Bernard, 75; Cornelius, 48, 111–112, 241; Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank, 160.
114.		Paul Glass, Singing Soldiers: A History of the Civil War in Song (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1968), 38.
115.		Cornelius, 38; Glass, xix. Harry McCarthy’s name has been spelled a myriad of ways—McCarthy, MacCarthy, etc. This author chooses the spelling most common on the early versions of sheet music.
116.		Early versions in 1861 contain the line “Fighting for our property we gained by honest toil.” Other versions, perhaps to dilute the slavery issue, used the lyrics “Fighting for our Liberty, with treasure, blood, and toil.” E. Lawrence Abel, Singing the New Nation: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2000), 19.
117.		Cornelius, 46, 63; Glass, 16.
118.		Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank, 162; Abel, xii–xiii; Cornelius, 40.
119.		James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 285.
120.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 535.
121.		Abel, 209.
122.		Abel, 95, 213; Glass, xviii.
123.		Roy Basler, ed., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. V (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 296–297.
124.		Bernard, 75.
125.		Bernard, 75, 81; Donald, Lincoln, 463.
126.		Glass, 152.
127.		Bernard, 140–141.
128.		Glass, 197.

Part 5: In Retrospect

1.		Jack D. Coombe, Gunsmoke over the Atlantic: First Naval Actions of the Civil War (New York: Bantam Books, 2002), 90–93; Herman Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray: An Introductory Military History of the Civil War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 17; Charles D. Ross, Trial by Fire: Science, Technology, and the Civil War (Shippensburg, Pa.: White Mane, 2000), 173.
2.		James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 438.
3.		Ibid., 443–48.
4.		Richard C. K. Burdekin and Farokh K. Langdana, “War Finance in the Southern Confederacy,” Explorations in Economic History 30, no. 1 (1993), 357; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 447.
5.		J. Matthew Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War: The Home Front (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1994), 47; James A. Rawley, The Politics of Union (Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press, 1974), 49.
6.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 447; Rawley, 49.
7.		Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War, 96.
8.		Ibid., 98; Rawley, The Politics of Union, 50.
9.		Coombe, Gunsmoke over the Atlantic, 90–93; William H. Roberts, Civil War Ironclads (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 9.
10.		Coombe, Gunsmoke over the Atlantic, 106; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 376–77.
11.		Coombe, Gunsmoke over the Atlantic, 114.
12.		For the fiscal costs of ironclad production, see ibid., 92, 97.
13.		Shelby Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville (New York: Vintage Press, 1958), 394.
14.		An account of Lincoln’s honorary substitute is in Webb Garrison, The Amazing Civil War (New York: MJF Books, 1998), 92–93; Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War (New York: Knopf, 1990), 242.
15.		Robert V. Bruce, Lincoln and the Tools of War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 68.
16.		Ibid., 73–76.
17.		Allan Nevins, War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863 (New York: Scribner’s, 1960), 493–94.
18.		Ibid., 494.
19.		George Lang, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comps., Medal of Honor Recipients, 1863–1994, 2 vols. (New York: Facts on File, 1995), 1:xiii–xvii.
20.		Gerald S. Henig and Eric Niderost, Civil War Firsts: The Legacies of America’s Bloodiest Conflict (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2001), 326.
21.		Frank Foster and Lawrence Borts, U.S. Military Medals 1939 to Present, 5th ed. (Greenville, S.C.: Medals of America Press, 2000), 851.
22.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 376. See also Foster and Borts, U.S. Military Medals, 54; Henig and Niderost, Civil War Firsts, 326.
23.		Mary E. Massey, Bonnet Brigades (New York: Knopf, 1966), 9–10.
24.		Stewart Brooks, Civil War Medicine (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1966), 28.
25.		Mary E. Massey, Women in the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), 62–63.
26.		Elizabeth D. Leonard, Yankee Women: Gender Battles in the Civil War (New York: Norton, 1994), 136–37; Massey, Women in the Civil War, 62–63.
27.		Ross, Trial by Fire, 175.
28.		Brian Hicks and Schuyler Kropf, Raising the Hunley (New York: Ballantine Books, 2002), 29–39; Ross, Trial by Fire, 85, 87, 93.
29.		Ross, Trial by Fire, 100–103.
30.		Hicks and Kropf, Raising the Hunley, 64–71.
31.		Ibid., 109; Ross, Trial by Fire, 100–103.
32.		One of the best and most vivid accounts of the Lincoln assassination is in Shelby Foote, Red River to Appomattox (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 974–88. See also David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 585–99.
33.		James L. Swanson and Daniel R. Weinberg, Lincoln’s Assassins (Chicago: Arena Editions, 2001), 14.
34.		Guy W. Moore, The Case of Mrs. Surratt (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), 96–97; Elizabeth Steger Trindal, Mary Surratt: An American Tragedy (Gretna, La.: Pelican, 1996), 117.
35.		Confederate soldier quoted in Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1990), 112.
36.		Herman Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 50–51.
37.		Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running During the Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), 74.
38.		George C. Rable, The Confederate Republic: A Revolution Against Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 137.
