CUPRESSACEAE

The Cupressaceae or Cypress family are gymnosperms and consist of about 21 genera of widely distributed resinous, coniferous, usually evergreen, monoecious or dioecious trees and shrubs. They are distinguished from pine and yew families by having opposite or whorled leaves, usually flattened and scale-like, or sometimes needle-shaped as in Juniperus.

Medicinal plants of this family include Juniperus and Thuja.

Juniperus communis

Juniper, genevre

Description

An erect or prostrate evergreen shrub or small tree to 12 m. Leaves ternate, all linear, spreading and sharp-pointed, with a single, white, longitudinal band above, weakly keeled below. Flowers, tiny, appear in late summer. Female berry-like green cones ripen to blue or black in two years and are glaucous, 0.25–0.5 cm in diameter, mostly threeseeded. A very variable species.

Odour—characteristically spicy; taste—sweet and aromatic.

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Family Cupressaceae

Habitat and cultivation

Originally from Eurasia and North America, many ornamental cultivars of Juniperus communis are common, but the true species is hard to find in the Southern hemisphere. It may be grown from seed or cuttings and is tolerant of most soils and situations.

Parts used

The berries gathered from the second autumn onwards. Only the ripe blue-black berries are used medicinally and it may take three years for them to fully mature.

Active constituents12

1) Volatile oil (0.5–3.4%)4 including predominantly

a) α- and β-pinene, sabinene, limonene and myrcene,3 p-cymene and also terpinen-4-ol, 1,4-cineole, camphene and codenine

b) sesquiterpenes4—caryophyllene, cadinene and elemene

2) Flavonoids

3) Resin (up to 10%)

4) Bitter glycoside—juniperin

5) Tannins (condensed type)

Also contains diterpenes (including isocupressic acid)5 and up to 30% sugars. Over 200 constituents have been isolated.4

The composition of the oil is variable, geographical location, maturity of berries,6 environment and method of extraction being important factors.4,7,8 As unripe berries are present alongside the ripe ones they may be harvested together. These immature berries or other aerial parts may contribute to chemical differences.

Nutritional constituents

Vitamins: C

Minerals: Potassium, selenium, calcium, magnesium and iron

Actions

1) Diuretic

2) Urinary antiseptic

3) Antirheumatic

4) Carminative

5) Stomachic

Scientific information

Juniper and its oil have been official preparations in a number of pharmacopoeias, listed as carminative, they were used to treat colic and flatulence.9 German Commission E has approved its use for dyspepsia and as a supportive herb in the treatment of urinary tract problems. Culpeper regarded it as a powerful diuretic.

Actions attributed to the herb have been derived using animal models, there are no studies reported on its pharmacological action in humans. The volatile oil is considered central to its actions.

Antimicrobial

In vitro—The berries and their essential oil have enjoyed a reputation as antimicrobials an action confirmed by modern research. They are active against a range of bacteria including Propionibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella enteriditis, Yersinia enterocolitica, have moderate activity against various strains of Helicobacter pylori and are antimycobacterial with activity against the organism responsible for tuberculosis.2–12 The oil also has strong antifungal activity including against Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans and Trichophyton spp.2 The antimicrobial activity has proven to be variable, possibly dependent on the composition of the oil which is apparently more effective when levels of α-pinene, β-pinene and p-cymene are relatively high.2,13

In vivo—A combination of herbs, which included Juniperus, was used as a mouthwash in the treatment of gingivitis but had no benefit in inhibiting plaque growth or improving gingival health.14

Other

In vitro—Juniper has potential anticancer activity15 and inhibits COX and PAF-mediated inflammation.16

The oil protects brain astrocytes from induced apoptosis.17 Terpinen-4-ol inhibits antigen-induced inflammation18 and is also credited with being the major contributor to the diuretic/aquaretic property of Juniperus.

Medicinal uses

Gastro-intestinal tract

Urinary tract

Musculoskeletal

Externally

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion –   100 ml of 1:20 extract of bruised berries
Tincture 1:5 (45%) –   1–2 ml
Fluid Extract (25%) –   2–4 ml

CONTRAINDICATIONS—Pregnancy. The volatile oil can stimulate uterine muscle and therefore act as an emmenagogue. (Animals have suffered abortions from eating plants containing isocupressic acid.)

Precautions and/or safety

In modern texts, including German Commission E, Juniperus has been contra-indicated in renal disease due to the irritant effect of the volatile oil on kidneys. It is also stated that it should not be used for longer than six weeks continuously for this reason. Older texts do not appear to have limitations imposed on the herb's use. Problems of safety may have arisen after dosing experimental animals with relatively large amounts of oil. Also oil high in α- and β-pinene, if prepared from unripe berries, needles and branches, would increase its potential to cause toxicity or irritation. Recent animal experiments using the characterised oil found no renal changes indicative of toxicity even after 4 weeks administration of large doses19 thus challenging earlier findings. Normal use is not based on ingestion of the volatile oil.

