Chapter 23
Australia
New South Wales and Victoria
South Australia
Western Australia
In 1788, the First Fleet of 11 ships landed in Botany Bay, now part of Sydney, with 1,500 British settlers on board. Over the next eighty years, thousands of people immigrated to Australia, among them soldiers, farmers, explorers, fortune-seekers, and convicted criminals. The vine came with the first settlers, who had collected cuttings from Cape Town en route to Botany Bay. In 1832, James Busby, the Father of Australian Viticulture, brought hundreds of vines from France and Spain, and established vineyards in the Hunter Valley in New South Wales. A decade later, Silesian settlers began making wine in the Adelaide Hills and Barossa Valley in South Australia. Phylloxera arrived in the late 19th century, seemingly through Geelong in Victoria. Victoria, then the most productive state in Australia, took the best part of a century to recover from the pest. The Hunter Valley and South Australia have so far been spared from phylloxera, and can lay claim to some of the oldest vineyards in the world.
In 1901, the state colonies federalized. Australia exported significant amounts of mostly fortified, port-style red wine to Britain and other countries. The Second World War and the demise of Imperial Preference damaged the Australian wine industry, and it was not until the 1970s that the country began once again to be recognized as a quality producer. In the intervening decades, tastes had shifted from fortified wines to full-bodied red wines and the fresh and fruity white wines made possible by the advent of cold fermentation. The release of Tyrell’s Vat 47 Hunter Valley Chardonnay in 1971 incited a national obsession with Chardonnay, which, along with Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon, has become one of the most ubiquitous varieties in Australia. Wine exports and domestic consumption boomed in the 1980s, giving rise to large corporations and ‘cask wine’, that is, bulk blends sold in bag-in-box casks. Unfortunately, cask wine and its bottled successors—competent, keenly priced, but very simple—have damaged Australia’s reputation as a quality producer. Today, Australia counts ~135,000ha of vines and ~2,500 wineries. With an annual production of over 1.2bn litres, it has grown into the seventh largest wine producing and fifth largest wine exporting country in the world.
The lie of the land
Australia is almost the same size as the contiguous United States, at once the world’s largest island and its smallest continent. Yet, it counts fewer than 23m inhabitants, most of which live within just 50km of the coastline. The Australian mainland ranges in latitude from 10.4°S in Queensland to 39.1°S in Victoria, with the island of Tasmania even further south. The Australian mainland is framed by the Indian Ocean to the west, the Southern Ocean to the South, and, to the east, the Tasman Sea. The stereotype of Australia as hot and dry belies the complexity and diversity of the continent’s climate. Most of the interior is arid desert, but there are also tropical rainforests, temperate forests, fertile pasturelands, and even large ski fields in the Great Dividing Range.
Viticulture is concentrated in coastal areas in the southern half of Australia and around the inland Murray-Darling River system. The climate in many regions is maritime and either warm or hot—not dissimilar to that of the southern Mediterranean. The climate in inland wine regions, especially in Victoria and South Australia, is continental, albeit with hotter summers and milder winters than in central Europe. The Hunter Valley is subtropical, with warm temperatures and high humidity and cloud cover. The south coast, especially south-western Western Australia and southern South Australia, experiences hot summers moderated by cool southern winds and waters. Some of the country’s coolest and wettest climates are to be found in coastal Victoria and Tasmania. Exposure to harsh or extreme conditions has led to technological innovation, most notably by Dr Richard Smart, who pioneered canopy management and developed the Smart-Dyson trellising system. Australian winemakers are very scientifically minded, so much so, in fact, that some of their wines have been derided as ‘too clinical’. Within the space of just a few decades, they have transformed Australia into one of the world’s leading wine producing nations.
Classification
Australian wine regions are divided into Geographical Indications (GIs), in large part to conform to the European Union’s export regulations.
A GI can be a zone, region, or sub-region. Zones are large tracts of land within a state or, sometimes, co-extensive with a state. Regions are parcels of land with a discrete or homogenous terroir (e.g. Eden Valley, Goulburn Valley), and sub-regions are designated areas within a region (e.g. High Eden, Nagambie Lakes). There are currently 65 regions and 14 sub-regions. GI wines featuring a region, variety, or vintage on the label must match it by at least 85%. Blended wines often include the names of the predominant varieties, which must be listed in decreasing order of importance. The largest GI is the super-zone of South Eastern Australia, which encompasses 95% of Australia’s vineyard area! It is typically used for cheap, bulk wine from the Murray-Darling corridor. The three large areas that make up this corridor are Riverina, Murray-Darling and Swan Hill, and Riverland. The only fine wine style made in these regions is a botrytized Semillon from Riverina. De Bortoli in particular makes a very good Sauternes imitation called ‘Noble One’.
South Australia
South Australia, which has never been plagued by phylloxera, has come to account for about half of Australia’s wine production. Much of this is made from fruit grown across state borders in irrigated regions along the Murray-Darling corridor. But the state is also home to several of Australia’s premium wine regions, and the Australian Wine Research Institute in the state capital Adelaide ranks alongside the Institut des Sciences de la Vigne et du Vin in Bordeaux and UC Davis in California as one of the foremost centres of viticultural and oenological expertise.
