Chapter 8

Bordeaux

Bordeaux

The region of Bordeaux in Aquitaine lies around the confluence of the Rivers Garonne and Dordogne. This confluence gives rise to the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Europe, which flows north-west for some 65km before merging into the Bay of Biscay.

It is the Romans who first brought the vine to Bordeaux, as attested by the 1st century naturalist Pliny the Elder and the 4th century rhetorician Ausonius, who is still remembered by Château Ausone in Saint-Emilion. In 1152, Henry II of England married the formidable Eleanor of Aquitaine, bringing Aquitaine under English rule and ‘claret’ (red Bordeaux) into fashion. By the end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453, France had regained control of the Bordelais, but the English thirst for claret never slaked.

In the 17th century, Dutch traders drained the marshland around the Médoc, which soon overtook the Graves as the pre-eminent viticultural area of the Bordelais. Pierre de Rauzan, a grand bourgeois and manager of Château Latour until his death in 1692, accumulated the land that later became Châteaux Pichon Longueville Comtesse de Lalande, Pichon Longueville Baron, Rauzan-Ségla, and Rauzan-­Gassies. Later, Nicolas Alexandre, marquis de Ségur, acquired the epithet Prince des vignes after coming into possession of the Médoc properties of Châteaux Lafite, Latour, Mouton, and Calon-Ségur. He turned some pebbles from Pauillac into coat buttons, which Louis XV once mistook for diamonds.

In 1855, Napoleon III ordered a classification of the top châteaux of Bordeaux for the Exposition Universelle de Paris. Bordeaux brokers ranked 61 châteaux into five crus or ‘growths’ based on a savant mélange of price and reputation. All 61 châteaux are in the Haut Médoc bar one, Haut Brion in the Graves.

In the late 19th century, the Bordelais suffered from oidium, or powdery mildew, and then phylloxera. Phylloxera required vines to be replanted onto American rootstocks, and the grape varieties that tolerated this best, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot, became dominant. But then came downy mildew and black rot, followed by war, economic depression, more war, the Great Frost of 1956, and an oil crisis. By the late 20th century, many châteaux found themselves in disrepair and in dire need of the restoration and regeneration that is still under way.

The lie of the land

The Bordeaux region, which boasts ~120,000ha of vineyards and sixty appellations, can be divided into three main sub-regions. The Right Bank describes the area north of the Dordogne and Gironde, with Libourne at its centre. The Left Bank describes the area south of the Garonne and Gironde, with Bordeaux itself at its centre. Finally, the Entre-Deux-Mers is the larger and rather undistinguished area between the Dordogne and the Garonne. The Left Bank is subdivided into the Médoc downstream of Bordeaux; the Graves upstream; and, also upstream, Sauternes, Barsac, and Cérons. By far the most notable areas on the Right Bank are Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, which are both very close to Libourne.

Climate

Like the Rhône valley, Piedmont, Veneto, and Oregon, Bordeaux is on the 45th parallel, about halfway between the Equator and the North Pole. The climate is maritime, with high humidity from the Bay of Biscay and local river systems predisposing to both noble and ignoble rot: powdery mildew, downy mildew, grey rot, black rot, and eutypa dieback. Winters are short and mild, and summers increasingly warm. For all that, severe frost in the winter of 1956 decimated the vines. During the growing season, the main threats to the size and quality of the harvest are spring frosts, unsettled weather around flowering time in June, midsummer heat spikes and storms, and September rains. In April 1991, a night of severe frost destroyed half of that year’s harvest. Château Pétrus beat the odds by flying a helicopter over its vines to displace the freezing air. Happily, a long, bright autumn can burnish and even rescue an unpromising harvest.

Soils

The subsoil of the Bordelais is mostly limestone. On the Left Bank, the topsoil is likely to consist of quartz-rich gravel over clay and marl. The last ice age deposited five major gravel banks, four in the Haut-Médoc (in Saint-Estèphe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien, and Margaux) and one in Pessac-Léognan in the north of the Graves. Aside from being rich in minerals and microorganisms, these gravels reflect light, retain heat, and improve drainage. Further south on the Left Bank, the topsoil is mostly a mixture of clays and sands. On the Right Bank, the topsoil is likely to consist of clay and limestone, but here too there are some gravelly areas. Compared to gravel, clay is damper, reflects less light, and retains less heat. As a result, the fruit ripens later, and is more susceptible to frost and rain. Gravel soils are best suited to Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc, clay soils to Merlot and Semillon.

