Acropolis in Athens epitomizes Greek civilization. A process of Hellenization was a part of Alexander the Great's strategy around and beyond the Mediterranean world. The Maccabean revolt sought to reverse this process in Israel.
Shortly after 600 BC the Babylonians captured Jerusalem, destroyed the temple, and took away many of the people as captives. After Cyrus overcame the Babylonian Empire, the Jews who desired were allowed to return. The temple was rebuilt. Under the leadership of Nehemiah and Ezra, the Jewish religious community established itself, and the worship and life of the people continued. Here OT history ends, and the intertestamental period begins.
The history of the intertestamental period can be divided into three sections: The Greek Period, 323-167 BC; the Period of Independence, 167-63 BC; and the Roman Period, 63 BC through the time of the NT.
Philip of Macedon sought to consolidate Greece so as to resist attack by the Persian Empire. When he was murdered in 336 BC, his young son Alexander took up the task. He was only 19 years of age, but he was highly gifted and educated. Within two years he set out to destroy Persia. In a series of battles over the next two years, he gained control of the territory from Asia Minor to Egypt. This included Palestine and the Jews. Josephus, a Jewish historian who lived about AD 37-100, tells of Alexander going to Jerusalem and offering sacrifice in the temple. Many elements of this story are undoubtedly false, but Alexander did treat the Jews well. When he founded the new city of Alexandria in Egypt, he moved many Jews from Palestine to populate one part of that city. In 331 BC Alexander gained full control over the Persian Empire.
Coin bearing the image of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.
Alexander's conquest had three major results. First, he sought to introduce Greek ideas and culture into the conquered territory. This is called Hellenization. He believed that the way to consolidate his empire was for the people to have a common way of life. However, he did not seek to change the religious practices of the Jews. Second, he founded Greek cities and colonies throughout the conquered territory. Third, he spread the Greek language into that entire region so that it became a universal language during the following centuries.
When Alexander died in 323 BC, chaos resulted in his empire. Five of his prominent generals established themselves over different parts of his empire. Ptolemy chose the land of Egypt. Seleucus took control of Babylonia. Antigonus became ruler of Asia Minor and northern Syria. The other two ruled in Europe and did not have direct influence over events in Palestine.
From the beginning, Ptolemy and Antigonus struggled over the control of Palestine. The battle of Ipsus in 301 BC settled the matter for a century. In this battle the other four generals fought against and killed Antigonus. Seleucus was given the territory of Antigonus, including Palestine. However, Ptolemy did not take part in the battle. Instead he took over control of Palestine. The result was that Palestine continued to be a point of contention between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids.
Head of Alexander the Great.
The Jews fared well under the Ptolemies. They had much self-rule. Their religious practices were not hampered. Greek customs gradually became more common among the people. During this period the translation of the OT into Greek began during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285-246 BC. This translation is known as the Septuagint, often abbreviated LXX. The early Christians used the Septuagint, and NT writers often quoted it.
Antiochus III (the Great), 223-187 BC, attempted to take Palestine from the Ptolemies in 217 BC without success. At the battle of Panium, 198 BC, however, he defeated Ptolemy IV, and he and his successors ruled Palestine until 167 BC. The situation of the Jews changed after Antiochus was defeated by the Romans in the battle of Magnesia, 190 BC. Antiochus had supported Hannibal of North Africa, Rome's hated enemy. As a result, Antiochus had to give up all of his territory except the province of Cilicia. He had to pay a large sum of money to the Romans for a period of years, and he had to surrender his navy and elephants. To guarantee his compliance, one of his sons was kept as hostage in Rome. So the tax burden of the Jews increased, as did pressure to Hellenize, that is, to adopt Greek practices.
Antiochus was succeeded by his son Seleucus IV, 187-175 BC. When he was murdered, his younger brother became ruler. Antiochus IV, 175-163 BC, was called Epiphanes (“manifest” or “splendid”), although some called him Epimenes (“mad”). He was the son who had been a hostage in Rome. During the early years of his reign, the situation of the Jews became worse. Part of it was due to their being divided. Some of their leaders, especially the priests, encouraged Hellenism.
Up to the time of Antiochus IV, the office of high priest had been hereditary and held for life. However, Jason, the brother of the high priest, offered the king a large sum of money to be appointed high priest. Antiochus needed the money and made the appointment. Jason also offered an additional sum to receive permission to build a gymnasium near the temple. This shows the pressure toward Hellenism. Within a few years, Menelaus, a priest but not of the high priestly line, offered the king more money to be named high priest in place of Jason. He stole vessels from the temple to pay what he had promised.