Much of the state is hot and dry and unsuitable for viticulture. In the south-east near Adelaide, the climate is moderated by cool waters from the Southern Ocean, which travel far inland up Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf. Viticulture is concentrated in the south-east of the state, in particular, the Fleurieu Peninsula south of Adelaide; the hills, valleys, and highlands to the east and north of Adelaide; coastal regions in the far south near the border with Victoria; and the productive Riverland region along the Murray-Darling River, which forms an estuary in Lake Alexandrina south-east of Adelaide. There are also limited plantings on Kangaroo Island across from Fleurieu and in the Southern Flinders Ranges 240km north of Adelaide.
Barossa Valley and Eden Valley
Silesian settlers established the vine in the Barossa in 1842. This Germanic heritage still lingers in the architecture and cuisine of the region, the importance of Riesling, and the names of winemaking families. The Barossa zone encompasses the Barossa Valley and Eden Valley regions. The broad Barossa Valley lies to the north-east of Adelaide, sheltered from the sea by the Mount Lofty Ranges of which the Barossa Ranges form part. The climate is continental with hot and dry summers. Vineyards are planted on the valley floor and, increasingly, higher up in the Barossa Ranges. Irrigation is often necessary although some older vines are dry farmed, with roots boring beyond the infertile soils of clay and sand to drink at the water table. Owing to the heat, drought, and infertility, the grapes are remarkably concentrated. Black varieties make up some two-thirds of plantings. Shiraz reigns supreme, and some Shiraz plants predate the European phylloxera epidemic. Barossa Shiraz, which is one of Australia’s great classics, is extremely dark, rich, opulent, and sophisticated. Shiraz can also be integrated with old vine Grenache and Mourvèdre (Mataro) in a Southern Rhône-style blend, or else with Cabernet Sauvignon, which thrives in cooler sites. The most planted white variety is Semillon, followed by Chardonnay and Riesling.
The Eden Valley lies in the Barossa Ranges, immediately south-east of the Barossa Valley. Owing to altitude, growing conditions are significantly cooler, and strong winds have stripped the hills of any nutrient-rich soil. Black varieties account for about half of plantings, but the Eden Valley is chiefly reputed for its dry, austere, and textural Riesling. The best examples, such as Pewsey Vale’s The Contours, are made in a very Germanic style. The region is also noted for an expression of Shiraz that is lighter in body, higher in acidity, and more savoury than that of the Barossa Valley. Eden Valley is home to one of the icons of Australian Shiraz, Henschke’s Hill of Grace. Whereas Henschke’s Hill of Grace is sourced from a single vineyard in the Eden Valley, Penfold’s Grange, a Shiraz-dominated blend that is often thought of as Australia’s ‘first growth’, is sourced from vineyards all around South Australia.
Given its long and rich history, the Barossa is replete with quality producers. Family-owned Yalumba makes a range of typical Barossa Valley and Eden Valley styles, including single vineyard wines that highlight terroir variations within the Barossa. Yalumba also boasts the largest plantings of Viognier in the world, and its Viognier is in itself an Australian benchmark. Peter Lehmann’s red and white wines are archetypal, while Charles Melton’s Nine Popes is a beautiful homage to Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Jacob’s Creek, now a corporate giant, still makes excellent fine wines on a small-scale. Seppeltsfield, the original homestead of the Seppelt wine family, embodies the region’s fortified wine heritage with Para Tawny, released after one hundred years in barrel! Other top producers in the Barossa include Grant Burge, Hentley Farm, Rockford, Torbreck, and Turkey Flat.
Adelaide Hills
The Mount Lofty Ranges, with their peak at 936m, span a 300km arc from the Fleurieu Peninsula to just north of the Clare Valley. The Adelaide Hills region corresponds to the section of the Mount Lofty Ranges that lies to the east of Adelaide and that borders on the Barossa in the north and McLaren Vale in the south. In most cases, vineyards must be planted above 400m to qualify for the GI. The climate differs significantly from those of the Barossa or Adelaide. Spring and even summer nights can be chilly, and spring frosts and hail pose recurring threats. The soils are mostly sandy loam. Chardonnay, established in the 1970s by Brian Croser, one of the region’s pioneers, is the most planted variety, followed by Sauvignon Blanc, which has met with scant success in other parts of the country. The cool nights make for freshness and delicacy, while ample sunshine and high daytime summer temperatures underwrite full phenolic ripeness. Pinot Noir is the most planted black variety, even if much of the harvest is blended with Chardonnay to make traditional method sparkling wine—of which Petaluma, established by Croser, is one of the top exponents. Shaw + Smith and The Lane Vineyards make exceptional Burgundy-inspired Chardonnay, while Tapanappa, Croser’s more recent venture, is a new cult favourite. Other top producers in Adelaide Hills include Ashton Hills and Geoff Weaver.