39.		Casualty numbers from Mark M. Boatner III, The Civil War Dictionary (New York: Vintage Books, 1991), 592.
40.		Stephen W. Sears, To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992), 337.
41.		Casualty figures for the Seven Days’ battles and other engagements from Thomas L. Livermore, Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America: 1861–1865 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957).
42.		Russell quoted in Belle Becker Sideman and Lillian Friedman, eds., Europe Looks at the Civil War (New York: Orion Press, 1960), 174–75.
43.		One historian suggests Antietam increased rather than decreased the likelihood of British diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy. Although intriguing, Howard Jones’s arguments are not wholly convincing; see Howard Jones, Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).
44.		Alan T. Nolan, Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 831. See also James M. McPherson, Antietam: Crossroads of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Stephen W. Sears, Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1983).
45.		J. Cutler Andrews, The North Reports the Civil War (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1955), 369.
46.		Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths (New York: Meridian Books, 1984), 133. Sumner quoted in Ernest B. Furgurson, Chancellorsville, 1863 (New York: Knopf, 1992), 331.
47.		The following example of government contractor fraud at Chancellorsville in Webb Garrison, The Amazing Civil War (New York: MJF Books, 1998), 81.
48.		The leading what-if with Gettysburg considers the effects of a Confederate victory there. A popular conclusion surmises that Lee would have marched on Washington and won the war. Such a deduction ignores the Confederate precedent. The South scored convincing victories in the East before Gettysburg—First Manassas, Fredericksburg, Second Manassas, and Chancellorsville—and none inspired a move on the most fortified city in the Western world.
49.		McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 157. Lincoln quoted in Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (New York: Modern Library, 1968), 389.
50.		See also Gary W. Gallagher, “‘Lee’s Army Has Not Lost Any of Its Prestige’: The Impact of Gettysburg on the Army of Northern Virginia and the Confederate Home Front” in The Third Day at Gettysburg and Beyond, ed. Gary W. Gallagher (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).
51.		Account of Lincoln’s hearing the news of Union victory at Vicksburg in Thomas, Lincoln, 387.
52.		Ibid., 387–88.
53.		Robert E. May, ed., The Union, the Confederacy, and the Atlantic Rim (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1995), 10; Philip Van Doren Stern, When the Guns Roared: World Aspects of the American Civil War (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 208.
54.		Casualty totals of Wilderness from Russell Weigley, A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 330.
55.		Union soldier quoted in Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray, 209.
56.		Lincoln quoted in Thomas, Lincoln, 443.
57.		Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation: 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 271.
58.		John C. Waugh, Reelecting Lincoln (New York: Crown, 1997), 296–97.
59.		Rudolph Von Abele, Alexander A. Stephens (New York: Knopf, 1946), 227–29.
60.		For a well-respected and impressive compendium of short biographies on practically every general of the war, consult Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Gray (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959); idem, Generals in Blue (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964).
61.		Authors Lenoir Chambers and Andrew C. Holman make convincing cases for the commonality of health misconceptions in nineteenth-century United States. See Lenoir Chambers, Stonewall Jackson, 2 vols. (New York: Morrow, 1959), and Andrew C. Holman, “Thomas J. Jackson and the Idea of Health: A New Approach to the Social History of Medicine,” CWH 38 (1992), 131–55. On Jackson and his personal traits, see Joseph B. Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War (New York: Putnam, 1972), 37–38.
62.		Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 48, 56.
63.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 526–28.
64.		Lee quote from Chambers, Jackson, 2:428. Jackson’s early recognition of Stuart’s abilities is noted in Robert J. Trout, They Followed the Plume: The Story of J. E. B. Stuart and His Staff (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1993), 2.
65.		For an in-depth look at Sherman’s personality and its relation to his war record, see John F. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order (New York: Vintage Books, 1994).
66.		Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 155. For Sherman’s accounts of the events involving his request for two hundred thousand troops and the subsequent rumors that he had gone insane, see William T. Sherman, Memoirs of W. T. Sherman (1886; reprint, New York: Literary Classics, 1990), 218–32.
67.		Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 153. Comparisons of Sherman and Grant in John D. McKenzie, Uncertain Glory: Lee’s Generalship Re-Examined (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1997), 344–45; Charles E. Vetter, Sherman: Merchant of Terror, Advocate of Peace (Gretna, La.: Pelican, 1992), 296. Casualty numbers at battle of Kennesaw Mountain from Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 252–53. Among Sherman’s larger defeats in battle are Chickasaw Bluffs during the Vicksburg campaign, Missionary Ridge at Chattanooga, and Dalton and Kennesaw Mountain outside of Atlanta; Stanley P. Hirshson, The White Tecumseh: A Biography of General William T. Sherman (New York: Wiley, 1997), 391.
68.		John F. Marszalek, Sherman’s Other War: The General and the Civil War Press (Memphis: Memphis State University Press, 1981), 192.
69.		Thomas L. Connelly and Archer Jones, The Politics of Command: Factions and Ideas in Confederate Strategy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 32–33; H. J. Eckenrode and Bryan Conrad, James Longstreet: Lee’s War Horse (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), foreword; Nolan, Lee Considered, 66–67, 84–85.