Grape varieties

Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and other black varieties

People often think of Bordeaux as a Cabernet Sauvignon dominated blend from the Médoc, but the most planted black variety in Bordeaux is in fact, and by far, Merlot (~65% vs. ~23%). Merlot flowers and ripens earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon. As it is thinner in skin, it is more prone to rot. It is high yielding, and requires hard pruning if it is to produce wines of distinction. Cabernet Sauvignon is a smaller grape with a much higher skin-to-pulp ratio, whence the deeper colour and higher tannins. If Cabernet Sauvignon is Apollonian, then Merlot is Dionysian. The sugar and alcohol in Merlot are higher, which together with the lesser tannins make for a certain ripeness, softness, and early approachability. The other four permitted black grape varieties are Cabernet Franc (~10%), which is especially prominent in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, Malbec (~980ha), Petit Verdot (~490ha), and Carmenère (~6ha).

Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, and other white varieties

White wine production in the Bordelais has fallen to 10% of the total production of ~6m hectolitres. The principal white varieties are Semillon (~49%), Sauvignon Blanc (~43%), and Muscadelle (~6%). Compared to Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc is higher yielding, thicker in skin, lighter in body, and higher in acidity and aromatic intensity. But Semillon is more prone to noble rot and better suited to oak, and predominates for sweet white wines. Other permitted white varieties are Ugni Blanc, Colombard, Merlot Blanc, Mauzac, and Ondenc.

Viticulture

The number of estates in Bordeaux has declined to ~7,500, with a significant proportion making their wines with at least some help from a co-operative. At the same time, the average holding size has increased to ~17ha. Some estates can be very large, with many, including Château Lafite, spreading over 100ha or more. The other three first growths of the Médoc are also quite large, with Château Mouton-Rothschild at 78ha, Château Margaux at 78ha, and Château Latour at 65ha. The fifth and final first growth, Château Haut Brion in the Graves, is a ‘mere’ 46ha. In the Sauternes, Château d’Yquem is 103ha, Château Suduiraut 90ha, Château Rieussec 75ha, and Château Climens 29ha. Châteaux in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol tend to be smaller, with, for example, Château Cheval Blanc at 36ha, Château Angelus at 23ha, Château Pétrus at 11ha, and the bijou Le Pin at only 2ha. In addition, the Right Bank is associated with a number of very small producers or ‘garagistes’ whose wines can (also) fetch exorbitant prices.

Vine densities are often very high, with up to 10,000 vines per hectare in the Médoc. Single Guyot training predominates on the Right Bank, and double Guyot on the Left Bank. Common viticultural practices include spraying, de-leafing, and green harvesting. Hand harvesting is very much the norm at top châteaux. The harvest kicks off in September in all but the hottest years, and may extend into October, with, in general, Merlot first, Cabernet Franc next, and Cabernet Sauvignon last. Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon for dry wines are harvested earliest of all, and for sweet wines latest of all, with the selective harvesting of botrytized grapes sometimes extending into November.

Vinification and maturation

Vinification is led by the maître de chai, or cellar master, often with help from a Bordeaux wine consultant such as Denis Dubourdieu, Michel Rolland, or the Boissenots. Almost all Bordeaux wines are blended, with the individual components of a blend vinified separately. The process here described is practised by the more ambitious châteaux.

After harvesting, bunches are sorted in the vineyard or winery to remove any diseased or unripe fruit and extraneous material. The bunches are then de-stemmed and the grapes crushed. A small number of châteaux, notably Smith-Haut-Lafite, do not crush the grapes at all.