Tetradrachm of Antichochus IV Epiphanes.
Antiochus sought to add Egypt to his territory. He was proclaimed king of Egypt, but when he returned the following year to take control of the land, the Romans confronted him and told him to leave Egypt. Knowing the power of Rome, he returned home. When he reached Jerusalem, he found that Jason had driven Menelaus out of the city. He saw this as full revolt. He allowed his troops to kill many of the Jews and determined to put an end to the Jewish religion. He sacrificed a pig on the altar of the temple. Parents were forbidden to circumcise their children, the Sabbath was not to be observed, and all copies of the law were to be burned. It was a capital offense to be found with a copy of the law. The zeal of Antiochus to destroy Judaism was a major factor in its salvation.
Resistance was passive at first; but when the Seleucids sent officers throughout the land to compel leading citizens to offer sacrifice to Zeus, open conflict flared. It broke out first at the village of Modein, about halfway between Jerusalem and Joppa. An aged priest named Mattathias was chosen to offer the sacrifice. He refused, but a young Jew volunteered to do it. This angered Mattathias, and he killed both the Jew and the officer. Then he fled to the hills with his five sons and others who supported his action. The revolt had begun.
Leadership fell to Judas, the third son of Mattathias. He was nicknamed Maccabeus, the hammerer. He probably received this title because of his success in battle. He was the ideal guerrilla leader. He fought successful battles against much larger forces. A group called the Hasidim made up the major part of his army. These men were devoutly committed to religious freedom. They were dedicated to obedience to the law and to the worship of God.
Antiochus IV was more concerned with affairs in the eastern part of his empire than with what was taking place in Palestine. Therefore, he did not commit many troops to the revolt at first. Judas was able to gain control of Jerusalem within three years. The temple was cleansed and rededicated exactly three years after it had been polluted by the king, 164 BC. (Dates through this period are uncertain and may be a year earlier than indicated.) This is still commemorated by the Jewish feast of Hanukkah. The Hasidim had gained what they were seeking and left the army. Judas had larger goals in mind. He wanted political freedom. He rescued mistreated Jews from Galilee and Gilead and made a treaty of friendship and mutual support with Rome. In 160 BC at Elasa, with a force of eight hundred men, he fought a vastly superior Seleucid army and was killed.
Jonathan, another son of Mattathias, took the lead in the quest for independence. He was weak militarily. He was driven out of the cities and only gradually established himself in the countryside. Constant struggle engaged those seeking the Seleucid throne. The rivals offered him gifts to gain his support. In 152 BC he gave his support to Alexander Balas, who claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV. In return Jonathan was appointed high priest. For the first time, Jewish religious and civil rule were centered in one person. Jonathan was taken prisoner and killed in 143 BC.
Simon, the last surviving son of Mattathias, ruled until he was murdered by his son-in-law in 134 BC. He secured freedom from taxation for the Jews by 141 BC. At last they had achieved political freedom. Simon was acclaimed by the people as their leader and high priest forever. The high priesthood was made hereditary with him and his descendants. The Hasmonean dynasty, named after an ancestor of Mattathias, had its beginning.
When Simon was murdered, his son John Hyrcanus became the high priest and civil ruler (134-104 BC). For a brief time the Seleucids exercised some power over the Jews, but Hyrcanus broke free and began to expand the territory of the Jews. In the north he destroyed the temple of the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim. He moved southeast and conquered the land of the Idumeans, the ancient kingdom of Edom. The residents were forced to emigrate or convert to Judaism. This had great significance for the Jews, for it was from this people that Herod the Great was to come.
The oldest son of Hyrcanus, Aristobulus I (104-103 BC), succeeded him. He had his mother and three brothers put in prison. One brother was allowed to remain free, but he was later murdered. He allowed his mother to starve to death in prison. He extended his rule to include part of the territory of Iturea, north of Galilee. He was the first to take the title of king.
Terracotta woman with Grecian dress and hairstyle, dating from the second to first century BC.