70.		Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 64–65; Connelly and Jones, Politics of Command, 37–38; Steve H. Newton, Joseph E. Johnston and the Defense of Richmond (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998), 209.
71.		Connelly and Jones, Politics of Command, 32–33; Eckenrode and Conrad, Longstreet, foreword; McKenzie, Uncertain Glory, 349; Nolan, Lee Considered, 66–67.
72.		For a biography on Grant, there are few that can match the appeal and honesty of Grant’s own memoirs; see Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant (1885; reprint, New York: Literary Classics, 1990).
73.		Bruce Catton, Grant Moves South (Boston: Little, Brown, 1960), 164–72, 225–33; see also Edwin C. Bearss, “Unconditional Surrender: The Fall of Fort Donelson,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 21 (1962).
74.		Jeffry D. Wert, General James Longstreet: The Confederacy’s Most Controversial Soldier—A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 84–85; John J. Hennessey, Return to Bull Run (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 206.
75.		Wert, Longstreet, 459.
76.		Ibid., 205.
77.		Warner, Generals in Gray, 192–93; Wert, Longstreet, 114–15, 405.
78.		Longstreet’s criticism of Lee at Gettysburg was actually a repeat of his official report of July 27, 1863, in which he stated: “The order for this attack, which I could not favor under better auspices, would have been revoked had I felt that I had that privilege.” See United States, War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880–1901) (hereafter referred to as OR), ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 357–63 (Longstreet to Col. R. H. Chilton, assistant adjutant general and inspector general). See also Thomas L. Connelly and Barbara L. Bellows, God and General Longstreet: The Lost Cause and the Southern Mind (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1982); James Longstreet, From Manassas to Appomattox (1895; reprint, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960).
79.		Trout, They Followed the Plume, 28–29.
80.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 815–16.
81.		Warner, Generals in Gray, 296–97.
82.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 749–50.
83.		Trout, They Followed the Plume, 16; Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864 (New York: Scribner’s, 1971), 448–49.
84.		Those who blame Lee for Stuart’s poorly timed ride include Allan Nevins and Ezra Warner. Those more critical of Stuart include Shelby Foote, Philip Katcher, Clement Eaton, and Bruce Catton. Lee rarely complained about Stuart’s other raids but was incensed at Gettysburg. In his report on the battle, Lee wrote, “The movements of the army preceding the battle of Gettysburg had been much embarrassed by the absence of the cavalry,” OR, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 321; Lee to Adj. Gen. Samuel Cooper, January 20, 1864.
85.		Thomas B. Buell, The Warrior Generals: Combat Leadership on the Civil War (New York: Crown, 1997), 276. See also Francis MacDonnell, “The Confederate Spin on Winfield Scott and George Thomas,” CWH 44 (1998), 255–66.
86.		Buell, Warrior Generals, 275. Thomas quoted in Shelby Foote, Fredericksburg to Meridian (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 94.
87.		James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Knopf, 1982), 336; See OR, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt, 1, 140. Lincoln quote from Foote, Fredericksburg to Meridian, 768.
88.		Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 653–54.
89.		Foote, Red River to Appomattox, 686–706.
90.		McKenzie, Uncertain Glory, 345; Roy Morris Jr., Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan (New York: Crown, 1992), 220; Warner, Generals in Blue, 438.
91.		Morris, Sheridan, 2; McKenzie, Uncertain Glory, 346–47.
92.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 580–83; Morris, Sheridan, 107–8, 111.
93.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 133–34; Paul A. Hutton, Phil Sheridan and His Army (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973), 17; Morris, Sheridan, 230. For a detailed account of Sheridan’s 1864 Shenandoah campaign, see John L. Heatwole, The Burning: Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley (Charlottesville, Va.: Rockbridge, 1998).
94.		Cleburne as celebrated by historians recognized in Christopher Losson, Tennessee’s Forgotten Warriors: Frank Cheatham and His Confederate Division (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1981), 197.
95.		Craig L. Symonds, Stonewall of the West: Patrick Cleburne and the Civil War (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1997), 73–77.
96.		Ibid., 81–82, 92.
97.		Ibid., 98.
98.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 141–47, 803–8.
99.		Howell Purdue and Elizabeth Purdue, Pat Cleburne: Confederate General (Hillsboro, Tex.: Hill Junior College Press, 1973), 267–78; Symonds, Stonewall of the West, 113, 158. Lee quote from Warner, Confederates in Gray, 53–54.
100.		Cleburne’s wounding in the mouth is described in Symonds, Stonewall of the West, 91.
101.		Robert S. Henry, Nathan Bedford Forrest: “First with the Most” (New York: Smithmark, 1991), 13; Warner, Generals in Gray, 92–93.
102.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 85.