McLaren Vale
McLaren Vale lies in the north of the Fleurieu peninsula, to the south of Adelaide and south-west of Adelaide Hills. The region can boast Australia’s oldest vineyard, planted in 1838. The climate is Mediterranean, tempered by sea breezes from Gulf St Vincent. Cool nighttime air descends from the hills, increasing the diurnal temperature range and extending the ripening period. The sea brings in enough rain, although very little of it falls during the summer. Soils are mostly sandy loam with significant patches of alluvial gravels, yellow clays, and lime. The diversity of soils has led to the most detailed terroir mapping of any wine region in the world. Black varieties account for over four-fifths of plantings, with Shiraz far in the lead. Compared to Barossa Shiraz, McLaren Vale Shiraz is less enormous, with a flavour profile of chocolate, mocha, earth, and spice that is more savoury than sweet. McLaren Vale has a proud history of Grenache, with numerous dry-farmed plantings of old vine Grenache. Chapel Hill produces a benchmark example of old vine Grenache, as does Wirra Wirra, which is also noted for its RSW Shiraz and Angelus Cabernet Sauvignon. D’Arenberg has been making exceptional Northern and Southern Rhône styles for over a hundred years, including the famous Dead Arm Shiraz.
Clare Valley
At the northern extremity of the Mount Lofty Ranges, the scenic Clare Valley is famed for Australia’s benchmark style of Riesling. Yet, the region is also capable of producing red wines of considerable weight. Vineyards range in altitude from 400 to 500m, and conditions from one site to the next can vary enormously. Overall, the climate is continental, with afternoon breezes moderating the summer heat and extending the ripening period into the dry autumn. Soils are free draining with significant limestone deposits, especially in the south of the region. Compared to Eden Valley Riesling, Clare Valley Riesling is generally drier and leaner, with mouth-puckering acidity and notes of citrus fruits, apples, and minerals. With age, it evolves a more complex toasty character. Cabernet Sauvignon is also made, either as a varietal wine or blended with Shiraz or Merlot. Varietal Cabernet Sauvignon is inky, rich, and full-bodied with a characteristic eucalyptus note. The Grosset Polish Hill Riesling is one of the region’s best, with winemaker Jeff Grosset strongly influenced by his early career experience in Germany. Other top producers in Clare Valley include Jim Barry, Kilikanoon, and Wendouree.
Coonawarra
Coonawarra (‘Honeysuckle’), more than 300km south-east of Adelaide and on the border with Victoria, is the main region in the Limestone Coast zone, and South Australia’s undisputed Cabernet capital. The climate, which has been compared to that of Bordeaux, is significantly cooler than in more northerly regions, and spring frosts, harvest rains, and under-ripeness are perennial problems. Coonawarra is noted for its iron-rich crumbly topsoil (terra rossa, ‘red earth’) atop a limestone ridge. The Coonawarra strip of terra rossa is a mere 15 by 2km, although there are similar soils in the neighbouring regions of Padthaway and Wrattonbully. Cabernet Sauvignon accounts for more than half of plantings, with other varieties (Merlot, Shiraz, Cabernet Franc) mainly used for blending. The hallmark of Coonawarra Cabernet Sauvignon is concentrated blackcurrant and plum, verging on prune in hotter vintages, along with a classic cedar note mingling with some eucalyptus. The fashion is for heavily structured tannins extracted in the winemaking. Top producers in Coonawarra include Balnaves and Majella.
New South Wales
New South Wales accounts for around one-third of Australia’s wine production, although most of this is bulk wine from Riverina and Murray-Darling. The Hunter Valley to the north of Sydney is the country’s oldest and most visited wine region. Newer, cool climate regions such as Orange and the Canberra district are gradually realizing their potential.
Hunter Valley
Production in the Hunter Valley region is concentrated in the Lower Hunter Valley, close to the mouth of the Hunter River. The climate is essentially subtropical, with the 750mm annual rainfall concentrated in the period from January to April. Badly timed rainstorms can destroy entire harvests, as with Shiraz in 2012. One upside of the humidity is the important cloud cover, which restricts sugar accumulation in the grapes. Vineyards are planted on relatively infertile soils of volcanic basalt and red clay. So far, they have been spared from phylloxera, enabling the Hunter Valley to boast some of the oldest vines in Australia. Today, the region is internationally reputed for its dry Semillon, ‘Australia’s gift to the wine world’, with complex notes of toast, nuts, beeswax, and tarragon, high acidity, and low alcohol. It is also noted for its Shiraz, which, compared to many other Australian Shiraz styles, is more meaty, peppery, and medicinal, with more muscular tannins and a touch less alcohol. Chardonnay is a relative latecomer, with Tyrell’s 1971 Vat 47 Hunter Valley Chardonnay serving as a prototype and archetype for Australian oaked Chardonnay. Cabernet Sauvignon is the other main black variety. However, owing to the autumn rains, harvests of Cabernet Sauvignon can be unreliable. The Hunter Valley’s ~2,400ha of vineyards account for less than 2% of the national total: with thirsty Syndey on the doorstep, very little wine leaves New South Wales. Top producers in the Hunter Valley include Brokenwood, Lake’s Folly, Mount Pleasant, Meerea Park, and Thomas Wines.
