Notes
Preface
1. Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, 3 vols. (London, Macmillan, 1920).
2. David Lloyd George, War Memoirs, 6 vols. (London, I. Nicholson & Watson, 1933–6).
3. Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958).
4. George H. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory (London, William Kimber, 1977); Trevor Royle, The Kitchener Enigma (London, Michael Joseph, 1985); John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001). (Pollock’s Kitchener: The Road to Omdurman was first published in 1998.)
5. Jad Adams, ‘Was “K” Gay?’ History Today, Vol. 49, Issue 11 (November 1999).
6. Stephen Heathorn, Haig and Kitchener in Twentieth-Century Britain: Remembrance, Representation and Appropriation (Farnham, Ashgate, 2013), p. 234.
1 An Irish and Continental Childhood and Youth, 1850–67
1. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 9.
2. Harold F. B. Wheeler, The Story of Lord Kitchener (London, George G. Harrap & Co., 1916), p. 14.
3. See, for example, Robert Blake, Disraeli (New York, St Martin's Press, 1967); and H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone 1809–1898 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997). Also, Roland Quinault, Roger Swift and Ruth Clayton Windscheffel, eds, William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives (Farnham, Ashgate, 2012).
4. See John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009).
5. Horatio Herbert Kitchener, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
6. Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 4.
7. Quoted in Roy Jenkins, Gladstone (London, Macmillan, 1995), p. 3. First recorded by Walter Bagehot in ‘Mr Gladstone’, National Review (July 1860).
8. George H. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory (London, William Kimber, 1977), p. 19.
9. The sentiment is given one of its most famous expressions in Coventry Patmore's poem, ‘The Angel in the House’, published in 1854.
10. Christopher Hibbert, The Great Mutiny: India 1857 (London, Penguin, 1980), pp. 188–97; Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (London, Little, Brown, 1997), pp. 278–98.
11. KP, PRO 30/57/93.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. C. Brad Faught, The Oxford Movement: A Thematic History of the Tractarians and Their Times (University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), p. 87.
15. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 16. One of the cardinal works in shaping modern thinking on this subject remains that by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1969).
2 The Making of a Surveyor-Soldier, 1868–82
1. Harold Begbie, Kitchener: Organizer of Victory (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1915), p. 15.
2. Trevor Royle, The Kitchener Enigma (London, Michael Joseph, 1985), p. 19.
3. Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I (London, Macmillan, 1920), p. 6.
4. See, for example, A.N. Wilson, The Victorians (London, Hutchinson, 2002), pp. 278–9.
5. See John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), pp. 19–23.
6. See Fenton Bresler, Napoleon III: A Life (New York, Carroll & Graf, 1999).
7. Pollock, for example, thinks not, Kitchener, p. 24.
8. See David Wetzel, A Duel of Nations: Germany, France, and the Diplomacy of the War of 1870–1871 (Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 2012).
9. Quoted in Reginald Viscount Esher, The Tragedy of Lord Kitchener (London, John Murray, 1921), p. 192. Other versions of the story, such as George Arthur's, have the content of the Duke's encomium reading this way: ‘I am bound to say that in your place I should have done the same thing’. Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I, p. 11.
10. KP, PRO 57/30/91.
11. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1992). See, among many works on the subject, C. Brad Faught, The Oxford Movement: A Thematic History of the Tractarians and Their Times (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003).
12. KP, PRO 57/30/91.
13. See Alan Lloyd, The Drums of Kumasi: The Story of the Ashanti Wars (London, Longmans, 1964).
14. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 29.
15. See John Witheridge, Excellent Dr Stanley: the Life of Dean Stanley of Westminster (Norwich, Michael Russell, 2013).
16. Still in existence in London, in good order, and name unchanged, the PEF celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2015.
17. Quoted in Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I, p. 16.
18. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 32.
19. Conder would continue in association with the PEF until 1882, at which time he would join Gen. Wolseley's intelligence staff in Egypt.
20. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 33.
21. See C. Brad Faught, Gordon: Victorian Hero (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2008), pp. 72–3.
22. C.R. Conder, Tent-Work in Palestine, vol. II (London, Richard Bentley, 1879), p. 164.
23. Quoted in Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Statement (1875), p. 198.
24. ‘Kitchener's Working Papers Relating to Palestine Survey’, BL, Add. 69848, ff. 128
25. See Arthur, Life of Kitchener, vol. I, pp. 19–21.
26. Royle, The Kitchener Enigma, p. 33.
27. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 37.
28. See H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone 1809–1898 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 267–92.
29. Quoted in Royle, The Kitchener Enigma, p. 35.
30. Brian Thompson, Imperial Vanities: The Adventures of the Baker Brothers and Gordon of Khartoum (London, HarperCollins, 2002), pp. 160–7.
31. Mrs Kitchener would continue to live in Dinan until her death in 1918.
32. Quoted in Robert Blake, Disraeli (New York, St Martin's Press, 1967), p. 637.
33. See Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London, Phoenix, 2000), pp. 191–2.
34. Ibid., p. 649.
35. See Robert Holland and Diana Markides, The British and the Hellenes: The Struggle for Mastery in the Eastern Mediterranean 1850–1960 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2006). See, also, C. Brad Faught, ‘Gladstone and the Ionian Islands’, in Roland Quinault, Roger Swift and Ruth Clayton Windscheffel, eds, William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives (Farnham, Ashgate, 2012), pp. 219–31.
36. See Tabitha Morgan, Sweet and Bitter Island: A History of the British in Cyprus (London, I.B.Tauris, 2010). Also, Gail Ruth Hook, Protectorate Cyprus: British Imperial Power Before World War I (London, I.B.Tauris, 2013).
37. Quoted in Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 23.
38. Gilbert and Sullivan's highly popular comic opera, The Pirates of Penzance, would premiere in 1879 with Wolseley acting as the model for their ‘Major-General Stanley’.
39. KP, PRO 30/57/1.
40. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 42.
41. See Ian Knight, Zulu Rising: The Epic Story of Isandlwana and Rorke's Drift (London, Pan Books, 2011), pp. 676, 684–8.
42. See Faught, Gordon, pp. 91–2.
43. Quoted in Royle, The Kitchener Enigma, p. 45.
44. The career choice proved a good one for in April 1880 the Liberals under Gladstone won the general election over Disraeli's Conservatives and shortly thereafter the new government made the decision to withdraw all British vice-consuls from Anatolia.
3 In Egypt and Sudan, 1882–92
1. Alfred Viscount Milner, England in Egypt (New York, Howard Fertig, 1970), pp. 180–2.
2. See Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 117–40.
3. C. Brad Faught, Gordon: Victorian Hero (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2008), p. 59.
4. See H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone 1809–1898 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 374–94.
5. Ibid., p. 389.
6. Ibid.
7. KP, PRO 30/57/1.
8. Wood was the elder brother of Katharine O'Shea. Dubbed ‘Kitty’ by the American press, she was at the centre of the Charles Parnell politico-marital scandal in 1890 that delayed, and then nearly derailed, the second attempt by the Gladstone government to achieve Home Rule for Ireland. See Robert Kee, The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism (London, Penguin, 1994).
9. KP, PRO 30/57/1.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 53.
13. See Wendy R. Katz, Rider Haggard and the Fiction of Empire (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987).
14. Andrew Haggard, Under Crescent and Star (Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1895), p. 49.
15. Ibid., p. 24.
16. Kitchener stayed at Shepheard's regularly, taking advantage of the services of ‘servant, beer, and bath’ – according to his bills – whenever he was in residence. KP, PRO 30/57/5.
17. GP, Add. 51305, f. 52.
18. KP, PRO 30/57/102.
19. Quoted in P.M. Holt, The Mahdist State in Sudan (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1958), p. 51.
20. See Fergus Nicoll, The Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon (Stroud, Sutton, 2005), ch. 13.
21. Brian Thompson, Imperial Vanities: The Adventures of the Baker Brothers and Gordon of Khartoum (London, HarperCollins, 2002), pp. 209–11.