103.		Ibid., 295–96; John Cimprich and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., “Fort Pillow Revisited: New Evidence About an Old Controversy,” CWH 28 (1982), 293–306. Historians who have downplayed the massacre include Clement Eaton, A History of the Southern Confederacy (New York: Free Press, 1954), 263, 277; Jack Hurst, Nathan Bedford Forrest: A Biography (New York: Knopf, 1993), 384; James G. Randall and David H. Donald, The Civil War and Reconstruction (Boston: Heath, 1961), 394.
104.		For records of attrition for commissioned generals, consult Warner, Generals in Gray, xix, and idem, Generals in Blue, xxi.
105.		Grady McWhiney, Braxton Bragg and Confederate Defeat: Field Command (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 237.
106.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 644; McWhiney, Bragg, 323.
107.		McWhiney, Bragg, 319–20.
108.		Buell, Warrior Generals, 273. Longstreet quote is to Confederate Secretary of War James A. Seddon, September 26, 1863, OR, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 4, 706.
109.		Grant, Memoirs, 449; Foote, Fredericksburg to Meridian, 692–94.
110.		Two Federal soldiers found the famous lost orders of Lee at an abandoned Confederate campsite near Frederick, Maryland, on September 13, 1862. Wrapped around three cigars, a copy of Special Orders No. 191 described how Lee had divided his army into four small parts, with miles and rivers separating them, what their targets were, and which routes and crossings were to be used. Much blame for overestimations of enemy strength has been placed on McClellan’s chief of secret service, Allan Pinkerton, but McClellan often took Pinkerton’s already exorbitant guesses and inflated them further. See Stephen W. Sears, Controversies and Commanders: Dispatches from the Army of the Potomac (Boston: Houghtlin Mifflin, 1999), 16. See also Edwin C. Fishel, “Pinkerton and McClellan: Who Deceived Whom?” CWH 34 (1998); and Mitchell, Military Leaders in the Civil War.
111.		Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 16–17, 34.
112.		Telegraph dispatch from McClellan to Lincoln on June 27, 1862. See David H. Bates, Lincoln in the Telegraph Office (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1939), 109–10.
113.		William Marvel, Burnside (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 346; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 803, 806. There are theories aplenty as to the cause of McClellan’s tragic lethargy in battle: contempt for Lincoln, inept informants, a tolerance for slavery. The most convincing are a simple hatred of warfare and an overwhelming fear of failure. See McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 359–60; Mitchell, Military Leaders of the Civil War, 35.
114.		Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray, 107; Marvel, Burnside, 39–40, 52-61; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 372–73.
115.		Marvel, Burnside, 99–100, 110–11, 156–58.
116.		Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray, 112.
117.		Burnside’s prewar career is summarized in Bruce Catton, Glory Road (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1952), 19–20.
118.		Steven E. Woodworth, Jefferson Davis and His Generals (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1990), 29–30.
119.		Ibid., 279. See also Joseph H. Parks, General Leonidas Polk, CSA: The Fighting Bishop (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1962).
120.		Peter Cozzens, The Darkest Days of the War: The Battles of Iuka and Corinth (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 6–7; Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 867.
121.		Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 155; Warner, Generals in Gray, 325–26; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 405.
122.		Woodworth, Davis and His Generals, 155.
123.		Cozzens, Darkest Days, 277–78, 306.
124.		Robert K. Krick, Conquering the Valley (New York: Morrow, 1996), 236, 238.
125.		Frémont’s Missouri bodyguards are described in Webb Garrison, The Amazing Civil War (New York: MJF Books, 1998), 229.
126.		Bruce Catton, Mr. Lincoln’s Army (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1951), 29.
127.		Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 689. Grant quote from OR, ser. 1, vol. 36, pt. 3, 524.
128.		Woodworth, Davis and His Generals, 119–20.
129.		Richard M. McMurry, John Bell Hood and the War for Southern Independence (Knoxville: University of Kentucky Press, 1982), 167, 190; Symonds, Stonewall of the West, 243; Woodworth, Davis and His Generals, 124, 270–71.
130.		Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War (New York: Knopf, 1990), 344.
131.		See also John Dyer, The Gallant Hood (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1950).
132.		Robert S. Holzman, Stormy Ben Butler (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 46.
133.		Hans L. Trefousse, Ben Butler: The South Called Him Beast! (New York: Twayne, 1957), 122–23.
134.		Ibid., 175.
135.		Craig L. Symonds, Joseph E. Johnston (New York: Norton, 1992), 383–84; Sam R. Watkins, “Co. Aytch”: A Side Show of the Big Show (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 125–29.
136.		See also Steven H. Newton, Joseph E. Johnston and the Defense of Richmond (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1998).
137.		Watkins, “Co. Aytch,” 171.
138.		Casualty statistics are derived from Boatner, Civil War Dictionary; Livermore, Numbers and Losses; Frederick Phisterer, Statistical Record of the Armies of the United States (New York: Scribner, 1893); and the OR.
139.		Peter Cozzens, This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 368.
140.		For William S. Rosecrans’s official report on the battle, see OR, ser. 1, vol. 30, pt. 1, 59–64. For an illuminating exchange of accusations and counteraccusations involving the gap created in the Union lines at Chickamauga, see OR, ser. 1, vol. 20, pt. 1, 101–5.