Mudgee, Orange, and Cowra
The Central Ranges zone consists of three regions inland of the Hunter, along the line of the Great Dividing Range. From north to south they are: Mudgee, Orange, and Cowra.
Mudgee (‘Nest of Hills’) is encircled by a ring of hills. Summers are as hot as in the Hunter Valley, but with less cloud cover and much less rainfall. Black varieties predominate, with Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot outnumbering Chardonnay and Semillon by three-to-one. At altitudes ranging from 450 to 1,000m, the vineyards with their soils of sandy loam and clay are among the highest in the country. Altitude mitigates the summer heat to such an extent that the harvest takes place at least one month later than in the Hunter Valley. Lack of irrigation water restricts yields, leading to high acidity and concentration. Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay are the region’s star performers, and Semillon also does very well.
While Mudgee is the oldest region in the Central Ranges, Orange is the newest and also the coolest. The landscape is dominated by Mount Canobolas, an extinct volcano that culminates at 1,395m. Vineyards must lie above 600m to qualify for the Orange appellation. The soils consist of ancient basalt clays interspersed with patches of gravel and shale. They are fairly fertile, and growers seek to restrict vine vigour with appropriate training systems. Before being overtaken by vineyards in the 1980s, Orange was reputed for its stone fruit. The warm, sunny summers and long, dry autumns are ideal for ripening peaches and plums, as well as making late-harvest wines. Shiraz and Chardonnay dominate plantings, but Riesling and Pinot Noir are stirring up the most excitement. The region also produces a lightly floral style of Sauvignon Blanc that is quite distinct from grassy Sancerre and tropical Marlborough. Philip Shaw is perhaps the most recognized producer. Others to look out for include Hedberg Hill, Cumulus, and Printhie.
The climate in the flat plains of Cowra is hot and dry. Chardonnay, which is usually harvested early, is the region’s best performer. Red wines are typically soft, juicy, and high in alcohol. Cowra is still in the process of establishing a clear identity.
Canberra District and Hilltops
The Canberra District region, part of the southern New South Wales zone, encompasses the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding hills. The hills to the east block off the influence of the sea, leading to a continental climate with cold winters (by Australian standards) and hot and dry summers. Vineyards range in altitude from 500 to 850m where temperatures are cooler than in the plain. The clay and shale subsoils are poor at retaining water and drought is common. Despite this, cool climate varieties such as Pinot Noir and Riesling flourish. Dry autumns suit Cabernet Sauvignon, which is planted on warmer sites, and a cool-climate style of Shiraz is taking off. The region’s wine industry goes back to the 1970s and most wineries are small, boutique operations. Clonakilla is one of the oldest, and makes exemplary wines.
The vineyards in the nearby Hilltops region lie at a lower altitude of around 450m. The climate is similar to that in Canberra District, with Cabernet Sauvignon emerging as the premier variety.
Victoria
Before phylloxera arrived in the 1890s, Victoria accounted for more than half of Australia’s wine production. Today, it is staging a comeback. It is the third largest wine producing state, and counts more wineries than South Australia. Coastal regions around Melbourne are cool and wet, while inland Victoria experiences very hot and dry summers. Accordingly, a broad range of styles are produced, from cool climate Pinot Noir and Chardonnay to the celebrated liqueur Muscats of Rutherglen.
Mornington Peninsula
Melbourne, the state capital and second largest city in Australia, sits at the top of Port Phillip Bay. The Port Phillip zone encompasses those regions clustered around Port Phillip Bay, including Mornington Peninsula, Geelong, and the Yarra Valley. These regions are dominated by small, boutique operators with a focus on quality.
The Mornington Peninsula lies south of Melbourne on the eastern side of the bay. With water on three sides, the climate is ultra-maritime. Rainfall averages 740mm a year, with the long growing season only slightly less wet than the winter. The soils consist of a mix of clay, sandy loam, and volcanic elements. Vines are cultivated on gently sloping hills up to 250m in altitude. Site aspect and orientation are critical for ripening grapes and reducing disease pressure. The most important varieties are Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, and the region is one of Victoria’s rising stars for traditional method sparkling wine. On the whole, the climate is better suited to Chardonnay, with a fresh, Burgundy-influenced style emerging. Pinot Noir, on the other hand, is yet to achieve the same finesse as across the Bass Strait in Tasmania. Pinot Gris seems promising. Stonier is one of the region’s top producers, making standout Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Others include Main Ridge, Moorooduc, Paringa, Port Phillip, and Yabby Lake.
Geelong
The climate in Geelong, on the western side of Port Phillip Bay, is similar to that of the Mornington Peninsula. Soils are mostly red clay loam. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir dominate plantings, and are made into both traditional method sparkling wine and still varietal wines. Further inland, the growing season is warmer, and Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are more commonly found; but even here, they can struggle to ripen in cooler, wetter years. Top producers in Geelong include Bannockburn, Farr Rising, and Scotchmans Hill.