22. The Cabinet confirmed the decision on 3 January 1884. Matthew, Gladstone, p. 395.
23. Parliamentary Debates, 12 May 1884.
24. GP, Add. 52388, f. 135.
25. Quoted in the Pall Mall Gazette, 9 January 1884.
26. Quoted in Matthew, Gladstone, p. 396.
27. See Owen, Lord Cromer, pp. 191–3.
28. See, for a recent example, Michael Asher, Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure (London, Penguin, 2006). Also, Faught, Gordon, ch. 7.
29. See M.W. Daly, Sirdar: Sir Reginald Wingate and the British Empire in the Middle East (Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1997). Also, R.J.M. Pugh, Wingate Pasha: The Life of General Sir Francis Reginald Wingate 1861–1953 (Barnsley, Pen & Sword, 2011).
30. KP, PRO 30/57/3, ‘Notes from Berber’.
31. Quoted in Trevor Royle, The Kitchener Enigma (London, Michael Joseph, 1985), p. 60.
32. GP, Add. 51298, f. 195.
33. Ibid., Add. 56451, f. 87.
34. Ibid., Add. 51298, f. 195.
35. KP, PRO 30/57/3, ‘Report on the Arab Tribes from Dongola to Khartum, by Major H.H. Kitchener’.
36. Ibid., PRO 30/57/4.
37. Quoted in A. Egmont Hake, ed., The Journals of Major-General C.G. Gordon, C.B at Kartoum (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, 1885), p. 92.
38. KP, PRO 30/57/4.
39. GP, Add. 52388, f. 154b.
40. KP, PRO 30/57/4.
41. Ibid.
42. Quoted in Faught, Gordon, p. 91.
43. Quoted in Royle, The Kitchener Enigma, p. 65.
44. KP, PRO 30/57/6.
45. Based on a report given to Kitchener he telegraphed the War Office that ‘General Gordon had light coloured clothes on when killed’. This message would give rise to the belief that Gordon had died fighting in his Governor General's white uniform. GP, Add. 52408, f. 71.
46. Christopher Hibbert, ed., Queen Victoria in her Letters and Journals (Markham, ON, Penguin, 1985), pp. 284, 289.
47. KP, PRO 30/57/5.
48. Quoted in Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I (London, Macmillan, 1920), pp. 104–5.
49. See Edward Berenson, Heroes of Empire: Five Charismatic Men and the Conquest of Africa (Berkeley, University of California Press, 2011), ch. 3, ‘Charles Gordon, Imperial Saint’.
50. Quoted in Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I, p. 105.
51. See, for example, The Times edition of 7 October 1884.
52. KP, PRO 57/30/6.
53. Quoted in Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I, p. 128.
54. KP, PRO/30/57/8.
55. The historiography on the partition question is long and deep. See, especially, Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism 2nd edn (London, Macmillan, 1985); a new edition is due to be brought out shortly by I.B.Tauris; and Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 (New York, Avon Books, 1991).
56. KP, PRO 57/30/8.
57. Ibid.
58. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 77.
59. The Zanzibar episode, however, did bring Kitchener his first honour or ‘gong’, the CMG (Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George), bestowed on him by the Queen later in 1886.
60. KP, PRO 30/57/5.
61. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 78.
62. ‘Fuzzy-Wuzzy’ was published by Kipling in Barrack Room Ballads and Other Verses in 1892. See Daniel Karlin, ed., Rudyard Kipling: A Critical Edition of the Major Works (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 437.
63. Winston S. Churchill, The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2000), p. 47.
64. The Times, 18 January 1888.
65. KP, PRO 30/57/5.
66. Quoted in Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London, Phoenix, 2000), p. 108.
67. Owen, Lord Cromer, p. 239.
68. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 84.
69. Quoted in Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 80.
4 Sirdar of the Egyptian Army, 1892–8
1. Evelyn Baring Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, vol. II (London, Macmillan, 1908), p. 87.
2. F.R. Wingate, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, Macmillan, 1891).
3. See Roy Pugh, Wingate Pasha: The Life of Sir Reginald Wingate 1861–1953 (Barnsley, Pen & Sword, 2011), chs 2–4.
4. John Tosh, Manliness and Masculinities in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Harlow, Pearson, 2005), p. 206. Also, David A.J. Richards, The Rise of Gay Rights and the Fall of the British Empire: Liberal Resistance and the Bloomsbury Group (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013).
5. See, for example, Rictor Norton, The Myth of the Modern Homosexual: Queer History and the Search for Cultural Unity (London, Cassell, 1997), and Adam Green ‘Gay But Not Queer: Toward a Post-Queer Study of Sexuality’, Theory and Society (August 2002), vol. 31(4), pp. 521–45.
6. John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), pp. 225–7.
7. Jad Adams, ‘Was ‘K’ Gay?’ History Today, Vol. 49, Issue 11 (November 1999). A.N. Wilson, The Victorians (London, Hutchinson, 2002), p. 598. Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1990), pp. 38–9. Denis Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present (London, I.B.Tauris, 2012), pp. 172–6.
8. Lord Edward Cecil, The Leisure of an Egyptian Official (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1921), p. 184.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Margot Asquith, More Memories (London, Cassell, 1933), p. 121.
12. Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 289.
13. See Gordon Martel, Imperial Diplomacy: Rosebery and the Failure of Foreign Policy (Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986).
14. Quoted in the Earl of Cromer, Abbas II (London, Macmillan, 1915), p. 27.
15. Blunt's full critique of the British occupation was later summed up in his book, Atrocities of Justice under the English Rule in Egypt (London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1906).
16. Viscount Alfred Milner, England in Egypt (New York, Howard Fertig, 1970). Milner served as undersecretary of finance in the Egyptian government from 1890 until 1892.
17. Owen, Lord Cromer, p. 271.
18. Pugh, Wingate Pasha, p. 38.
19. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, pp. 87–8.
20. See, for example, Pollock, Kitchener, pp. 87–8; Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), pp. 83–8; Owen, Lord Cromer, pp. 271–2.
21. Owen, ibid., p. 272.
22. G.W. Steevens, Egypt in 1898 (Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1898), p. 64.
23. See C. Brad Faught, ‘“The Uganda Business”: Gladstone and Africa Revisited’, Peter Francis, ed., The Gladstone Umbrella (Hawarden, St Deiniol's Library, 2001), pp. 156–74.
24. Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London, Phoenix, 2000), p. 640.
25. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 89.
26. See Wm. Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism (London: I.B.Tauris, 2006), pp. 35–48.
27. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, Economic History Review, vol. VI, no. 1 (1953), p. 15.
28. See R.A. Jonas, The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire (Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2011).
29. Frank Scudamore, A Sheaf of Memories (London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1925), p. 99.
30. KP, PRO 30/57/9.
31. Philip Warner, Kitchener: The Man Behind the Legend (New York, Athenaeum, 1986), p. 75.
32. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 93.
33. He was appointed governor of Bermuda in 1908 and served until his death there in 1912.
34. Pugh, Wingate Pasha, p. 51
35. Ibid.
36. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 96.
37. See Archie Hunter, Kitchener's Sword Arm: The Life and Campaigns of General Sir Archibald Hunter (Staplehurst, Spellmount, 1996).
38. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians 2nd edn (London, Macmillan, 1985), pp. 350–4.
39. Dominic Green, Three Empires on the Nile: The Victorian Jihad, 1869–1899 (Toronto, Free Press, 2007), p. 249.
40. Quoted in Magnus, Kitchener, p. 102.
41. Owen, Lord Cromer, p. 290.
42. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, p. 358.
43. Queen Victoria's Journals, 16 November 1896, The Royal Archives and the Bodleian Library, Oxford, online.
44. Quoted in Duncan H. Doolittle, A Soldier's Hero: The Life of General Sir Archibald Hunter (Narragansett, RI, Anawan, 1991), p. 80.
45. See Clarence B. Davis, Kenneth E. Wilburn, and Ronald E. Robinson, eds, Railway Imperialism (Westport, CT, Praeger, 1991).