141.		For detail on the fighting at the sunken road, see Sears, Landscape Turned Red, 236–47; B. Keith Toney, “Horrors of the Bloody Lane,” America’s Civil War (September 1997), 62–69, 88.
142.		Before the battle, the bridge was known as Rohrbach’s Bridge. See Sears, Landscape Turned Red, 169. See also McPherson, Crossroads of Freedom.
143.		Gary W. Gallagher, ed., The Wilderness Campaign (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 106–30; Gordon C. Rhea, The Battle of the Wilderness, May 5–6, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), 22–29.
144.		Grant, Memoirs, 2:534.
145.		Stephen W. Sears, Chancellorsville (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 504–5.
146.		Historian Stephen W. Sears, by way of unit-by-unit casualty analysis, gives the total dead and wounded from Chancellorsville to be 22,323, which would place Chancellorsville above the Wilderness on this list. See Sears, Chancellorsville, 475–501.
147.		Sherman’s quote to Grant is in the OR, ser. 1, vol. 10, pt. 1, 93–94.
148.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 571–74.
149.		Hennessy, Return to Bull Run, 222–23.
150.		Ibid., 361–65.
151.		Gordon C. Rhea, The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997.
152.		Randall and Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction, 333–39.
153.		Camp capacities and death rates are from Robert E. Denney, Civil War Prisons and Escapes (New York: Sterling, 1993); Lonnie R. Speer, Portals to Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1997). Historians vary greatly in their estimation of Civil War captures. National Park Service historian Ed Bearss quotes a 1903 U.S. Army adjutant general report that states there were 211,411 Union soldiers captured and 462,634 Confederates captured. The latter number assuredly includes the number of soldiers who capitulated at war’s end. An 1866 War Department report claimed there were 126,000 Union and 220,000 Confederate soldiers captured and imprisoned. In 1906 James Ford Rhodes calculated 194,000 Federals and 215,000 Confederates were captured; see Denney, Civil War Prisons and Escapes, 7, 12.
154.		Andersonville was originally sixteen acres but was expanded in June 1864 to twenty-six acres; per Speer, Portals to Hell, 261–62.
155.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 261–62.
156.		William B. Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons: A Study in War Psychology (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1930), 137; William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 39–41, 97–100.
157.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 41–42.
158.		Ibid., 181.
159.		Ibid., 203. For a detailed account of the prison see George Levy, To Die in Chicago: Confederate Prisoners at Camp Douglas, 1862–1865 (Evanston, Ill.: Evanston Publishing, 1994).
160.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 189.
161.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 151–54, 187–88.
162.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 182.
163.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 31–32.
164.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 159.
165.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 210–13.
166.		Ibid., 242.
167.		Ibid., 244.
168.		Michael P. Gray, The Business of Captivity: Elmira and Its Civil War Prison (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2001), 142–44.
169.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 276–77.
170.		Ibid., 273–75.
171.		Ibid., 45–46, 143–47.
172.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 184; Speer, Portals to Hell, 144, 163–64.
173.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 48, 178–79.
174.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 81–82, 137–38.
175.		Ibid., 182–83.
176.		Benton McAdams, Rebels at Rock Island: The Story of a Civil War Prison (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000), 45–47, 49; Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 182.
177.		McAdams, Rebels at Rock Island, xi, 113.
178.		Speer, Portals to Hell, 75–76.
179.		Hesseltine, Civil War Prisons, 202; Speer, Portals to Hell, 75–76, 140–41.
180.		Herman Hattaway and Richard E. Beringer, Jefferson Davis, Confederate President (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002), 191–92. See also Gregory J. W. Urwin, “‘We Cannot Treat Negroes…as prisoners of war’: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in Civil War Arkansas,” CWH 42 (1996).
181.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 566–67, 791–96; Urwin, “‘We Cannot Treat Negroes,’” 42.
182.		James Lee McDonough and Thomas L. Connelly, Five Tragic Hours (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), 3–4.
183.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 812–13.
184.		McDonough and Connelly, Five Tragic Hours, 61–65, 157–58.
185.		Numbers of Confederate captured are based on Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 397, and Grant, Memoirs, 212.
186.		Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 156.
187.		Grant, Memoirs, 208. Historians who believe Pillow was inspired by the ease of his escape and wanted to save the fort include Boatner, Civil War Dictionary, 396–97, and Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, 157–58. Those who suggest Pillow halted the retreat for fear of Federal reinforcements include Thomas L. Connelly, Army of the Heartland (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1967), 121–22; Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 158–59; and McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 400–401. Foote contends that Pillow claimed to send the men back to retrieve their equipment; Shelby Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville (New York: Vintage Books, 1986), 210.
188.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 213; Grant, Memoirs, 212.
189.		OR, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 320; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 665.
190.		Pickett quoted in Foote, Fredericksburg to Merdian, 568. Contrary to Shelby Foote and others, historian Michael Fellman and this author contend that the available evidence indicates Lee only apologized to a few officers in private and not at all to the enlisted men; Michael Fellman, The Making of Robert E. Lee (New York: Random House, 2000), 143; Thomas R. Flagel and Ken Allers, Jr., The History Buff’s Guide to Gettysburg (Nashville: Cumberland House, 2006), 255-256.