Yarra Valley
The Yarra Valley is the most important region in the Port Phillip zone, with some of Australia’s most rated cool climate styles. Although it first arrived in Australia through Geelong, phylloxera had kept out of the Yarra until as recently as 2006. The region is defined by the Yarra River, which flows over 242km from the Yarra Ranges to Melbourne and Port Phillip Bay. Vines are cultivated on steep slopes and along flat alluvial riverbeds. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay dominate plantings. Traditional method sparkling wine is a mainstay, with the Yarra home to Moët et Chandon’s Australian venture. The hilly topography, free-draining soils, and relatively dry climate are a boon to Pinot Noir, and Yarra Valley Pinot Noir has emerged as a classic Australian style. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Shiraz ripen reliably at lower altitudes. Top producers in the Yarra Valley include Coldstream Hills, De Bortoli Wines, Innocent Bystander, Mount Mary, Oakridge, Seville, TarraWarra, Yeringberg, and Yering Station.
Goulburn Valley
The Central Victoria zone encompasses five regions to the north of Melbourne, reaching inland to the border with New South Wales. The most northerly and heavily planted of these five regions is the Goulburn Valley. Vineyards are planted on the relatively flat valley floor of the Goulburn River, which provides the region with irrigation water. The climate, although hot and dry, is somewhat moderated by rivers and lakes. The climate and fertile soils of sand and gravel make for rich, generous wines. The principal black varieties are Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon, made into powerful, concentrated styles, typically with high sugar and low acidity. The principal white variety is Chardonnay, made into a full-bodied style with notes of peach and tropical fruits. Fruit from the neighbouring, cooler region of Strathbogie Ranges is often included, and contributes acidity and citrus notes. The Goulburn Valley is especially noted for its plantings of Marsanne, which are the oldest and largest in the world. Tahbilk, in the Nagambie Lakes sub-region, makes an iconic wine from Marsanne vines planted in 1927.
Heathcote
Heathcote lies to the west of the Goulburn Valley. Cool southerly winds chanelled by the Mount Carmel Range temper the summer heat and extend the growing season. Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed thoughout the year. Premium vineyards are planted on the red calcareous clay soils of the mountain slopes. Shiraz utterly dominates plantings, and with good reason: Heathcote Shiraz is a unique style: dark and brooding, with notes of blackberry, plum, cherry, black pepper, leather, coffee, and aniseed, vibrant acidity, firm and mouth-coating tannins, and a long finish. Jasper Hill with its dry-farmed vineyards is one of the region’s standout producers.
Bendigo
Bendigo, to the west of Heathcote, is a relatively large but sparsely planted region. Summers are hotter and drier than in Heathcote, although altitudes of up to 390m can take the sting out of the heat. Stony clay soils restrict yields and concentrate flavours. Pockets of quartz translate into a mineral steeliness, especially in Chardonnay. The dominant variety is Shiraz. Bendigo Shiraz is typically big and broody, often with a note of mint or eucalyptus. Other important varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc.
Pyrenees
The Western Victoria zone stretches west from Bendigo to the border with South Australia. Pyrenees, immediately west of Bendigo, is the oldest and smallest of the zone’s three regions. Despite the name, the terrain is hilly rather than mountainous. Viticulture is only viable by virtue of altitude and irrigation, and the region is noted for its rich, concentrated wines. Soils are predominantly sandy loam, which suits the most planted varieties, Shiraz and Chardonnay. Compared to Heathcote Shiraz, Pyrenees Shiraz is fruitier, with less spice and smoother tannins. Standout producers in Pyrenees include Dalwhinnie and Summerfield.
Grampians
Grampians lies to the west of Pyrenees. As in Pyrenees, viticulture dates back to the Victorian Gold Rush. Grampians never fell to phylloxera, and the Nursery Block at Best’s Wines, planted in 1867, is a living catalogue of the region’s early varieties. Vineyards are planted on sandstone soils on elevated sites in the Grampians Range, at the western extremity of the Great Dividing Range. Owing to the higher altitude, the climate is cooler than in Pyrenees, with an average January temperature of just 20.2°C. This translates into a style of Shiraz with more pepper, liquorice, and game. Compared to other Victorian (and South Australian) expressions of Shiraz, acidity is higher and tannins are more structured. Late-ripening black varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, thrive in the dry conditions. The region also has a long association with sparkling wine, including sparkling Shiraz. Traditional method sparkling wines are made from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay sourced from the coolest areas as well as neighbouring Henty. Standout producers in Grampians include Best’s Great Western and Mount Langi Ghiran Vineyards.
Henty
Henty, to the south-west of Grampians, is large and diverse, stretching south to the coast and west to the border with South Australia. Shiraz is dominant, but coastal sites are cool enough for Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and (unusually in Australia) Pinot Meunier for the production of sparkling wine. For still wines, Riesling offers the most promise in a style that is less ‘limey’ than the classic south Australian styles. Crawford River makes standout Riesling, among others.