Fermentation is carried out on the skins by ambient rather than cultured yeasts, most often in a stainless steel vat. The vat is held at a temperature of ~30°C, and fermentation completes over ~14 days. Remontage (pumping over) and sometimes also pigeage (punching down) aim to promote extraction. Once fermentation is complete, the wine is left to macerate on the skins for several more days. The malolactic conversion takes place either in the fermentation tank or in barrique. Micro-oxygenation is sometimes used at the fermentation stage to defuse green and harsh tannins, although the best châteaux try to ensure that there are no green and harsh tannins in the first place. Micro-oxygenation can also be used at the later stage of élevage, in this case to avoid racking and control oxygen exposure.

With fermentation and maceration complete, the free-run juice is racked off, either by pumping or gravity, with any remaining matter entered into a basket (vertical) or pneumatic press. Compared to free-run juice, press wine is coarser and more likely to go into a lesser wine. The wine is left to mature for up to 18-20 months in medium-toast barriques, with racking off the lees every three months or so. A proportion of the barriques are new; at properties such as Lafite and Latour, that proportion is a full 100%.

Blending occurs either before the wine is entered into barriques or in January or February, in time for the en primeur tastings. The blending reflects not so much the harvest as the precise requirements of the vintage, with unused wine going into a lesser, second or third wine. For instance, Merlot can be used to flesh out the mid-palate of a Cabernet-Sauvignon dominated blend. Petit Verdot, which is regarded as a ‘seasoning’ variety, can enhance structure and tannins and contribute finesse and spiciness. Before bottling, the wine may be fined with egg whites or powdered albumen. It might also be filtered.

Bordeaux châteaux generally sell a large proportion of their wine as futures (en primeur) to négociants, who then sell it on to importers in several, increasingly pricey, batches, or tranches. This only marks the end of the beginning: the wine still needs several more years to mature in bottle, and will not be released from bond for another ~18 months.

With dry white wines, the imperative is often to preserve and enhance fruitiness, freshness, and varietal character. Depending on final style, possible differences include extended pre-fermentation skin contact (macération pelliculaire, pioneered by Denis Dubourdieu for Sauvignon Blanc), a considerably cooler fermentation temperature, blocked malolactic fermentation, and bâtonnage (lees stirring). Sweet white wines are fermented very slowly to convert as much sugar as possible into alcohol before the fermentation arrives at a standstill or is cut short by cooling or sulphur dioxide. Depending on the vintage, some producers, including Château d’Yquem, might make use of cryoextraction, or freeze concentration.

Appellations and classifications

There are in essence three levels within the AOP structure, regional (Bordeaux AOP or Bordeaux Supérieur AOP), district (for example, Haut-Médoc AOP, Saint-Emilion AOP, Sauternes AOP), and commune (for example, Pauillac AOP and Margaux AOP, which are both within the Haut-Médoc AOP). Compared to Bordeaux AOP, Bordeaux Supérieur AOP requires older vines, a longer élevage of 12 months, and a slightly higher minimum alcohol of 10.5%. Taken together, the regional appellations account for almost half the vineyard area and production of the Bordelais.

The Médoc appellations only apply to red wines, even if the Médoc also makes some excellent white wines such as Château Margaux’s Pavillon Blanc. Médoc AOP applies to the clayey northern Médoc; Haut-Médoc AOP to the larger, more gravelly southern Médoc, which also encompasses the six commune appellations of Saint-Estèphe, Pauillac, Saint-Julien, Margaux, Moulis, and Listrac. Of these six, Saint-Julien and Pauillac have the greatest proportion (more than 60%) of Cabernet Sauvignon plantings, and Listrac the greatest proportion (around 60%) of Merlot plantings.

Various classifications are superimposed upon the AOP structure, most notably the 1855 Classification, which has barely changed over time. In 1973, Château Mouton-Rothschild was promoted to first growth level, whence its revised motto, from Premier ne puis, second ne daigne, Mouton suis (‘First I cannot, second I deign not, Mouton am I’) to Premier je suis, second je fus, Mouton ne change (‘First I am, second I was, Mouton never changes’). Classed growths that regularly perform on par with first growths are referred to as ‘super-seconds’. A list of super-seconds might include the Pichons, Léoville-Las-Cases, Ducru-Beaucaillou, Cos d’Estournel, Montrose, and Palmer. The 1855 Classification includes a separate chapter on the sweet wines of Sauternes and Barsac, which divides 26 estates into first and second growths with Château d’Yquem standing alone as a Premier Cru Supérieur. Médoc châteaux outside the 1855 Classification can apply each year for the Cru Bourgeois label, usually for their top cuvée.