46. Quoted in Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. I (London, Macmillan, 1920), p. 208.
47. Girouard's lifelong imperial service is covered comprehensively in A.H.M. Kirk-Greene's, ‘Canada in Africa: Sir Percy Girouard, Neglected Colonial Governor’, African Affairs, vol. 83, no. 331 (April 1984), pp. 207–39. See also, Roy MacLaren, Canadians on the Nile (Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press, 1978), pp. 142–60.
48. Quoted in Magnus, Kitchener, p. 105.
49. Winston S. Churchill, The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2000), pp. 170–1.
50. Ibid., p. 173.
51. Quoted in Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, p. 217.
52. KP, PRO 37/57/11.
53. Ibid.
54. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, pp. 364–5.
55. Parliamentary Debates, 29 November 1897.
56. Green, Three Empires on the Nile, p. 253.
57. Owen, Lord Cromer, p. 295.
58. KP, PRO 30/57/9.
59. Quoted in Charles a Court Repington, Vestigia: Reminiscences of Peace and War (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1919), p. 116.
60. Ibid., p. 117.
61. See Pierre Berton, Vimy (Toronto, McClelland & Stewart, 1986).
62. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 121.
63. G.W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartoum (Edinburgh, Blackwood, 1898).
64. Ibid., p. 166.
65. KP, PRO 30/57/10.
66. ‘Too late’, the poignant words from Gordon's penultimate journal entry on 13 December 1884, a few weeks before the fall of Khartoum and his death. A Egmont Hake, ed., The Journals of Major-General C.G. Gordon, C.B. at Kartoum (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, 1885), p. 394.
5 Omdurman, Fashoda, and Khartoum, 1898–9
1. Roy Pugh, Wingate Pasha: The Life of General Sir Francis Reginald Wingate 1861–1953 (Barnsley, Pen & Sword, 2011), p. 62.
2. Martin Gilbert, A History of the Twentieth Century: Volume One, 1900–1933 (New York, William Morrow, 1997), p. 11. Hilaire Belloc, The Modern Traveller (London, Edward Arnold, 1898).
3. George Alfred Henty, the prolific writer of 122 books of historical fiction, most of it celebrating the glories of the British Empire and aimed at school children. He would die just four years later in 1902. The following year his fictional account of the campaign was published posthumously as With Kitchener in the Soudan (London, Blackie & Son, 1903).
4. Winston L. Spencer Churchill, The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode in Frontier War (London, Dover, 1898).
5. Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London, Heinemann, 1991), p. 92.
6. Ibid., p. 90.
7. Ibid., p. 92.
8. Winston S. Churchill, The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2000), pp. 251–2.
9. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 127.
10. Churchill, The River War, p. 255.
11. Quoted in Michael Asher, Khartoum: The Ultimate Imperial Adventure (London, Penguin, 2006), p. 370.
12. Philip Ziegler, Omdurman (London, Collins, 1973), p. 93.
13. Asher, Khartoum, p. 377.
14. Churchill, The River War, p. 271.
15. Charles a Court Repington, Vestigia: Reminiscences of Peace and War (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1919), p. 147.
16. Quoted in John Meredith, ed., Omdurman Diaries 1898 (Barnsley, Pen & Sword, 1998), p. 170.
17. Quoted in Ziegler, Omdurman, p. 127.
18. Quoted in E.W.C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt & the Sudan (Chatham, Institute of Royal Engineers, 1937), p. 264.
19. Ziegler, Omdurman, p. 136.
20. Ibid., p. 140.
21. Andrew A. Wiest, Haig: The Evolution of a Commander (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2005), p. 5. Captain (later General Sir) Henry Rawlinson was another participant at Omdurman who would become a prominent British commander in World War I.
22. Asher, Khartoum, p. 385.
23. Churchill, The River War, pp. 283–9.
24. Ibid., p. 283.
25. Ibid., p. 285.
26. The VC was awarded to: Private Thomas Byrne, Lieutenant Raymond de Montmorency, and Captain Paul Kenna. See Terry Brighton, The Last Charge: the 21st Lancers and the Battle of Omdurman (Marlborough, Crowood, 1998).
27. Pugh, Wingate Pasha, p. 50. Also, Ziegler, Omdurman, p. 180.
28. Churchill, The River War, p. 300. See, also, Henry Keown-Boyd, A Good Dusting: The Sudan Campaigns, 1883–1899 (London, Leo Cooper, 1986).
29. Robin Neillands, The Dervish Wars: Gordon and Kitchener in the Sudan 1880–1898 (London, John Murray, 1996), p. 211.
30. G.W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartoum (Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1898), p. 201.
31. C. Brad Faught, Gordon: Victorian Hero (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2008), p. 91.
32. Fergus Nicoll, The Mahdi of Sudan and the Death of General Gordon (Stroud, Sutton, 2005).
33. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 136.
34. Quoted in Ziegler, Omdurman, p. 204.
35. Churchill, The River War, p. 306.
36. Rudolf von Slatin, Fire and Sword in the Sudan: A Personal Narrative of Fighting and Serving the Dervishes 1879–1895 (London, Edward Arnold, 1930), p. 206.
37. Pugh, Wingate Pasha, pp. 42–3.
38. Quoted in Ziegler, Omdurman, pp. 206–7.
39. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 150.
40. Gilbert, Churchill, p. 98.
41. The second edition, published in 1902 as an abridged one-volume account of the re-conquest, omitted these pointed criticisms. But the damage was done nonetheless. At this point in their relationship Kitchener loathed Churchill, and the feeling was mutual, though the intensity of their dislike would moderate over time to become nearly-collegial during World War I.
42. KP, PRO 30/57/14.
43. Quoted in Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 302.
44. Ernest Bennett, ‘After Omdurman’, Contemporary Review, no. 75 (January 1899), pp. 18–33.
45. KP, PRO 30/57/14.
46. Magnus, Kitchener, p. 132.
47. Repington, Vestigia, p. 195.
48. James Morris, Pax Britannica: The Climax of Empire (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1987), p. 240.
49. Queen Victoria's Journals, 5 September 1898. The Royal Archives and the Bodleian Library, Oxford, online.
50. There is much historical writing on the subject. See, for example, Lewis Levering, The Race to Fashoda: Colonialism and African Resistance (New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987). Also, Darrell Bates, The Fashoda Incident of 1898: Encounter on the Nile (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1984).
51. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism 2nd edn (London, Macmillan, 1985), p. 369.
52. Patricia Wright, Conflict on the Nile: The Fashoda Incident of 1898 (London, Heinemann, 1972), p. 173.
53. Ibid., p. 111.
54. Ibid., p. 176.
55. J.B. Rye and Horace G. Groser, eds, Kitchener in His Own Words (London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1917), p. 139.
56. Wright, Conflict on the Nile, p. 180.
57. Quoted in Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, p. 371.
58. Quoted in Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London, Phoenix, 2000), p. 710.
59. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, p. 378.
60. KP, PRO 30/57/10.
61. The Times, 28 October 1898.
62. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartoum, p. 2.
63. The Times, 30 November 1898.
64. KP, PRO 30/57/10.
65. Quoted in Clara Boyle, Boyle of Cairo: A Diplomatist's Adventures in the Middle East (Kendal, Titus, 1965), p. 103.
66. KP, PRO 30/57/11.
67. Ibid., PRO 30/57/12.
68. Ibid., PRO 30/57/10.
69. Quoted in Pugh, Wingate Pasha, p. 83.
70. Quoted in Magnus, Kitchener, p. 151.
71. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 166.
72. See A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, ‘The Sudan Political Service: A Preliminary Profile’, (Oxford, Parchment, 1982).
73. KP, PRO 30/57/12.
74. Asher, Khartoum, p. 405.
75. The New Penny Magazine, 26 November 1898. KP, PRO 30/57/16.
6 The South African War, 1900–2
1. HHP, Add. 51370, ff. 165–6.
2. Rodney Atwood, The Life of Field Marshal Lord Roberts (London, Bloomsbury, 2015), pp. 189–90. Also by Atwood, see Roberts and Kitchener in South Africa, 1900–1902 (Barnsley, Pen & Sword, 2012).
3. Ibid., p. 190. For which the younger Roberts would be posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London, Heinemann, 1991), p. 107.