Salome Alexandra was the wife of Aristobulus. When he died, she released his brothers from prison and married the oldest of them, Alexander Jannaeus. He became high priest and king (103-76 BC). He made many enemies by marrying the widow of his brother. The OT stated that a high priest must marry a virgin (Lev. 21:14). He was an ambitious warrior and conducted campaigns by which he enlarged his kingdom to about the size of the kingdom of David. He used foreign soldiers because he could not trust Jews in his army. As high priest, he did not always follow prescribed ritual. On one occasion the people reacted to his improper actions by throwing citrons at him. He allowed his soldiers to kill six thousand of them. At another time he had eigth hundred of his enemies crucified. As they hung on the crosses, he had their wives and children brought out and slain before their eyes.
Alexandra succeeded her husband as ruler (76-67 BC). Of course, she could not serve as high priest, so the two functions were separated. Her oldest son, Hyrcanus II, became high priest. He was not ambitious. Her younger son, Aristobulus II, was just the opposite. He was waiting for his mother to die so he could become king and high priest.
When Salome died, civil war broke out and lasted until 63 BC. Aristobulus easily defeated Hyrcanus, who was content to retire. This might have been the end of the story were it not for Antipater, an Idumean. He persuaded Hyrcanus to seek the help of the king of Nabatea to regain his position. Aristobulus was driven back to Jerusalem. At this point Rome arrived on the scene. Both Aristobulus and Hyrcanus appealed to Scaurus, the Roman general charged with the administration of Palestine. He sided with Aristobulus. When the Roman commander Pompey arrived later, both appealed to him. Aristobulus ended up trying to fight against the Romans. He was defeated and taken as a prisoner to Rome. The Romans took control over Palestine.
Under the Romans the Jews paid heavy taxes, but their religious practices were not changed. Roman power was exercised through Antipater, who was named governor of Palestine. Hyrcanus was made high priest. The situation in Palestine was confused due to the efforts of Aristobulus and his sons to lead revolts against Rome. While Palestine was successively under the control of various Roman officials, Antipater was the stabilizing force. He had one son, Phasael, named governor of Judea, and a second son, Herod, made governor of Galilee. Herod sought to bring order to his area. He arrested Hezekiah, a Jewish robber or rebel, and had him executed. The Sanhedrin in Jerusalem summoned Herod to give an account of his action. He went, dressed in royal purple and with a bodyguard. The Sanhedrin could do nothing.
Antipater was murdered in 43 BC. Antony became the Roman commander in the East in 42 BC. In 40 BC the Parthians invaded Palestine and made Antigonus, the last surviving son of Aristobulus, king of Palestine. Hyrcanus was mutilated by having his ears cut or bitten off so he could not serve as high priest again. Phasael was captured and committed suicide in prison. Herod barely escaped with his family. He went to Rome to have his future brother-in-law, Aristobulus, made king, hoping to rule through him as his father had ruled through Antipater. However, the Roman Senate, at the urging of Antony and Octavian (Augustus), made Herod king (40 BC). It took him three years to drive the Parthians out of the country and establish his rule. He was king until his death in 4 BC.
The years of Herod's rule were a time of turmoil for the Jewish people. He was an Idumean. Of course, his ancestors had been forced to convert to Judaism, but the people never accepted him. He was the representative of a foreign power. No matter how well he served Rome, he could never satisfy the Jews. Even his marriage to Mariamne, the granddaughter of Aristobulus II, gave no legitimacy to his rule in their sight. The most spectacular of his building achievements, the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple, did not win the loyalty of the Jews.
Herod had many problems that grew out of his jealousy and fears. He had Aristobulus, his brother-in-law, executed. Later Mariamne, her mother, and her two sons were killed. Just five days before his own death, Herod had his oldest son, Antipater, put to death. His relations with Rome were sometimes troubled due to the unsettled conditions in the empire. Herod was a strong supporter of Antony even though he could not tolerate Cleopatra with whom Antony had become enamored. When Antony was defeated by Octavian in 31 BC, Herod went to Octavian and pledged his full support. This support was accepted. Herod proved himself an efficient administrator on behalf of Rome. He kept the peace among a people who were hard to rule. To be sure, he was a cruel and merciless man. Yet he was generous, using his own funds to feed the people during a time of famine. He never got over the execution of Mariamne, the wife he loved above all others. His grief led to mental and emotional problems.
During the reign of Herod, Jesus was born (Matt. 2:1-18; Luke 1:5). Herod was the king who ordered the execution of the male babies in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:16-18).