Rutherglen
The North East Victoria zone, to the east of the Goulburn Valley, encompasses five regions with extremely varied topography. Rutherglen is internationally reputed for the richness and complexity of its fortified wines. Tucked against the border with New South Wales, the climate here is very hot. Vineyards are planted on rich loamy soils, or on lighter sandy soils along the Murray River. The principal varieties for the fortified wines are Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge (Rutherglen Brown Muscat) and Muscadelle (Tokay). In the long and dry autumn, the grapes are left on the vine until semi-dry. Once fortified, the wines are barrel-aged for 5 to 105 years, often in a modified solera system. They are classified into one of four categories based on richness and complexity: Rutherglen Muscat (average age 3-5 years), Classic Rutherglen Muscat (6-10 years), Grand Rutherglen Muscat (11-19 years), and Rare Rutherglen Muscat (20+ years). Rutherglen Tokay (Topaque) can be just as impressive as the Muscat, if lighter and finer, and dominated by candied fruit, honey, toffee, and black tea (rather than molasses, raisins, and chocolate). The nearby Glenrowan region shares Rutherglen’s reputation for fortified Muscats and Tokays. Both regions are also noted for their full-bodied table wines, most commonly from Shiraz. Top producers in Rutherglen and Glenrowan include All Saints, Baileys of Glenrowan, Campbells, Chambers Rosewood, Morris, and Stanton and Killeen.
King Valley and Alpine Valleys
The neighbouring King Valley region and Alpine Valleys region extend south along the King and Ovens Rivers into the Great Dividing Range, reaching almost as far as Victoria’s highest peak, Mount Bogong. The diverse terrain is planted with a large catalogue of varieties, including Sangiovese, Marzemino, Durif, and Tempranillo, alongside the more conventional Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Shiraz. Varying altitudes and slopes, cooling mountain breezes, and high diurnal temperature variation are some of the factors underpinning the quality of many of the wines. Brown Brothers in King Valley makes a broad range of styles, and is one of the twelve members of Australia’s First Families of Wine.
Western Australia
Western Australia covers the entire western third of the country. The state accounts for just 3.5% of the country’s output by volume, but garners many more prizes than this modest figure might suggest. Local winemakers are proud that their state is the only major wine-producing region excluded from the bulk wine South Eastern Australia super-zone. Their focus is almost exclusively on quality wines that are adapted to, and reflective of, terroir. Viticulture is only viable around the relatively cool state capital of Perth and further south. Vines were first planted in the Swan Valley, north-east of Perth, in the 19th century, but viticulture only really took off in the 1970s, after the state government commissioned a report into the viability of winemaking. The report identified Margaret River as most closely matching Bordeaux, and, today, the region is reputed for classic Left Bank-style Cabernet blends and Graves-style dry white wines. More recently, winemaking has stretched south into the cooler Great Southern region.
Margaret River
Margaret River is by far the most important wine region in Western Australia. It occupies a roughly rectangular strip, 90 by 25km, on a flat peninsula ~230km south of Perth. Cape Leeuwin at the cooler, southern end of the region is the meeting point of the Indian and Southern Oceans. Margaret River receives 1,100mm annual rainfall, albeit concentrated in the winter. During the growing season, onshore breezes bring in moisture and moderate temperatures. Soils of gravelly loam are ideal for Cabernet Sauvignon. Although it has been compared to Bordeaux, Margaret River is some 10° closer to the Equator and significantly warmer—so perhaps more like Bordeaux in a hot year. Cabernet Sauvignon is, of course, the most planted black variety, and, as in France, is more likely to be blended with Merlot than Shiraz. Compared to Cabernet Sauvignon from Coonawarra, Cabernet Sauvignon from Margaret River is more herbal and leafy, and lacks the eucalyptus note—in short, it is more ‘French’. Tannins are usually very firm, and the wines reward cellaring. Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc have overtaken Chardonnay as the most planted white varieties, and are often blended in homage to the Graves. Vasse Felix, Margaret River’s founding wine estate, produces an archetype of the style. The Leeuwin Estate Art Series Chardonnay is considered by many to be the best in the country. Other top producers in Margaret River include Brookland Valley, Burch Family, Cape Mentelle, Cullen, Devil’s Lair, Moss Wood, Voyager Estate, and Woodlands.
Great Southern
Great Southern is a young but large region around the coastal town of Albany and inland into the rugged hills and mountains. Its varied geography is perhaps best approached through its five sub-regions. Coastal Denmark and Albany are exposed to the full force of the Antarctic currents and onshore breezes. Inland Mount Barker and Frankland River have a more continental climate, albeit one that is much cooler than in other Australian regions. Porongurup, near the Stirling Ranges, is a biodiversity hotspot in the lee of a small range of ancient granitic domes. Broadly speaking, the soils of Great Southern consist of gravels (similar to those in Margaret River) or sandier loams. The region now counts over 2,800ha under vine and is earning a reputation for Pinot Noir and, above all, Riesling, which is subtler than its Clare and Eden Valley counterparts, with a light body and racy acidity. Other white varieties, especially Chardonnay, also do well, and producers are emulating Margaret River’s Bordeaux-style blends. Shiraz is finding its feet in a cool climate style, while Cabernet Sauvignon can struggle to ripen, translating into wines with herbaceous flavours and tough, angular tannins. Top producers in Great Southern include Alkoomi, Castle Rock, Duke’s Vineyard, Forest Hill, Frankland Estate, and West Cape Howe Wines.