The classification of the Graves and that of Saint-Emilion are relatively recent, dating back, respectively, to 1953 and 1955. In the Graves, there are seven châteaux (including Haut Brion) that are classed for both their red and white wine, six for their red wine only, and two for their white wine only, amounting to 15 châteaux and 22 wines in total. In Saint-Emilion, the classification is revised every ten years or so. It divides into Premier Grand Cru Classé (which further divides into A and B categories, with only Châteaux Ausone, Cheval Blanc, Angélus, and Pavie in the A category) and Grand Cru Classé. The latter should not be confused with Saint-Emilion Grand Cru AOP, which is only slightly superior to Saint-Emilion AOP. As for Pomerol, it continues to resist and defy classification.

Vineyards in Bordeaux are not individually delineated and registered, as, say, in Burgundy. This means that, so long as the appended land is within the same appellation, a proprietor can expand his or her property’s holdings and still retain the same status in the classification.

Wine styles

Pauillac

The 1,200ha of Pauillac are split into north and south by the Chenal du Gaer drainage channel. This Eldorado contains 18 classed growth properties, including the three first growths Châteaux Lafite-Rothschild, Château Latour, and Château Mouton-Rothschild; the Pichons; Château Duhart-Milon; and ١٢ highly disparate fifth growths. Most venerable among these are Châteaux Pontet-Canet, Grand-Puy-Lacoste, Lynch-Bages, d’Armailhac, and Clerc-Milon. At its best, Pauillac is the epitome of a Cabernet Sauvignon dominated blend. On the nose, it is complex, dominated by notes of cassis, green pepper, cedar, chocolate, cigar box, and vanilla from new French oak. On the palate, it is powerful yet elegant, with a medium body, fairly high acidity, medium alcohol, fine and structured tannins, and a long, astringent finish.

Saint-Julien

The Ruisseau de Juillac separates Pauillac from the 900ha of Saint-Julien to the south. The gravel is not quite so deep as in Pauillac, which might account for the absence of any first growths. There are however 11 classed growths of which five second growths, including Château Léoville-Las Cases. Léoville-Las Cases borders on Latour, and is regarded as first among the super-seconds. Other highly performing properties include Châteaux Léoville-Barton, Léoville-Poyferré, Ducru-Beaucaillou, and Gruaud-Larose. Stylistically, Saint-Julien is a seductive ­compromise between the power of Pauillac and the magic of Margaux, and more consistent than either, with, classically, a silkier texture and a drier finish.

Saint-Estèphe

Saint-Estèphe is the most northerly commune appellation of the Médoc, and its 1,200ha are separated from neighbouring Pauillac by the La Jalle du Breuil drainage channel. The gravel here is not quite as abundant as in Pauillac, Saint-Julien, or Margaux, with more clay, more moisture retention, and more Merlot. Saint-Estèphe is nonetheless home to five classed growths including second growths Château Montrose and Cos d’Estournel and third growth Château Calon-Ségur. Compared to Pauillac, Saint-Julien, or Margaux, Saint-Estèphe tends to be deeper in colour and fuller or coarser in texture, with more rustic tannins, a touch more acidity, and a touch less perfume.

Margaux

The 1,500ha of Margaux are not contiguous with Saint-Julien, lying a fair distance further south. Margaux counts more classed growths than any other commune, including Château Margaux, five second growths, ten third growths, three fourth growths, and two fifth growths. Soils and topography are more varied than further north and quality is less consistent. Aside from Château Margaux, properties with a strong reputation include Châteaux Brane-Cantenac, Palmer, Rauzan-Ségla, and d’Issan. Archetypal Margaux is floral and feminine, exuding a refined perfume of acacia and violets.