Interactions

A review has suggested that there is a variable amount of vitamin K in Juniperus and that it may reduce the effectiveness of anti-coagulant therapy.20 No interactions have been reported.

Historical uses

Pestilence; to counter poison; baldness—essential oil or infused oil used as a scalp rub. Cough; dyspnoea; consumption; ruptures; cramps; convulsions, epilepsy; sciatica; agues; to expedite labour; strengthen brain, optic nerves and memory; piles; worms in children.

Thuja occidentalis

Thuja, arbor-vitae, white cedar

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Family Cupressaceae

Description

A spreading evergreen monoecious tree to 20 m with branchlets flattened, in a horizontal plane. Trunk strongly buttressed, dividing near the ground into several trunks. Leaves scalelike, 4-ranked, dimorphic, dark green above, yellowish green beneath, glandular and aromatic. Female cones erect, ovoidoblong, about 1 cm long, scales in 4–5 pairs; the middle pairs bearing 2–3 small 2-winged seeds.

Odour—camphoraceous; taste—bitter.

Habitat and cultivation

Native to North America from Nova Scotia to North Carolina and Illinois and may be grown in other countries from seeds or cuttings taken with a heel in spring, kept moist in summer to root in autumn. The true species is hard to find and very slow growing. New estimates suggest slow growing trees could be older than one and a half thousand years.21

Parts used

Leaves and twigs.

Active constituents1,22

1) Volatile oil (up to 4%) including:

a) monoterpenes mainly thujone (65%)—a mixture of α and β isomers also fenchone, sabinene, α-pinene and smaller amounts of borneol, camphor and myricene

b) diterpenes based on isopimaric acid23

2) Flavonoids including thujin (a conjugate of quercetin), kaempferol and quercetin

3) Mucilage

4) Tannins

Also contains β-sitosterol, polysaccharides, proteins and a number of lignans including deoxypodophyllotoxin25 and secoisolariciresinol.24

Thujone content in the volatile oil has been estimated at around 0.76% of dried twigs predominantly in the form of α-thujone. Its level can vary significantly with the method of extraction, being much lower in water extracts and increasing as the content of alcohol in the extracting medium rises.22

Nutritional constituents

Vitamins: C

Actions

1) Stimulant†

2) Expectorant

3) Astringent

4) Diuretic

5) Counter-irritant

6) Anthelmintic

Scientific information

The name Arbor-vitae—tree of life—derives from the use of the leaves of Thuja to treat scurvy, a practice introduced to European explorers by Native Americans. The herb was an official preparation in the United States until 1936.25

In vitro—The polysaccharides have received the most scientific attention. They inhibit HIV-1 and are immunomodulatory, stimulating T-cell activity26 and cytokine production.22 It has been postulated that although the polysaccharides are unlikely to be bio-available systemically when the whole extract is taken orally, they may still modulate mucosal immune activity through contact with lymphatic tissue in the gut such as Peyer's patches.22

In vitro—A constituent, B-thujaplicinol isolated from the heartwood of the tree has shown promise as an AIDS treatment,27 inhibiting HIV-1.28

In vivo—Thuja in combination with Echinacea and Baptisia was effective in treating the common cold, reducing the duration and severity of symptoms.22,29 This same combination used in conjunction with antibiotic therapy to treat acute bronchitis improved the recovery rate compared to antibiotics used alone.30

Thuja is an effective agent against naked viruses and in a preliminary study a tincture applied to verruca pedis was a very effective treatment.31 (Weiss states it is effective on small warts but not on large, solid ones.)

For physiological effects of thujone see Appendix III.

Medicinal uses

Respiratory tract

Urinary tract

As an antiseptic and to improve the tone of the bladder.

Reproductive tract

Musculoskeletal

Skin

Externally

Pharmacy

Three times daily  
Infusion of dried herb –   1–2 g
Tincture 1:10 in 60% alcohol –   1–2 ml
Fluid Extract in 50% alcohol –   2–4 ml

Tincture can be applied externally to warts and fungal infections. In the clinical trial in which verrucae were treated, the tincture was applied weekly for three weeks. They took 4 to 8 weeks to disappear and in all cases were gone within 3 months.

CONTRAINDICATIONS—Pregnancy.

Precautions and/or safety

Thujone is toxic in large doses. The fresh herb in high enough doses can cause vomiting, stomach ache, diarrhoea, gastroenteritis and possibly more severe symptoms including convulsions and renal or hepatic toxicity, effects attributable to thujone.22

Historical uses

Used in intermittent fevers; dropsy; coughs; scurvy. The essential oil was used for parasites (very toxic).

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† Nerve, uterus, circulation and immune system.