At his death Herod left a will leaving his kingdom to three of his sons. Antipas was to be tetrarch (ruler of a fourth) of Galilee and Perea (4 BC-AD 39). Philip was to be tetrarch of Gentile regions to the northeast of the Sea of Galilee (4 BC-AD 34). Archelaus was to be king of Judea and Samaria. Rome honored the will except that Archelaus was not given the title of king. He was ethnarch (ruler of the people) of these two territories. He proved to be a poor ruler and was deposed in AD 6. His territories were placed under the direct rule of Roman procurators who were under the control of the governor of Syria.
The Jews produced many writings during the intertestamental period. These writings can be divided into three groups. The Apocrypha are writings that were included, for the most part, in the Greek translation of the OT, the Septuagint. They were translated into Latin and became a part of the Latin Vulgate, the authoritative Latin Bible. Some are historical books. First Maccabees is our chief source for the history of the period from Antiochus Epiphanes to John Hyrcanus. Other books are Wisdom Literature. Others can be classified as historical romances. One is apocalyptic, giving attention to the end of time and God's intervention in history. One writing is devotional in nature. A second group of writings is the Pseudepigrapha. It is a larger collection than the Apocrypha, but there is no final agreement as to which writings should be included in it. Fifty-two writings are included in the two volumes, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth. These cover the range of Jewish thought from apocalyptic to wisdom to devotional. Their title indicates that they are attributed to noted people of ancient times, such as Adam, Abraham, Enoch, Ezra, and Baruch. For the most part they were written in the last centuries before the birth of Jesus, although some of them are from the first century AD.
The final group of writings from this period is the Qumran scrolls, popularly known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Scrolls were discovered between 1947 and 1960 in a cave on the western Dead Sea shore near a ruin called Khirbet Qumran. Eleven caves from the Qumran area have since yielded manuscripts, mostly in small fragments. About 60 percent of the scrolls have so far been published. These were composed or copied between 200 BC and AD 70, mostly around the lifetime of Jesus, by a small community living at Qumran.
Dead Sea Scroll fragment.
Prior to the discovery of these scrolls, the oldest complete or almost complete manuscripts of the Hebrew Old Testament were the Leningrad Codex (AD 1009) and the Aleppo Codex (AD 930). The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has extended our knowledge of the Hebrew text back one thousand years. The most important lesson to be learned from this is how carefully the Jewish scribes preserved the integrity of the text during that time. Moreover, among the recovered manuscripts was the early textual tradition that later became the standard text, known as the Masoretic Text (MT). This discovery indicated that the Jewish Masoretes were not creating a text but were faithfully preserving an ancient form of the Hebrew Old Testament.
Soon after the discovery of the first of the scrolls, certain scholars posited the idea that some of the ideology of early Christianity may have had its origins in the theology of the Qumran sectarians. Self-identifying phrases such as the “Called-out Ones” (ekklesia), “the Way,” “the Poor,” “the Elects,” and “the Saints” were common to both groups, as well as their general identities as messianic communities.
Both groups held to a “new covenant” theology and saw their founders and leaders as the fulfillment of the prophetic promise of the OT. Both groups held that the religious leadership in Jerusalem had become corrupt and was in need of divine intervention to bring correction. Communal meals and property sharing in the early church were paralleled with those at Qumran, and both were seen as practicing forms of baptismal ritual. However these might appear as parallel upon a surface reading of the text, there are notable differences. At the core of the distinctiveness is the personal identity, teaching, and work of Jesus of Nazareth. Qumran sectarians were looking for possibly two messiahs, one of the lineage of Aaron (priestly) and one of the branch of David (royal), whereas for Christianity the Messiah had come and fulfilled the Law and the Prophets and would return in the eschatological future for the saints.
Caves at Qumran in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.
115 QUMRAN AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
117 ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S EMPIRE
118 THE DIVISION OF ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE
Daniel 11:2-4
Now I will tell you the truth. “Three more kings will arise in Persia, and the fourth will be far richer than the others. By the power he gains through his riches, he will stir up everyone against the kingdom of Greece. Then a warrior king will arise; he will rule a vast realm and do whatever he wants. But as soon as he is established, his kingdom will be broken up and divided to the four winds of heaven, but not to his descendants; it will not be the same kingdom that he ruled, because his kingdom will be uprooted and will go to others besides them.”