4. See Donald Harman Akenson, God's Peoples: Covenant and Land in South Africa, Israel and Ulster (Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1992).
5. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 220.
6. Leonard M. Thompson, The Political Mythology of Apartheid (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 144–88.
7. See Ian Knight, Zulu Rising: The Epic Story of Isandlwana and Rorke's Drift (London, Pan Books, 2010).
8. Thomas Pakenham, The Boer War (New York, Perennial, 2001), p. 11.
9. Darwin, The Empire Project, p. 225.
10. See Martin Meredith, Diamonds, Gold, and War: The British, the Boers, and the Making of South Africa (New York, Public Affairs, 2007).
11. Quoted in Antony Thomas, Rhodes: The Race for South Africa (New York, St Martin's Press, 1997), p. 284.
12. Quoted in Denis Judd and Keith Surridge, The Boer War (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 40.
13. Robert I. Rotberg, The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 374.
14. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 87.
15. Quoted in Mark Weber, ‘The Boer War Remembered’, The Journal of Historical Review, Vol. 18, No. 3 (May–June 1999), p. 15.
16. Ibid.
17. Quoted in Robin W. Winks, ed., British Imperialism (New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. 80. See, also, John Marlowe, Milner: Apostle of Empire (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1976).
18. Andrew Roberts, Salisbury: Victorian Titan (London, Phoenix, 2000), pp. 742–4.
19. Quoted in Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 110.
20. KP, PRO 30/57/17.
21. Quoted in Atwood, Lord Roberts, p. 190. Globe, 10 October 1899.
22. Pakenham, The Boer War, pp. 301–22.
23. John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 176.
24. Diamond Fields Advertiser, 10 February 1900.
25. Quoted in Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, p. 150.
26. Ibid., p. 164.
27. Quoted in Leo Amery, ed., The Times History of the War in South Africa, vol. III (London, Sampson Low, Marston, 1902), p. 425.
28. See Carman Miller, Painting the Map Red: Canada and the South African War, 1899–1902 (Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1998).
29. In addition to the military histories of the Canadians in South Africa, recently a highly-lauded novel was published by Fred Stenson entitled, The Great Karoo (Toronto, Doubleday Canada, 2008). In the book, Kitchener is not regarded favourably either by its author or by any of his fictional characters.
30. Quoted in Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 354.
31. Ibid., p. 356.
32. Thomas Hardy, ‘The Dead Drummer’ or ‘Drummer Hodge’ (1899).
33. KP, PRO 30/57/21.
34. ‘They've caught De Wet, an’ now we shan't be long’. Rudyard Kipling, ‘Ubique’ (1903).
35. Quoted in Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 357.
36. The Globe, 2 March 1900.
37. See Tim Jeal, Baden-Powell (London, Hutchinson, 1989).
38. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 181.
39. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 463.
40. KP, PRO 30/57/22(1).
41. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 186.
42. Milner's ‘Credo’ was published posthumously, first in The Times, 25 July 1925.
43. Cecil Headlam, ed., The Milner Papers, Vol. II: South Africa, 1899–1905 (London, Cassell, 1933), p. 179.
44. Rudyard Kipling, ‘Bridge-Guard in the Karroo’, first published in The Times, 5 June 1901.
45. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 516.
46. For example, ibid., pp. 511–17.
47. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 189.
48. Christiaan Rudolf De Wet, Three Years’ War: October 1899-June 1902 (Westminster, Archibald Constable, 1902), p. 321.
49. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 192.
50. L. March Phillips, With Rimington (London, Edward Arnold, 1901), p. 187.
51. KP, PRO 30/57/22(2).
52. See J.C. de Villiers, ‘The Medical Aspect of the Anglo-Boer War, Part II’, Military History Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3 (June 1984), pp. 74–93.
53. See Emily Hobhouse, The Brunt of War and Where it Fell (London, Methuen, 1902).
54. Birgit S. Seibold, Emily Hobhouse and the Reports on the Concentration Camps during the Boer War, 1899–1902 (Stuttgart, Ibidem, 2011), p. 112.
55. Quoted in Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York, Basic Books, 2003), p. 280.
56. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 548.
57. Quoted in Weber, ‘The Boer War Remembered’, p. 4.
58. Quoted in Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 180.
59. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 524.
60. Quoted in Ferguson, Empire, p. 279.
61. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 195.
62. Quoted in Roberts, Salisbury, pp. 798–9.
63. KP, PRO 30/57/22(2).
64. Ibid.
65. Johannes Meintjes, General Louis Botha: A Biography (London, Cassell, 1970).
66. KP, PRO 30/57/22(2).
67. See John Marlowe, Milner: Apostle of Empire (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1976). See also, Deborah Lavin, From Empire to International Commonwealth: A Biography of Lionel Curtis (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995); and Andrew Lownie, John Buchan: The Presbyterian Cavalier (Toronto, McArthur & Co., 2004).
68. KP, PRO 30/57/22(2).
69. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 191.
70. Quoted in Rayne Kruger, Goodbye Dolly Gray: The Story of the Boer War (London, Pimlico, 1996), p. 413.
71. HHP, Add. 51370, f. 167.
72. William Woolmore, The Bushveldt Carbineers and the Pietersburg Light Horse (Sydney, Slouch Hat Publications, 2002).
73. Owing especially to the Australian New Wave feature film, Breaker Morant, released in 1980.
74. Most of the biographical material pertaining to Morant is taken from his entry in the Australian Dictionary of Biography.
75. KP, PRO 30/57/22(3).
76. Quoted in Fred R. Shapiro, ed., The Yale Book of Quotations (New Haven & London, Yale University Press, 2006), p. 536.
77. Quoted in Weber, ‘The Boer War Remembered’, p. 4.
78. Quoted in Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, p. 230.
79. Quoted in Weber, ‘The Boer War Remembered’, p. 4.
80. For example, in The Argus, 7 April 1902. The headline reads: ‘The Court-Martialled Australians’.
81. Jim Unkles, lawyer, quoted in The Daily Telegraph, 25 July 2013.
82. The director of ‘Breaker Morant’, Bruce Beresford, has Morant utter this line in the film to suggest his way of rationalizing the killing of Boer prisoners of war.
83. George Witton, Scapegoats of the Empire: The True Story of Breaker Morant's Bushveldt Carbineers, new edn (Sydney, Angus & Robertson, 1982).
84. Quoted in Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 574.
85. Ibid., p. 583.
86. KP, PRO 30/57/22(3).
87. A.C.M. Tyrrell, ‘Melrose House’, Military History Journal [South Africa], Vol. 1, No. 2 (June 1968), p. 3.
88. Quoted in J.D. Kestell and D.E. van Velden, The Peace Negotiations Between Boer and Briton in South Africa (London, Richard Clay, 1912), p. 77.
89. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 210.
90. Quoted in ibid., 210.
91. Kestell and van Velden, The Peace Negotiations, p. 45.
92. Quoted in Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, p. 285.
93. Ibid., p. 290.
94. Quoted in Sir George Arthur, Not Worth Reading (London, Longmans, 1938), p. 98.
95. KP, PRO 30/57/22(3).
96. Quoted in Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, pp. 291–2.
97. Ibid., p. 296.
98. Kestell and van Velden, The Peace Negotiations, p. 339.
99. Quoted in ibid., pp. 343–5. Also, Pollock, Kitchener, p. 212, and Judd and Surridge, The Boer War, p. 296.
100. Pakenham, The Boer War, p. 607.
101. Of course, there is much historiography on these points. A useful place to start is T.R.H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History, 3rd edn (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1987).
102. Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Lesson’ (1901).
103. See Spencer Jones, From Boer War to World War: Tactical Reform of the British Army, 1902–1914 (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012).
104. J.A. Hobson, The War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects (London, James Nisbet & Co., 1900).
105. Ibid. Imperialism: A Study (London, Constable, 1902).
106. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 216.
7 India and Afterwards, 1902–11
1. NAM, Diary of Major Sir William Rawlinson, Bt., afterwards General Lord Rawlinson of Trent.
2. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 2.