Moulis and Listrac

Adjoining Margaux are the diminutive appellations of Moulis (550ha) and Listrac (650ha). Moulis and Listrac do not contain any classed growths, but the best properties are worth the detour and often offer excellent value for money. In Moulis, Châteaux Chasse-Spleen (cf. Baudelaire, Spleen et Idéal) and Poujeaux are performing at classed growth level. In Listrac, some of the biggest names are Châteaux Clarke, Fourcas-Dupré, and Fourcas-Hosten. Moulis is soft and fleshy, with more power but less finesse than Margaux, and maturing more quickly. Listrac is firmer and more ­tannic, similar to Saint-Estèphe but more rustic and with less ripe fruit, and also maturing more quickly. Although dominated by Cabernet Sauvignon, the wines of Moulis and Listrac often contain more Merlot than those of the other four communes.

The Graves

On the Left Bank, south of Bordeaux, is the Graves, so named for its gravel soils. The northern enclave of Pessac-Léognan, an appellation that dates back to 1987, encompasses all the leading Graves properties. Château Haut-Brion in particular is the only property outside the Médoc to have been included in the 1855 Classification. Its principal wine contains considerably more Merlot and Cabernet Franc than the other four first growths. Other leading properties include Château La Mission Haut-Brion, Château Pape-Clément (named for Clement V, who had been Archbishop of Bordeaux before being elected to the papacy and migrating to Avignon), and Domaine de Chevalier. Compared to those of the Médoc, the wines of the Graves tend to be lighter in colour, body, and tannins, with more fragrance, more Merlot character, and hints of smoke, minerals, and red brick or terra cotta.

Like the red wines, the white wines of the Graves can be among the finest in the world, combining the opulence of Semillon with the verve of Sauvignon Blanc, with intense aromas of citrus fruit, peach, acacia, beeswax, and hazelnut. On the palate, the wines are medium in body, acidity, and alcohol, often with discernible oak influence and lees character. The relatively small amount of sweet wine produced in the Graves is labelled as Graves Supérieures AOP, a sweet wine appellation that is co-extensive with Graves AOP.

Stronger vintages for Left Bank Bordeaux include 1982, 1989, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2005, 2009, 2010, and 2015.

Sauternes and Barsac

Within the southern Graves lie the appellations of Sauternes and Barsac, which, since the 18th century, have been internationally reputed for their sweet white wines. Barsac is within Sauternes, and Barsac wines are entitled to either appellation. The other communes within Sauternes are Bommes, Fargues, and Preignac. The principal grape variety is Semillon, with some Sauvignon Blanc for freshness and aroma, and, sometimes, a touch of Muscadelle for exotic perfume. The River Ciron, which arises from a cool spring, courses along the Sauternes-Barsac boundary under a shady canopy before losing itself to the warmer Garonne. In the autumn, the temperature differential between these two waters gives rise to evening mists that linger until mid-morning and promote the development of noble rot. Some years see less mist, and so less rot, than others. This, together with diminutive yields (typically just 12-20hl/ha), selective harvesting of individual berries with multiple pickings or tries, and oak ageing, adds significantly to production costs.

But the result is worth the trouble. Sauternes is intense, complex, and long, with notes of apricot, peach, passion fruit, orange marmalade, honey, honeysuckle, acacia, hazelnut, and vanilla. In time, the colour transmutes from gold to amber and copper, and notes such as old books, caramel, and crème brulée are not uncommon. On the palate, crisp acidity balances the intense sweetness, rich creaminess, and high alcohol. Barsac is difficult to distinguish from Sauternes but is often drier and lighter in body with higher acidity.

The top name is of course Château d’Yquem, but other star performers include Château de Fargues, Château Suduiraut, Château Rieussec, and, in Barsac, Château Climens and Château Coutet. Stronger vintages for Sauternes include 1988, 1989, 1990, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014, and 2015.