119 THE PTOLEMIES AND THE SELUCIDS
120 PALESTINE UNDER THE PTOLEMIES
121 THE SELEUCID EMPIRE AND ANTIOCHUS III
122 CAMPAIGN OF ANTIOCHUS AGAINST EGYPT
123 LIGHTHOUSE IN THE HARBOR AT ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT
Alexandria was capital of Egypt from 330 BC, founded by Alexander the Great as an outstanding Greek cultural and academic center. Alexandria was designed to act as the principal port of Egypt located on the western edge of the Nile Delta. Built on a peninsula, it separated the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis. A causeway (Heptastadion, or “seven stadia”) connected the peninsula with Pharos Island and divided the harbor. The Pharos lighthouse was visible for miles at a height of over four hundred feet and is remembered today as one of the “Seven Wonders of the World.”
124 FAMILY OF MATTATHIAS AND THE MACCABEAN REVOLT
125 SELECTED EVENTS IN THE MACCABEAN REVOLT
127 JEWISH EXPANSION UNDER THE HASMONEAN DYNASTY
130 ROMAN EXPANSION IN THE THIRD AND SECOND CENTURIES BC
131 CIVIL WARS AND THE EXPANSION OF ROME IN THE FIRST CENTURY BC
132 EVENTS AND PERSONALITIES OF ROME, 133-27 BC
134 POMPEY'S SIEGE OF JERUSALEM
In chapter 7 of The Wars of the Jews, the Jewish historian Josephus says that Pompey, the Roman general, admired the courage of the Jews as their city was being attacked. He was impressed that they continued their worship services while missiles were flying at them from all directions. It was as if Jerusalem were wrapped in peace in the midst of this violence. Even when the Romans entered the city and took the temple, the people continued to worship and die beside the altar.
135 POMPEY'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST JERUSALEM
136 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
Luke 2:1-3
In those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that the whole empire should be registered. This first registration took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So everyone went to be registered, each to his own town.
138 THE KINGDOM OF HEROD THE GREAT
Matthew 2:1-2
After Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of King Herod, wise men from the east arrived unexpectedly in Jerusalem, saying, “Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we saw His star in the east and have come to worship Him.”
Herod the Great determined that he would please his Jewish subjects and show off his style of kingship to the Romans by making the Jerusalem temple bigger and better than it had ever been. His most notable contribution was the magnificent stonework of the temple platform that was greatly enlarged. The descriptions in Josephus and the Mishnah have been fleshed out by recent archaeological discoveries.
Another of his impressive projects was the Herodium, a fortress-palace built about four miles southeast of Bethlehem. Herod was buried there. The fortress, captured in AD 72, was one of the last strongholds of Jewish resistance in the war with Rome. The Herodium served as a supply depot in the unsuccessful revolt of AD 132-135. Herod also built the fortress at Masada.
140 RECONSTRUCTION OF NT JERICHO
Jericho means “moon.” Apparently the oldest city in the world and the first city Israel conquered under Joshua.
New Testament Jericho, founded by Herod the Great, was about one and one-half miles southward in the magnificent Wadi Qelt. The spring, Ain es-Sultan, issues some 30,000 cubit feet of water daily which falls about 160 feet in the first mile of its course down many channels to the Jordan River six miles away, irrigating about 2,500 acres.
The combination of rich alluvial soil, the perennial spring, and constant sunshine made Jericho an attractive place for settlement. Jericho could be called “city of palms” (Deut. 34:3; Judg. 1:16; 3:13; 2 Chron. 28:15) and has plenty of palm trees today. Only about 6.4 inches of rain fall there per year (mostly between November and February), and the average temperature in January is 59?F, while it is 88?F in August. Jericho is about 740 feet below sea level (accounting for its warm climate) but well above the Dead Sea, eight miles southward, which at 1,300 feet below sea level marks the earth's lowest point.
In NT times Jericho was famous for its balm (an aromatic gum known for its medicinal qualities). This, along with its being the winter capital, made it a wealthy city. When Jesus was hosted by Zacchaeus (Luke 19:1-10), it was probably in one of Jericho's finest houses. Its sycamore trees were quite valuable. Such a city could expect to have its share of beggars, as the Gospels tell us (Matt. 20:29-34; Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43).
*Not to be confused with Herod Philip also mentioned in the New Testament. Herod Philip was the son of Herod the Great and Mariamne and was the first husband of Herodias. (See Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; and Luke 3:19.)
143 ROMAN GOVERNORS OF THE FIRST PROCURATORSHIP (AD 6-41)
144 THE DIVISION OF HEROD'S KINGDOM
Sunset over the Sea of Galilee at Tiberias.
145 PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF JESUS