3. ‘He remains a man of remarkable ability,’ wrote Sir Rennell Rodd from the British Agency in Cairo to Curzon in December 1899, ‘of a caliber of which I believe we have few in our army […] here is a big man who runs a chance of being wasted’. Ibid., ff. 4–9. Also, see David Gilmour, Curzon 3rd edn (London, John Murray, 2003), p. 249.
4. Gilmour, Curzon, p. 248.
5. KP, PRO 30/57/36.
6. New York Times, 23 November 1902.
7. MP, Add. 52276B, f. 18.
8. CP, MSS Eur F 111/162, f. 4.
9. Ibid., MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 3.
10. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, f. 95.
11. Rodney Atwood, The Life of Field Marshal Lord Roberts (London, Bloomsbury, 2015), p. 150.
12. See Harold Lee, Brothers in the Raj: The Lives of John and Henry Lawrence (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002).
13. Charles Allen, Kipling Sahib: India and the Making of Rudyard Kipling (London, Little, Brown, 2007), pp. 134–47.
14. The building that Kipling knew as the Tendrils is now incorporated into the Oberoi Cecil, a luxury hotel with breathtaking views southwards from the Mall.
15. Years later, after Indian independence, Snowdon became a hospital (prior to Lord Roberts's occupancy it had functioned as a dispensary), and later still was incorporated into the Indira Gandhi Medical College of today.
16. Wildflower Hall survived in much the same form that Kitchener had left it until 1994 when it was sold by the Himachal Pradesh state government to Oberoi Hotels & Resorts. In 2001, a luxury hotel of the same name was opened on the 22-acre site. The setting is spectacular, with unobstructed views of the Himalayas – Tibet is located just some 70-kilometres to the northeast. As a nod to the property's founder, a portrait of Kitchener hangs above the fireplace in the main lobby.
17. ‘My name is George Nathaniel Curzon, I am a most superior person, my cheek is pink, my hair is sleek, I dine at Blenheim once a week’.
18. See Robert Johnson, Spying for Empire: The Great Game in Central and South Asia (London, Greenhill, 2006).
19. See Anthony Verrier, Francis Younghusband and the Great Game (London, Jonathan Cape, 1991).
20. See, for example, George Nathaniel Curzon, On the Indian Frontier, Dhara Anjaria, ed. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011).
21. Jayanta Sengupta, ed., Charles D'Oyly's Calcutta: Early Nineteenth Century (Kolkata, Victoria Memorial Hall, 2014).
22. All of these buildings remain, the core of modern Kolkata (Calcutta) still remarkably suggestive of the Raj of a century ago. The Black Hole memorial – which Curzon had raised in honour of those East India Company servants who died in 1756 while imprisoned by Suraj ud-Daula in the ‘Black Hole’ within the captured Fort William – was moved from Dalhousie Square (today's B.B.D. Bagh) in 1940 to the nearby yard of St John's Church. It remains there today standing sentinel over the memory of what, to the British of the Eighteenth- and Nineteenth- Centuries especially, was an epic of the race and evidence of ‘Oriental’ cruelty. See C. Brad Faught, Clive: Founder of British India (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2013), pp. 48–9.
23. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, f. 3.
24. Ibid., f. 96.
25. Ibid., f. 103.
26. Ibid., f. 104.
27. F.A. Steel and G. Gardiner, The Complete Indian Housekeeper and Cook (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 43.
28. Rudyard Kipling, Plain Tales from the Hills (Calcutta, Thacker, Spink & Co., 1888).
29. Thomas Pinney, ed., The Letters of Rudyard Kipling, vol. I (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 1990), p. 101.
30. Thomas Pinney, ed., ‘Something of Myself’ and other Autobiographical Writings (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 77.
31. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, f. 112.
32. Ibid.
33. The church remains a prominent part of modern Shimla (as the city was renamed in independent India), and as a parish in the contemporary Church of North India holds regular services in both Hindi and English, although the respective congregations are very small. The brass nameplate denoting the Commander in Chief's reserved place is still affixed to the original pew, a talisman of a bygone age.
34. Recently, the Gaiety has been fully restored and is about to be named a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Modern Shimla makes use of it in various ways, although its Gilbert & Sullivanesque past is quite gone. The theatre's curators maintain an extensive photographic collection, especially of the various casts of long-ago productions. Staring out from a number of these photos can be seen the unmistakable face of Conk Marker.
35. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 255.
36. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 146.
37. Ibid., 306/36A, f. 108.
38. Ibid., f. 115.
39. Ibid., 306/36B, f. 172.
40. British Online Archives, ‘Indian Papers of the 4th Earl of Minto, Military Department, including Lord Kitchener's administration of the Army in India, 1902–1909’, MS 12599–12603.
41. Field Marshal Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India: From Subaltern to Commander-in-Chief (London, Richard Bentley & Son, 1898).
42. See Richard Holmes, Sahib: The British Soldier in India (London, HarperCollins, 2005), pp. 181–97.
43. See Stephen P. Cohen, ‘Issue, Role, and Personality: The Kitchener-Curzon Dispute’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 10, issue 03, (April 1968), pp. 337–55.
44. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 256.
45. CP, MSS Eur D 686/18.
46. Ibid.
47. Cohen, ‘Issue, Role, and Personality’, p. 341.
48. CP, MSS Eur D 686/18.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. KP, PRO 30/57/28.
53. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, f. 131.
54. Now called the Dhalli Tunnel, it remains essentially as Kitchener would have known it, although enlarged, well lit, and supported by concrete.
55. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, ff. 138–9.
56. BP, Add. 49726, f. 8.
57. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36A, ff. 141–2.
58. Ibid., f. 143.
59. Quoted in C. Brad Faught, ‘An Imperial Prime Minister? W.E. Gladstone and India, 1880–1885’, The Journal of the Historical Society, VI: 4 (December 2006), pp. 555–78.
60. The view held by Corelli Barnett, for example, in The Collapse of British Power 2nd edn (Stroud, Sutton, 1997), pp. 77–80.
61. Quoted in David Dilks, Curzon in India, Volume II: Frustration (London, Rupert Hart-Davis, 1970), pp. 183.
62. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 151.
63. Ibid., f. 160. For the domestic life of Lord and Lady Curzon and their children, see Anne de Courcy, The Viceroy's Daughters: The Lives of the Curzon Sisters (London, Phoenix, 2001).
64. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 169.
65. Ibid., f. 178.
66. Ibid., f. 171.
67. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, ff. 23–3.
68. Gilmour, Curzon, chs 17–22.
69. Dilks, Curzon in India, Vol. II, chs. 7–9.
70. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 181.
71. Ibid., f. 196.
72. Today the dress can be seen on display, along with a number of other Indian and Asian artifacts collected both prior to and during Curzon's years as Viceroy, in the Eastern Museum located in his Derbyshire ancestral home, Kedleston Hall.
73. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 188.
74. Most of the early East India Company senior officials lived outside Calcutta, so pestilential was the city considered to be. Clive, for example, lived at Dum Dum and commuted into Calcutta daily. His house, now in a decrepit state but still standing, is located not far from modern Kolkata's Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport.
75. See Faught, Clive, ch. 4.
76. Quoted in Nigel Nicolson, Mary Curzon (New York, Harper & Row, 1977), p. 199.
77. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, f. 192.
78. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 63.
79. MP, Add. 52276 A, f. 23.
80. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 306.
81. Ibid.
82. MP, Add. 52277 A, f. 4.
83. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/36B, ff. 205–6.
84. Ibid., f. 208.
85. Ibid., f. 209. The local Masonic Lodge, of which Kitchener had become a member shortly after arriving in Simla two years earlier, met in a hall contained within the same building as the Gaiety Theatre. The hall remains today, but is unused, rather forlorn, and not (yet) deemed worthy of restoration.
86. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 14.
87. Ibid., f. 27. Quoted in Daniel Argov, Moderates and Exiles in the Indian Nationalist Movement, 1883–1920, with special reference to Surendranath Banerjea and Lajpat Rai (London, Asia Publishing House, 1967), p. 105.