191.		See also Carol Reardon, Pickett’s Charge in History and Memory (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997). For Longstreet’s official report on the battle, see OR, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt. 2, 357–63, submitted to Col. R. H. Chilton, assistant adjutant and inspector general, July 27, 1863. For Lee’s official report to Adj. Gen. Sam Cooper on the battle of Gettysburg, see OR, ser. 1, vol. 27, pt 2, 313–25. Noteworthy is the date of submittal: Lee dated the report January 20, 1864, six months after the campaign.
192.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 86; Steven E. Woodworth, No Band of Brothers: Problems in the Rebel High Command (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 16.
193.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 88.
194.		Woodworth, No Band of Brothers, 38–40.
195.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 88; Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate Nation: 1861–1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 124.
196.		Lincoln quoted in Ward, The Civil War, 174.
197.		Bryce A. Suderow, “The Battle of the Crater: The Civil War’s Worst Massacre,” CWH 43 (1997), 224.
198.		Clifford Dowdey, Lee’s Last Campaign (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1988), 296–97; OR, ser. 1, vol. 36, pt. 3, 526; Grant quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 734.
199.		Sears, Chancellorsville, 262.
200.		Hattaway, Shades of Blue and Gray, 116.
201.		Ibid., 118.
202.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 543–44.
203.		Foote, Fort Sumter to Perryville, 696–700; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 543–44.
204.		Drew G. Faust, Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 88; Gallman, The North Fights the Civil War, 105.
205.		Jeanie Attie, Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), 272–74; Francis B. Simkins and James W. Patton, The Women of the Confederacy (Richmond: Garrett and Massie, 1936), 89–94. Mary E. Massey offers the compelling hypothesis that lower wages played the major role in expanding female employment opportunities, gains that were not readily given up once the war ended. See Massey, Women in the Civil War, 148.
206.		Attie, Patriotic Toil, 268; Faust, Mothers of Invention, 89–90, 96.
207.		Stephen B. Oates, A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1994), 3–4, 21–22.
208.		Marilyn M. Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs: Women of the American Civil War (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1991), 321; Oates, Woman of Valor, ix, 85.
209.		Henig and Niderost, Civil War Firsts, 336.
210.		Massey, Women in the Civil War, 331–32.
211.		Barton quoted in Oates, Woman of Valor, 382.
212.		For prominent families who named their daughters after Barton and for details on her postwar career, see ibid., 370–82.
213.		Faust, Mothers of Invention, 96–97.
214.		Bickerdyke quoted in Nina B. Baker, Cyclone in Calico: The Story of Mary Ann Bickerdyke (Boston: Little Brown, 1952), 52.
215.		Grant quoted in Massey, Women in the Civil War, 49.
216.		Ibid., 55.
217.		Account of Bickerdyke’s postwar career in ibid., 300–303.
218.		Simkins and Patton, Women of the Confederacy, 94.
219.		Mary Denis Maher, To Bind Up the Wounds: Catholic Sister Nurses in the United States Civil War (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), 2, 27–29; Oates, Woman of Valor, 377.
220.		Maher, To Bind Up the Wounds, 101.
221.		Ibid., 1, 13–14, 27–29. Davis and Lincoln quoted in Ignatius Sumner, Angels of Mercy (Baltimore: Cathedral Foundation Press, 1998), xii–xiii.
222.		Lyde Cullen Sizer, “Acting Her Part: Narratives of Union Women Spies” in Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War, ed. Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 118.
223.		Charles L. Blockson, Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1994), 78–79; Elizabeth Leonard, All the Daring of the Soldier: Women of the Civil War Armies (New York: Norton, 1999), 71; Massey, Women in the Civil War, 269–70.
224.		For details on the Underground Railroad and the locations of homes and routes used, see Blockson, Guide to the Underground Railroad.
225.		Eaton, History of the Southern Confederacy, 103.
226.		Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 249–51; William Q. Maxwell, Lincoln’s Fifth Wheel: The Political History of the United States Sanitary Commission (New York: Longmans, 1956), 224. See also Mary A. Livermore, My Story of the War (Hartford, Conn.: A. D. Worthington and Co., 1889).
227.		Faust, Mothers of Invention, 112.
228.		Massey, Women in the Civil War, 47–48.
229.		Ward, The Civil War, 149.
230.		Dix quoted in Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 323.
231.		Oates, Woman of Valor, 376.
232.		Massey, Women in the Civil War, 330.
233.		Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815–1897 (1898; reprint, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), ix; Wendy Venet, Neither Ballots nor Bullets: Women Abolitionists and the Civil War (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991), 17.
234.		Venet, Neither Ballots nor Bullets, 17–18; Lois W. Banner, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A Radical for Women’s Rights (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 61–62. Anthony quoted in Lynn Sherr, Failure Is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words (New York: Random House, 1995), 51. Some of Stanton’s most tangible successes were in terms of property rights for women. Her antebellum efforts in her native New York helped pass two reform bills allowing married women to own and control their own property. See Kathryn Cullen-Du Pont, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Women’s Liberty (New York: Facts on File, 1992), 74–75.