Similar if less distinguished wines are produced in the neighbouring regions of Cérons on the Left Bank, and Sainte-Croix-du-Mont, Loupiac, and Cadillac across the Garonne. Premières Côtes de Bordeaux AOP, also across the river, can apply to red wines (Merlot-dominated and mostly produced in the north of the appellation) as well as sweet white wines (sometimes botrytized and mostly produced in the south of the appellation), but not dry white wines, which can only be labelled as Bordeaux AOP.

Entre-Deux-Mers

The bulk of the extensive area between the Garonne and Dordogne falls under Entre-Deux-Mers AOP. In recent decades, Entre-deux-Mers has seen a shift from dry white wine production to majority red wine production. However, the AOP only applies to dry white wines, leaving the red wines to be labelled as Bordeaux AOP. Entre-Deux-Mers AOP is often Sauvignon Blanc, which compared to Loire Sauvignon Blanc is more expressive of tropical fruits and less so of grass and minerals.

Pomerol

The Right Bank produces some of the world’s greatest Merlot wines. Pomerol is a tiny appellation of ~800ha. Demand outstrips supply, with some labels selling for considerably more than Left Bank first growths. At the heart of Pomerol is a plateau of gravel and clay. To the west, sandier soils yield somewhat lighter wines. The subsoil contains seams of iron-rich clay known as crasse de fer, a major feature at Château Pétrus. Merlot accounts for ~80% of plantings (~95% at Pétrus), with most of the remainder made up by Cabernet Franc and, to a lesser extent, Cabernet Sauvignon. Pomerol is deep ruby in colour with notes of fresh plum and other black and red fruits, spice, truffles, and vanilla from new French oak. On the palate, it is rich, often opulent, with lower acidity and softer tannins than Left Bank Bordeaux. Alcohol ranges from medium to high in hotter vintages. Other than Pétrus, top producers include Château Trotanoy, Le Pin, Vieux Château Certan, Château Lafleur, Château Gazin, Château l’Evangile, and Château La Conseillante. More affordable is Château La Croix de Gay.

Across the Barbanne stream to the north of Pomerol is the somewhat larger Lalande de Pomerol AOP, which can sometimes match or at least evoke Pomerol or Saint-Emilion.

Saint-Emilion

Adjoining Pomerol to the south-east is the much larger ~5,500ha appellation of Saint-Emilion, with the heavenly town of Saint-Emilion at its centre. ~3,800ha are classified as Saint-Emilion Grand Cru AOP, with yields capped at 40hl/ha (vs. 45hl/ha) and a minimum alcohol of 11% (vs. 10.5%). Like Bordeaux Supérieur AOP, Saint-Emilion Grand Cru AOP is almost meaningless. The terroir can be divided into four sections: the limestone-rich plateau of Saint-Emilion; the surrounding slopes of limestone and clay; the border with Pomerol with its five gravel mounds (two at Château Cheval Blanc and three at Château Figeac); and the plains to the west and south with lighter, and inferior, soils of sand and alluvium. The average holding in Saint-Emilion is considerably larger than in Pomerol, but still small by Bordeaux standards. Merlot is less dominant than in Pomerol. Cabernet Franc accounts for ~30% of plantings, and Cabernet Sauvignon for ~10%. Château Cheval Blanc is, famously, Cabernet-Franc dominated, and Château Ausone (named for Ausonius), which is on the plateau, also contains a high proportion of Cabernet Franc. A third exception-that-proves-the-rule is Château Figeac, with less Merlot than Cabernet Franc or Cabernet Sauvignon. Compared to Pomerol, Saint-Emilion is drier and more tannic and less obviously from the Right Bank.

Saint-Emilion has four satellites to the north and north-east, the largest being Montagne Saint-Emilion and Lussac Saint-Emilion. The wines here are similar to Saint-Emilion, if more rustic, and can represent excellent value for money.

To the west of Pomerol and Libourne are the appellations of Fronsac and Canon Fronsac. Fronsac is about the same size as Pomerol, and Canon-Fronsac much smaller. Both appellations, and Canon-Fronsac in particular, are reputed for powerful but refined Merlot-dominated wines.

Stronger vintages for Right Bank Bordeaux include 1989, 1990, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2014, and 2015.