88. See Krishna Dutta and Andrew Robinson, Rabindranath Tagore: The Myriad-Minded Man (London, Bloomsbury, 1995).
89. Later, in 1911 under Lord Hardinge as Viceroy, the partition was annulled and the divided province of Bengal was reunited.
90. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, Command Paper on the ‘Administration of the Army in India’, May 1905, ff. 68–79.
91. CrP, FO, PRO 633/7, f. 289.
92. MP, Add. 52276 A, f. 91.
93. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 47.
94. General Lord Kitchener, ‘A Note on the Military Policy of India’, PRO 30/57/30.
95. Sir Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 220.
96. CP, MSS Eur D 686/13, f. 42. Also, MP, Add. 52278, f. 96.
97. Ibid., MSS Eur F 111/211, f. 27.
98. MP, Add. 52278, f. 9.
99. Ibid., Add. 52276 A, f. 107.
100. LCP, MSS Eur F 306/13A, ff. 1–2; ff. 143–6.
101. CP, MSS Eur F 111/183, f. 17.
102. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 322.
103. Lawrence James: Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (London, Little, Brown, 1997), p. 362. Gilmour, Curzon, p. 296.
104. Quoted in Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. II, (London, Macmillan, 1920), p. 219n.
105. For a detailed study of Morley as Secretary of State for India, see Stanley Wolpert, Morley and India (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1967).
106. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 331.
107. Now known as Command and Staff College, it is one of modern Pakistan's most prestigious military institutions and is a constituent college of the National Defence University at Islamabad.
108. MP, Add. 52276 A, f. 34.
109. Ibid., Add. 52278, f. 96.
110. See Jennifer Siegel, Endgame: Britain, Russia and the Final Struggle for Central Asia (London, I.B.Tauris, 2002).
111. Quoted in Gilmour, Curzon, p. 377.
112. See Herbert Horatio Kitchener, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
113. CP, MSS Eur F 111/405, f. 20.
114. Ibid., f. 18.
115. KP, PRO 30/57/31.
116. Ibid., PRO 30/57/38.
117. KP, PRO 30/57/38. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 343.
118. See Avner Offer, ‘Costs and Benefits, Prosperity and Security, 1870–1914’, Andrew Porter ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 690–711.
119. KP, PRO 30/57/39.
120. Ibid., PRO 30/57/40.
121. Magnus, Kitchener, p. 246.
122. Ibid., 30/57/31.
123. Ibid.
124. Ibid.
125. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 348.
126. Quoted in Roy Jenkins, Asquith (London, Collins, 1964), p. 343.
127. National Army Museum, 7807.25.44.
128. Ibid.
129. Denys Finch Hatton, the aristocratic big game hunter, for example, had come out two years earlier. Karen Blixen, later to be his lover and eventually the famous novelist Isak Dinesen, arrived at the beginning of 1914. See Errol Trzebinski, Silence Will Speak: A Study of the Life of Denys Finch Hatton and His Relationship with Karen Blixen (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985). Also, Isak Dinesen, Letters from Africa, 1914–1931, Trans. Anne Born, (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1981).
130. KP, PRO 30/57/98.
131. Ibid., PRO 30/57/110.
132. Ibid., PRO 30/57/97.
8 Egypt Again, 1911–14
1. KP, PRO 30/57/41.
2. Archie Hunter, Power and Passion in Egypt: A Life of Sir Eldon Gorst (London, I.B.Tauris, 2007), pp. 239–41.
3. Roger Owen, Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist Edwardian Proconsul (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 380.
4. Quoted in Sir Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 259.
5. KP, PRO 30/57/36.
6. Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Continue to Pester, Nag and Bite: Churchill's War Leadership (Toronto, Vintage Canada, 2004), p. 3.
7. See, for example, Robert L. Tignor, Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 1882–1914 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966), and Peter Mansfield, The British in Egypt (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971).
8. Quoted in Hunter, Gorst, p. 176.
9. As John Pollock too-critically describes him. Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 355.
10. Ibid., p. 218.
11. See Owen, Lord Cromer, pp. 215–35 and 304–24.
12. See Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid-Marsot, ‘The British Occupation of Egypt from 1882’, Andrew Porter, ed., The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 651–64. Also, E.R.J. Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy, 1820–1914: A Study in Trade and Development (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1969).
13. KP, PRO 30/57/42.
14. Ibid.
15. See Lord Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (London, Frank Cass, 1965).
16. KP, PRO 30/57/42.
17. Ibid.
18. T.E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (London, Penguin, 2000), pp. 56–7.
19. Sir Ronald Storrs, Orientations (London, Nicholson & Watson, 1943), p. 122. See, also, The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1937).
20. Ibid., Orientations, p. 136.
21. Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914 (London, I.B.Tauris, 1993), p. 241.
22. As reported to British readers of The Fortnightly Review in ‘Lord Kitchener in Egypt’ (July 1912) by his future official biographer, Sir George Arthur. KP, PRO 30/57/42.
23. Ibid., PRO 30/57/44.
24. Ibid., PRO 30/57/45.
25. Ibid.
26. Hunter, Gorst, p. 242.
27. KP, PRO 30/57/36.
28. Ibid., PRO 30/57/44.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Pollock, Kitchener, p. 366.
32. KP, PRO 30/57/47.
33. Ibid., PRO 30/57/70.
34. HHP, Add. 51370, f. 197.
9 Supreme British Warlord, 1914–16
1. Margaret MacMillan, The War that Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (London, Allen Lane, 2013); Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (London, Allen Lane, 2012).
2. KP, PRO 30/57/76.
3. Quoted in Michael and Eleanor Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary 1914–1916: The View from Downing Street (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 14.
4. The approach of the implementation of Home Rule in Ireland in the spring of 1914 caused a number of British officers stationed at Curragh Camp near Dublin to choose dismissal over being forced to fire upon their Protestant co-religionists in Ulster who were opposed to the measure. Ultimately, the British government backed down by assuring such officers that Home Rule would not be forced upon Ulster and therefore they would not be put in a position where their resignation was necessary. But part of the price to be paid politically for the decision was that Asquith demanded Seely's resignation as War Secretary. Of course, the outbreak of war would scuttle the implementation of Home Rule itself. See Ian F.W. Beckett, The Army and the Curragh Incident 1914 (London, Bodley Head, 1986).
5. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, pp. 14–15.
6. KP, PRO 30/57/76.
7. George H. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory (London, William Kimber, 1977), p. 177.
8. Quoted in ibid.
9. See Spencer Jones, From Boer War to World War: Tactical Reform of the British Army, 1902–1914 (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), pp. 58–70.
10. KP, WO 159/3.
11. Sir Philip Magnus, Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist (London, John Murray, 1958), p. 281.
12. Quoted in Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. III (London, Macmillan, 1920), p. 7.
13. Peter Doyle and Chris Foster, What Tommy Took To War 1914–1918 (Oxford, Shire Publications, 2014).
14. ‘Lord Kitchener's Guidance to British Troops, August 1914’, Primary Documents Online, firstworldwar.com.
15. Virtually everything war-related crossed Kitchener's desk; to wit: ‘Would it be possible’, wrote Lord Halifax, future Viceroy of India and Foreign Secretary, and the so-called ‘Holy Fox’ because of his seriously-held Anglo-Catholic beliefs, which were shared by the Secretary of War, ‘for you to say a word to the Chaplain-General about the selection of chaplains he makes for the Army […]. I do earnestly desire that they [the soldiers] should all have that help and comfort, so far as is possible, upon which so much depends in this world and the next’. KP, PRO 30/57/73.
16. Such, for example, was the view of Raymond Asquith, the Prime Minister's eldest son by his deceased first wife, Helen Melland. Brilliant and a highly successful barrister, he would become part of Britain's World War I lost generation when he fell at the Somme in September of 1916. ‘K of Chaos, as they call him’, he wrote to a friend in August 1914, ‘seems to be a sad mixture of gloom, ignorance and loquacity: says the war will last three years […].’ Brilliant Raymond Asquith was, but perhaps not much of a judge of character, nor, it would seem, of the length of the war. John Joliffe, ed., Raymond Asquith: Life and Letters (London, Century, 1987), p. 182.