235.		Massey, Women in the Civil War, 165.
236.		Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 351–52; Leonard, All the Daring of the Soldier, 107–9.
237.		Ibid., 111.
238.		Richard B. Harwell, ed., Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959), xii.
239.		Kate Cumming quoted in Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs, 318; and Simkins and Patton, Women of the Confederacy, 90. The Southern condition of higher-status women in the Confederacy is examined with particular insight in Faust, Mothers of Invention; George Rable, “‘Missing in Action’: Women of the Confederacy,” in Catherine Clinton, Tara Revisited (New York: Abbeville Press, 1995).
240.		George C. Rable, Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 123.

Part 6: Pursuing the War

1.		According to Bruce Chadwick, the reconciliation theme was an extenuation of popular novels and preceded the film era. See Bruce Chadwick, The Reel Civil War: Mythmaking in American Film (New York: Knopf, 2001), 23–29.
2.		See also Frank J. Wetta and Stephen J. Curley, Celluloid Wars: A Guide to Film and the American Experience of War (New York: Greenwood, 1992).
3.		James M. McPherson, “Glory” in Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, ed. Mark C. Carnes (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 128–31.
4.		See also Martin H. Blatt, Thomas J. Brown, and Donald Yacovone, eds., Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001); Russell Duncan, ed., Blue-Eyed Child of Fortune: The Civil War Letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Douglas Brode, Denzel Washington: His Films and His Career (Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1997), 74–89. On the issue of unequal pay, see Herman Belz, “Law, Politics, and Race in the Struggle for Equal Pay During the Civil War,” CWH 22 (1976), 197–13.
5.		Chadwick, Reel Civil War, 276–79, 285–87.
6.		Brock Garland, War Movies (New York: Facts on File, 1987), 169; John McCarty, The Films of John Huston (Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1987); Jack Spears, The Civil War on the Screen and Other Essays (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1977), 102–5.
7.		Chadwick, Reel Civil War, 256–57.
8.		Spears, Civil War on the Screen, 34–35.
9.		Chadwick, Reel Civil War, 121–29.
10.		Leon F. Litwack, “The Birth of a Nation,” in Past Imperfect: History According to the Movies, ed. Mark C. Carnes (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 136. See also Richard Schickel, D. W. Griffith: An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984); Valerie Smith, ed., Representing Blackness: Issues in Film and Video (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997).
11.		Garland, War Movies, 106.
12.		See also Richard Harwell, ed., Gone with the Wind as Book and Film (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1983).
13.		For an especially critical view of the production, see William Marvel, “Andersonville: The Myth Endures,” Civil War Times Illustrated 35 (1996).
14.		Chadwick, Reel Civil War, 232–33, 291.
15.		Chadwick, Reel Civil War, 139–40; George Amberg, The New York Times Film Reviews: 1913–1970 (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 64. See also Joe Franklin, Classics of the Silent Screen (Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1983).
16.		For contemporary biographies on Stonewall Jackson, consider James I. Robertson Jr., Stonewall Jackson: The Man, the Soldier, the Legend (New York: Macmillan, 1997); Byron Farwell, Stonewall: A Biography of General Thomas J. Jackson (New York: Norton, 1992), and John Bowers, Stonewall Jackson: Portrait of a Soldier (New York: Morrow, 1989).
17.		Philip Katcher, The Civil War Source Book (New York: Facts on File, 1995), 305.
18.		For “housewife” and other slang, consult Webb Garrison, The Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage (Nashville, Tenn.: Cumberland House, 2001).
19.		George W. Adams, Doctors in Blue (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 226–27; Bell I. Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 256–58.
20.		Henry S. Commager, ed., The Civil War Archive: The History of the Civil War in Documents (New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2000), 216–17.
21.		For a review of skin-care issues among Union soldiers, see Adams, Doctors in Blue, 226.
22.		Eric T. Dean, “‘We Will All Be Lost and Destroyed’: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the Civil War,” CWH 37 (1991), 146–47. For one of the best works on the effects of combat on infantry soldiers, see Denis Winter, Death’s Men (New York: Penguin Books, 1978). For a light read on the sensations of reen-acting, see Kent Courtney, Returning to the Civil War (Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 1997). Medical and Surgical History of the Rebellion quote on depression from C. Keith Wilbur, Civil War Medicine, 1861–1865 (Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot, 1998), 88.
23.		Slang terms from Garrison, Encyclopedia of Civil War Usage, 162, 230.
24.		David W. Blight, “Healing and History: Battlefields and the Problem of Civil War Memory” in Rally on the High Ground: The National Park Service Symposium on the Civil War, ed. Robert K. Sutton (Washington, D.C.: Eastern National, 2001), 28. Lee quote from Michael Fellman, The Making of Robert E. Lee (New York: Random House, 2000), 299.