Greater Perth zone
The Swan District to the north of Perth was first planted in 1829 and is the most established of the three regions around Perth. Until the 1970s, it was the only notable wine region in Western Australia. It built its reputation around fortified wines, but Chenin Blanc also thrives in the hot climate and sandy soils. East of Perth, the elevated Perth Hills produces quality wines from Chardonnay, Semillon, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot, among others. Ashley Estate makes an idiosyncratic but lengthy Pinot Noir from dry-farmed vines in a cooler valley site. South of Perth, Peel benefits from sea breezes, leading to greater acidity and tannin structure. The Tuart Ridge near the coast is a sand-covered limestone ridge, and the eponymous winery produces exceptionally refined Merlot. Meanwhile, Peel Estate is reputed for its Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chenin Blanc.
Tasmania
Across the Bass Strait from Victoria lies the island state of Tasmania, which is about the same size as the Republic of Ireland. The capital Hobart is at the same latitude as Waipara in New Zealand. Overall, the climate is cool, wet, and windy, with harvests taking place as late as April. The many mountains that speckle the island offer some protection against the stormy seas. Viticulture is concentrated in the drier areas around Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south-east. In the north, vineyards are huddled in the Tamar Valley and other river valleys. Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris, and Riesling are among the most planted varieties. The climate along the south-east coast is more marginal. Pinot Noir thrives here, and a distinct, cool-climate style of Cabernet Sauvignon is emerging from warmer, sheltered sites. Other varieties are also planted, particularly Chardonnay. Tasmania is seen as up-and-coming for cool climate styles, but with just ~1,500ha under vine production is still miniscule. To date, the island’s greatest claim to fame is perhaps its traditional method sparkling wine made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Top producers in Tasmania include Bay of Fires, Domaine A, Freycinet, Stefano Lubiana, and Tamar Ridge.
Wine styles
Red wines
Black varieties account for over three-fifths of Australian plantings. Of these, almost half are Shiraz, and almost a third are Cabernet Sauvignon. New American oak has long been favoured in Australia, but French oak is increasingly being used for Cabernet Sauvignon and old oak or no oak for Shiraz. As there are no regulations to enforce particular practices, there can, at least in theory, be as many styles as there are winemakers. All too often, hot conditions translate into baked or dried fruit flavours, high alcohol, and very soft acidity and tannins. High alcohol is associated with a sweet entry and a hot or burning finish. Tartaric acid is often added, which can give rise to a disjointed acidic tingle at the back of the palate. With such wines, one cannot easily distinguish between Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon, to say nothing of the ubiquitous Cabernet-Shiraz blends. The classic descriptions that follow only apply to quality wines with discernable varietal and regional characters.
Australian Shiraz has become so dominant that producers in other New World countries actively decide whether to label their wine ‘Syrah’ in homage to the Rhône or ‘Shiraz’ to indicate a more Australian style or influence. But Australian Shiraz is far from homogeneous. Barossa Shiraz is very dark in colour. On the nose, it exudes jammy or stewed black fruits, milk chocolate, sweet spice, black pepper, and eucalyptus or menthol. On the palate, it is high in alcohol with soft acidity and chunky, velvety tannins. The use of new American oak is traditional, but there are also trends towards new French oak and old oak. Compared to Barossa Shiraz, McLaren Vale Shiraz is less gigantic, with a flavour profile of chocolate, mocha, earth, and spice that is more savoury than sweet. Hunter Valley Shiraz is more savoury still, with notes of jammy (but not stewed) black fruits, cured meat, black pepper, and liquorice. Alcohol is often lower, acidity higher, and tannins more marked and gripping. Heathcote Shiraz is Victoria’s most recognized Shiraz style, with firm and mouth-coating tannins and notes of blackberry, plum, cherry, black pepper, leather, coffee, and aniseed. Acidity is vibrant but not quite as high as in Hunter Valley Shiraz. The emerging cool-climate style of Shiraz from south-west Western Australia is quite distinct from cool-climate styles from further east or, indeed, the Rhône or New Zealand. The wines are lighter in colour and body with only just-ripe plum fruit and herbal green notes. If full phenolic ripeness has not been attained, they might even be sour.
There are two benchmark styles of Cabernet Sauvignon: Coonawarra and Margaret River. Coonawarra tends to fairly high levels of alcohol although the grape variety’s characteristic acidity is retained. The fruit profile is ripe, with notes of concentrated blackcurrant and plum, verging on prune in hotter vintages, coupled with a classic cedar note and eucalyptus rather than green pepper. Tannins are structured and fine-grained but less austere or chalky than in Bordeaux. Shiraz is sometimes used to round out the mid-palate in the same way that Merlot is used in Bordeaux. Margaret River is more akin to Left Bank Bordeaux and more likely to have been blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc. Alcohol levels can still be high but the fruit is less likely to be stewed. Fresh green pepper replaces eucalyptus, tannins are firmer, and the use of French oak is more common.