17. Quoted in Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. I (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1951), p. 253.
18. KP, WO 159/19.
19. Ibid., WO 159/18.
20. Quoted in David Reynolds, The Long Shadow: The Legacies of the Great War in the Twentieth Century (New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 2014), p. 353.
21. KP, WO 159/21.
22. Ibid., WO 159/7. The place of the horse in World War I has received much attention recently, both scholarly and otherwise. Notable in this regard is the novel by Michael Morpurgo, War Horse (London, Kaye & Ward, 1982), which was made into a highly popular West End play in 2007, as well as a successful Hollywood film four years later.
23. KP, WO 159/8.
24. The London Opinion sold for a penny and had a circulation of about 300,000, very wide for the time. KP, PRO 30/57/123.
25. Many years after its publication in 1914 the Leete-designed Kitchener poster – and not the very much lesser known and wordier War Office one – was voted by a (mainly) British electorate to be the most influential of the twentieth century. See Maurice Rickards, ed., Posters of the First World War (London, Evelyn Adams & MacKay, 1968), pp. 10–12.
26. James Taylor, Your Country Needs You: The Secret History of the Propaganda Poster (Glasgow, Saraband, 2013).
27. KP, WO 159/21. See Peter Simkins, Kitchener's Army (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1988).
28. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 20.
29. ‘Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Contemptible Little Army, 19 August 1914’, Primary Documents Online, firstworldwar.com.
30. Famously, written by Wellington to Lord Bathurst, Secretary of War, in 1813 during the Peninsular Campaign.
31. Archie Hunter, Kitchener's Sword Arm: The Life and Campaigns of General Sir Archibald Hunter (Staplehurst, Spellmount, 1996).
32. KP, PRO 30/57/80.
33. Martin Gilbert, First World War (Toronto, Stoddart, 1994), p. 55.
34. KP, PRO 30/57/49.
35. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 23.
36. Ibid.
37. KP, WO 159/2.
38. KP, PRO 30/57/49.
39. Quoted in Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. III, p. 53.
40. Michael Brock and Eleanor Brock, eds, H.H. Asquith: Letters to Venetia Stanley (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 213.
41. BP, Add. 49726, f. 14.
42. KP, PRO 30/57/78.
43. Quoted in Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. III: The Challenge of War, 1914–1916 (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1971), p. 61.
44. Quoted in Roy Jenkins, Asquith (London, Collins, 1964), p. 343.
45. General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, Memories of Forty-Eight Years’ Service (London, John Murray, 1925), p. 201.
46. Quoted in Gilbert, First World War, p. 75.
47. KP, PRO 30/57/49.
48. Ibid., WO 159/23.
49. Brock and Brock, eds, Letters to Venetia Stanley, p. 224.
50. KP, WO 159/6.
51. See Larry Zuckerman, The Rape of Belgium: The Untold Story of World War I (New York, New York University Press, 2004).
52. KP, WO 159/2.
53. Ibid., PRO 30/57/49.
54. Ibid., WO 159/15.
55. Ibid., PRO 30/57/73.
56. Ibid., PRO 30/57/52.
57. Rodney Atwood, The Life of Field Marshal Lord Roberts (London, Bloomsbury, 2015), p. 263.
58. Ibid., p. 267.
59. Simkins, Kitchener's Army, p. 39.
60. See Michael Bliss, A Canadian Millionaire: The Life and Business Times of Sir Joseph Flavelle, Bart., 1858–1939 (Toronto, Macmillan, 1978).
61. Quoted in Ferdinand Foch, The Memoirs of Marshal Foch, Trans. T. Bentley Mott, (London, Heinemann, 1931), p. 162.
62. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 415.
63. Horatio Herbert Kitchener, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
64. George H. Cassar, Kitchener's War: British Strategy from 1914 to 1916 (Washington, DC, Potomac, 2004), p. 117. Unbeknownst to Kitchener, as later discovered, Asquith was similarly inclined to divulge information pertaining to some of the issues discussed in Cabinet to both his wife and his mistress.
65. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 419.
66. See Malcolm Brown, ed., No Man's Land: Christmas 1914 and Fraternization in the Great War (London, Constable, 2007).
67. KP, WO 159/13.
68. See Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1977), ch. 2. Also, Modris Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern World (Toronto, Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1989), ch. 3.
69. KP, WO 159/15.
70. Ibid., WO 159/10.
71. Quoted in Cassar, Kitchener's War, p. 119.
72. KP, WO 159/2.
73. Ibid.
74. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 349.
75. KP, WO 159/3.
76. In the end, Churchill paid the price for the Dardanelles disaster and indeed had earned his sacking from Cabinet as he had ‘owned’ the campaign from the outset. Still, however, there are those who continue to put the blame for the Dardanelles on Kitchener. See, for example, Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans: The Great War in the Middle East (New York, Basic Books, 2015), p. 189.
77. KP, PRO 30/57/50. See, also, Richard Holmes, The Little Field Marshal: A Life of Sir John French (London, Cassell, 2007), pp. 265, 277, 280.
78. KP, WO 159/3.
79. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 353.
80. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 84.
81. See Peter Hart, Gallipoli (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011).
82. See Hew Strachan, The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001), ch. 11. One of the British soldiers killed at Loos was John Kipling, the 18-year-old only son of Rudyard and his wife Carrie. His death sparked enormous remorse by Kipling, who had strongly encouraged his son to join up and fight. Despite a number of attempts by his parents, John Kipling's grave was not found in their lifetimes. Indeed, only in 1992 was it finally located, although since then its authenticity has been disputed. See David Gilmour, The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (London, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002), p. 250.
83. Gilbert, First World War, pp. 132–3.
84. The Times, 14 May 1915.
85. Daily Mail, 21 May 1915.
86. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 357.
87. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 105.
88. KP, PRO 30/57/82.
89. Cassar, Kitchener's War, p. 182.
90. KP, PRO 30/57/110.
91. Ibid., PRO 30/57/73.
92. KP, WO 159/3.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid.
95. KP, PRO 30/57/53.
96. Quoted in Martin Pugh, Lloyd George (Abingdon, Routledge, 2013), p. 89.
97. Quoted in Travis L. Crosby, The Unknown David Lloyd George: A Statesman in Conflict (London, I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 183.
98. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 92.
99. Pugh, Lloyd George, p. 89.
100. Crosby, The Unknown David Lloyd George, p. 184.
101. Roland Quinault, ‘Asquith: A Prime Minister at War’, History Today, Vol. 64, Issue 5 (May 2014).
102. AP, MSS. Asquith 14:52; KP, PRO 30/57/111.
103. KP, PRO 30/57/106.
104. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 372.
105. Ibid.
106. KP, WO 159/3.
107. AP, MSS. Asquith, 14:117.
108. Jenkins, Asquith, p. 372.
109. KP, WO 159/3; WO 159/7.
110. See John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2009), ch. 8, ‘The War for Empire, 1914–1919’. Also, Cassar, Kitchener's War, chs 3, 8, and 12.
111. KP, PRO 30/57/61.
112. Ibid., WO 159/16; PRO 30/57/56.
113. The Second Battle of Ypres also inspired one of its Canadian participants, Lieutenant John McCrae, a physician, to pen an ode to a comrade killed there, which he called ‘In Flanders Fields’. Once published in Punch later that year, McCrae's simple three-stanza poem would fast become one of the best-known of World War I.
114. KP, WO 159/3.
115. Ibid., WO 159/7.
116. Ibid., WO 159/5; WO 159/13.
117. Ibid., WO 159/7.
118. Cassar, Kitchener's War, pp. 44–7.
119. See Hew Strachan, The First World War in Africa (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004). Also, Edward Paice, Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa (London, Phoenix, 2008).
120. BP, Add. 49726, f. 19.
121. See Matthew Hughes, Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East, 1917–1919 (London, Frank Cass, 1999).
122. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 446.
123. Ibid., p. 452.
124. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 209.