25.		Georgie Boge and Margie Holder Boge, Paving Over the Past: A History and Guide to Civil War Battlefield Preservation (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993), 16.
26.		Blight, “Healing and History,” 25.
27.		For a detailed state-by-state anthology of places of Civil War interest, see Alice Cromie, A Tour Guide to the Civil War (Nashville, Tenn.: Rutledge Hill, 2002). See also Joseph E. Stevens, America’s National Battlefield Parks (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990).
28.		Boge and Boge, Paving Over the Past, 16–17.
29.		Richard J Lenz, The Civil War in Georgia (Watkinsville, Ga.: Infinity Press, 1995), 10–17.
30.		For statistics on the budgets and visitation of Petersburg, see the Web site of the National Park Service (www.nps.gov). For an account of Lincoln’s stay at City Point during the final weeks of the siege, see Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln (New York: Modern Library, 1968), 507–14.
31.		For a comparison of Wilson’s Creek casualty rates compared to other battles, see Thomas L. Livermore, Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America: 1861–1865 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957).
32.		For an extensive history on the land and its trials, see Joan M. Zenzen, Battling for Manassas: The Fifty-Year Preservation Struggle at Manassas National Battlefield Park (State College: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998).
33.		Stevens, America’s National Battlefield Parks, 115–18.
34.		The Manassas Battlefield Park includes the Henry Hill Visitors Center, which is fully accessible. There is a bookstore, museum, and film entitled Manassas: End of Innocence. The park receives more than 830,000 visitors per year. Relatively new to the park and made possible by the stoppage of mall construction is the Stuart’s Hill Center and Museum, open during summer weekends.
35.		Richard Owen and James Owen, Generals at Rest: The Grave Sites of the 425 Official Confederate Generals (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1997), xxxiii.
36.		Robert Poole, On Hallowed Ground: The Story of Arlington National Cemetery (New York: Walker and Co., 2009), 71. Totals for U.S. national cemeteries are from Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers Who Died in Defense of the Union, Vols. I–XVII (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1865–1872).
37.		Ernest Furgurson, Ashes of Glory: Richmond at War (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1996), 154; A. Wilson Greene, Civil War Petersburg (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 191.
38.		Richmond Dispatch, June 8, 1890.
39.		Richmond Dispatch, June 8, 1890; Greene, 206–207.
40.		Furgurson, Ashes of Glory, 154.
41.		Michael Chesson, Richmond After the War, 1865–1890 (Richmond, VA: Virginia State Library, 1981), 33.
42.		Owen and Owen, Generals at Rest: The Grave Sites of the 425 Official Confederate Generals (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1997), xxxiv.
43.		Chesson, Richmond After the War, 1865–1890 (Richmond, VA: Virginia State Library, 1981), 50–51.
44.		CSA casualties for the Wilderness campaign in James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 743. Iwo Jima casualty rate from Richard F. Newcomb, Iwo Jima (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965), 294–396. Oakwood burial crew overload from Chesson, 50–51.
45.		Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers Who Died in Defense of the Union, Vol. XXIV (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 7; Roll of Honor, Vol. XXVII (1872), 160.
46.		Michael Ballard, Vicksburg: The Campaign That Opened the Mississippi (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 416; Roll of Honor, Vol. XXIV (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 7.
47.		John Woolridge, History of Nashville, Tennessee (Nashville: Barbee and Smith, 1890), 546.
48.		Roll of Honor, Vol. XXII (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 7, 11.
49.		Roll of Honor, Vol. I (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1865), 7.
50.		Poole, 70-71; Roll of Honor, Vol. XV (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1868), 100-101.
51.		James E. Peters, Arlington National Cemetery (Washington, D.C.: Woodbine, 1986), 250–253.
52.		McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 572; Roll of Honor,Vol. XXV (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1870), 9, 11.
53.		Edward Stackpole, The Fredericksburg Campaign, 2nd ed. (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1991), 214.
54.		Roll of Honor, Vol. XXI (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 8.
55.		Roll of Honor, Vol. XXI (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 8, 292.
56.		Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering (New York: Vintage Books, 2008), 216; Lonnie Speer, Portals to Hell: Military Prisons of the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997), 297. Clara Barton quoted in William Marvel, Andersonville: The Last Depot (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 242. See also David H. Burton, Clara Barton: In the Service of Humanity (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), 54-56.
57.		Account of Barton finding Atwater physically collapsed near the graves from Marvel, Andersonville, 242. Typhoid death noted in Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 216.
58.		Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 216–217; Speer, Portals to Hell, 298.
59.		Roll of Honor, Vol. XXIII (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1869), 249.
60.		Margaret E. Wagner, Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds., The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 905.
61.		Ibid., 904.
62.		For a brief overview of the reenacting experience, see Kent Courtney, Returning to the Civil War (Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, 1997).
63.		The fate of the site of Big Bethel is described in Robert L. Holzman, Stormy Ben Butler (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 227. For a personal account of living on the battlefield of Cross Keys, Virginia, see Peter Svenson, Battlefield: Farming a Civil War Battleground (New York: Ballantine Books, 1992).