125. Jenkins, Asquith, p. 380.
126. Ibid., p. 381.
127. BP, Add. 49726, f. 35.
128. AP, MSS. Asquith, 121:17.
129. KP, PRO 30/57/62.
130. AP, MSS. Asquith, 121:14.
131. Ibid., 121:12.
132. Much like the sepia-tinged treatment accorded the life of Breaker Morant (1980) in the eponymously named film, the role of the Anzacs at Gallipoli was given a powerful (though somewhat sentimental and inaccurate) re-telling in the film Gallipoli (1981). The two films were similarly anti-British in tone, an unsurprising stance given that one of the latter's executive producers is the now-disgraced Australian expatriate newspaper magnate and fierce republican, Rupert Murdoch. Recently, in 2014, a superbly-made television serial, ANZAC Girls, which concentrates on the Australian and New Zealand nurses who served in Egypt, at Gallipoli, and in France was broadcast to wide acclaim in both countries. Also, BP, Add. 49726, f. 17.
133. KP, PRO 30/57/61.
134. Ibid., PRO 30/57/92.
135. Ibid., PRO 30/57/66.
136. Quoted in David Gilmour, Curzon (London, John Murray, 2003), p. 442.
137. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary, p. 218.
138. Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. III, pp. 293–5.
139. Winston S. Churchill, The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (1898).
140. Quoted in David R. Woodward, Field Marshal Sir William Robertson (Westport, CT, Praeger, 1998), p. 11.
141. Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diaries, p. 227.
142. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 384.
143. Quoted in Sir William Robertson, From Private to Field Marshal (London, Constable, 1921), p. 237.
144. KP, PRO 30/57/67.
145. Robertson, From Private to Field Marshal, p. 243.
146. Reginald Viscount Esher, The Tragedy of Lord Kitchener (London, John Murray, 1921), p. 189.
147. Quoted in Robertson, From Private to Field Marshal, p. 264.
148. Cassar, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, pp. 460–1.
149. KP, WO 159/12.
150. Quoted in Gilbert, First World War, p. 232.
151. Cassar, Kitchener's War, p. 269. Such was the essential message contained in the frequent telegrams sent by Sir John French to Kitchener during the first year-and-a-half of the war. KP, WO, 159/13.
152. Ibid., PRO 30/57/53. See also, J.P. Harris, Douglas Haig and the First World War (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 210–13.
153. Reynolds, The Long Shadow, p. 353.
154. Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, p. 260.
155. See Paul K. Davis, Ends and Means: The British Mesopotamian Campaign and Commission (London, Associated University Presses, 1994). For the Kitchener Hospital, see Suzanne Bardgett, ‘A Mutual Fascination: Indians in Brighton’, History Today, Vol. 65, Issue 3 (March 2015). See also, KP, WO 159/17: ‘Care of the Sick and Wounded Indian Troops in France’.
156. Quoted in Brock and Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diaries, p. 262.
157. See John Townsend, Proconsul to the Middle East: Sir Percy Cox and the End of Empire (London, I.B.Tauris, 2010), and Georgina Howell, Daughter of the Desert: The Remarkable Life of Gertrude Bell (London, Macmillan, 2006).
158. Elizabeth Munroe, Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1971 2nd edn (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 26.
159. See, for example, H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone 1809–1898 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997), pp. 267–71.
160. See Karl E. Meyer and Shareen Blair Brysac, Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East (New York, W.W. Norton, 2008). Also, Roger D. Adelson, Mark Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (London, Jonathan Cape, 1975).
161. Quoted in Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans, p. 325.
162. KP, PRO 30/57/91.
163. Jeremy Wilson, Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorized Biography of T.E. Lawrence (New York, Atheneum, 1990), chs 13–15.
164. Cassar, Kitchener's War, pp. 276–7.
165. BP, Add. 49726, f. 21.
166. Keith Neilson, Strategy and Supply: The Anglo-Russian Alliance, 1914–1917 (London, Allen and Unwin, 1984), p. 172.
167. Cassar, Kitchener's War, p. 282.
168. KP, PRO 30/57/67.
169. Ibid, PRO 30/57/60.
170. Quoted in Jenkins, Asquith, p. 399.
171. KP, PRO 30/57/85.
10 A Watery Grave and a Contested Reputation: 1916 and Beyond
1. KP, PRO 30/57/85.
2. Parliamentary Debates, 31 May 1916.
3. Quoted in Roy Jenkins, Asquith (London, Collins, 1964), p. 405.
4. Parliamentary Debates, 31 May 1916.
5. Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener, vol. III (London, Macmillan, 1920), p. 326.
6. Quoted in ibid., p. 327.
7. Ibid., p. 334.
8. Ibid., p. 335.
9. Quoted in Duff Cooper, Old Men Forget: The Autobiography of Duff Cooper (New York, E.P. Dutton, 1954), p. 56.
10. Quoted in John Pollock, Kitchener: Architect of Victory, Artisan of Peace (New York, Carroll & Graf, 2001), p. 475.
11. KP, PRO 30/57/85.
12. Earl of Oxford and Asquith, Memories and Reflections 1852–1927, vol. II (Boston, Little, Brown, 1928), p. 84.
13. Margot Asquith, More Memories (London, Cassell, 1933), p. 141.
14. George H. Cassar, Kitchener's War: British Strategy from 1914 to 1916 (Washington, D.C., Potomac, 2004), pp. 286–88.
15. KP, PRO 30/57/85.
16. Ibid.
17. Norman Friedman, British Cruisers of the Victorian Era (Barnsley, Seaforth, 2012). See, also, ‘The Loss of HMS Hampshire’, n.a., Royal Naval Museum Library, 2000.
18. Michael Brock and Eleanor Brock, eds, Margot Asquith's Great War Diary 1914–1916: The View from Downing Street (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 266.
19. Oxford and Asquith, Memories and Reflections, vol. II, p. 84.
20. KP, PRO 30/57/119.
21. Quoted in Pollock, Kitchener, p. 486.
22. Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London, Heinemann, 1991), p. 363.
23. Quoted in David Gilmour, Curzon (London, John Murray, 1994), p. 447.
24. John Joliffe, ed., Raymond Asquith: Life and Letters (London, Century, 1987), pp. 267–8.
25. KP, PRO 30/57/118.
26. Ibid., PRO 30/57/94.
27. An overly critical and sensationalist stance towards Kitchener is held by Paxman, both in his earlier book, Empire: What Ruling the World Did to the British (London, Viking, 2011), especially pp. 184–6 – which was followed by a five-part BBC television series broadcast in 2012 – and in his latest, Great Britain's Great War (London, Viking, 2013), pp. 173–9. See also, Paxman's essay on the death of Kitchener published in the Daily Mail on 15 November 2014, pp. 64–5.
28. KP, PRO 30/57/115.
29. Sir Hedley Le Bas, ed., The Lord Kitchener Memorial Book (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1917).
30. KP, PRO 30/57/113.
31. See Stephen Heathorn, Haig and Kitchener in Twentieth-Century Britain: Remembrance, Representation and Appropriation (Farnham, Ashgate, 2013), ch. 3.
32. Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic In History (London, Chapman & Hall, 1840).
33. Max Jones, ‘What Should Historians Do With Heroes? Reflections on Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Britain’, History Compass 5/2 (2007), pp. 439–40.
34. Keith Surridge, ‘More than a Great Poster: Lord Kitchener and the Image of the Military Hero’, Historical Research, Vol. 74, No. 185 (August 2001), pp. 298–313.
35. Asquith, More Memories, p. 135.
36. See John M. MacKenzie, ed., Popular Imperialism and the Military 1850–1950 (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1992), pp. 1–24.
37. Surridge, ‘More than a Great Poster’, p. 313.
38. Hawera & Normanby Star, 22 August 1916.
39. H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone 1809–1898 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997), p. vii.
40. Heathorn, Haig and Kitchener, p. 234.
41. Surridge, ‘More than a Great Poster’, p. 313.
42. Keith Neilson, ‘Kitchener: A Reputation Refurbished’, Canadian Journal of History, Vol. 15, Issue 2 (August 1980), p. 226.
43. Harold Temperley, The Listener, Vol. 15, No. 386 (3 June 1936), p. 1049. KP, PRO 30/57/94.