The Cabernet-Shiraz blend was born from the impulse to round out Cabernet Sauvignon in climes where Merlot fails to thrive. It is produced throughout Australia and has become a style of its own. Cabernet Sauvignon brings acidity and fine, structured tannins to the blend, while Shiraz contributes rich ripe fruit and, in the best of cases, a subtle meaty pepperiness. There are no rules governing the blend, save that if the varieties are stated on the label, the dominant variety must feature first.
Grenache and Mourvèdre (Mataro) are classically cultivated in the Barossa and McLaren Vale. Grenache in particular thrives in the heat, yielding varietal wines with notes of strawberry jam and ginger or white pepper, very high alcohol, and powdery, mouth-coating tannins. However, in most cases it is blended with Shiraz and Mourvèdre, leading to wines that are not unlike their inspirations in the Southern Rhône.
Australian Pinot Noir is typically very clean and fruit-driven with lively acidity. However, it is sometimes marred by high alcohol or, at least, alcohol that is too high in relation to its light body. The best examples avoid jammy fruit and tend to more earthy notes, often with marked eucalyptus or herbal mint. Much Australian Pinot Noir hails from the cooler regions of the Port Phillip zone in Victoria.
White wines
In the last few decades, Chardonnay has come to account for almost half of white variety plantings. The 1980s and 1990s favoured full-bodied wines with tropical fruit flavours and a certain ‘sweetness’ from the liberal use of new American oak. When markets tired of this heavy style, many winemakers went the other way, seeking out cooler sites and regions and eschewing new oak to make lean, lemony, and characterless wines. Fortunately, some winemakers have settled for a happier middle ground making judiciously oaked Burgundy-inspired wines. Given this variety of styles, it is hard to generalize about ‘Australian Chardonnay’. All that can be said is that it is often made in a very clean style, and that oak, when used, can seem almost clinical in its application. Less ambitious examples may betray added tartaric acid or the crude use of oak staves or chips. Overall, the best sites for Chardonnay are in the regions around Port Phillip Bay, the Hunter Valley, Adelaide Hills, Margaret River, and Tasmania.
The Hunter Valley produces a unique style of Semillon that is very pale in colour with notes of flowers, citrus fruits, fennel, and fresh grass, high acidity, and low alcohol. The wines are dry and often quite textural on the palate. The best examples are extraordinarily lengthy. Although austere and flinty in their youth, with age they develop a complex bouquet of toast, nuts, beeswax, and tarragon. Owing to this toast, aged Hunter Valley Semillon can seem to have been oaked, but this is almost never the case. Semillon from the Barossa is entirely different. The hot climate favours the development of rich wines with low acidity, medium-to-high alcohol, and notes of peach jam, mangoes, and coconut or vanilla from new, often American, oak. In Margaret River, Semillon is typically blended with Sauvignon Blanc and aged in new French oak. These blends are in a much ‘cleaner’ style than Graves, with more intense, finely etched flavours, a fuller body, and higher alcohol. Unblended varietal Semillon is also made, and is more herbaceous than its Hunter Valley counterpart. Riverina produces Australia’s best botrytized Semillon, with notes of honeyed peaches and vanilla from new French oak. Although reminiscent of Sauternes, the wine lacks the Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle components, and is lower in acidity. There is also much less vintage variation than in Sauternes or coastal regions of Australia. In South Australia, botrytis is articifically induced by covering Semillon vines with netting and spraying water to increase humidity.
Although the second most planted white variety, Sauvignon Blanc has yet to achieve anything like the stylistic unity and recognition of Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc. In most places, the climate is simply too hot to achieve the zesty acidity and herbaceous notes favoured by consumers; and growers in cooler regions are more interested in higher value Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Riesling. The best Australian Sauvignon Blanc arguably comes from Margaret River where it is typically blended with Semillon. Distinct styles of varietal Sauvignon Blanc are emerging from Adelaide Hills and Orange. Orange Sauvignon Blanc is very delicate and floral with a light body, high acidity, and low alcohol. Adelaide Hills Sauvignon Blanc is more conventional with some grassy notes, but remains less characterful than Sancerre and less intense than Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc.
Riesling from Clare Valley and Eden Valley has become a world style. The wines are marked by mineral austerity and searing acidity, but unlike, say, Rheingau Riesling, their fruit profile leans very heavily towards lime, whether this be, depending on ripeness, lime zest, fresh lime juice, or lime cordial. The best examples are complex enough to overlie this limeyness with floral, appley, and waxy notes, and are further distinguished by a talcum or chalky texture (from lees ageing) and a long, dry, acidic finish. Some examples exhibit a mineral pungency derided by critics as ‘fly spray’. Clare Valley Riesling is generally considered to be drier and leaner than that from Eden Valley, although the two styles are difficult to distinguish. Riesling is increasingly popular in the Great Southern region of Western Australia. The style is very light, almost water-white in colour with subtle floral and mineral water notes. Spritz in the glass speaks of fermentation in stainless steel, which is common in Australia. Off-dry or sweet Riesling is not popular in Australia. Dessert-style wines are made using the ‘cut cane’ method: once the grapes are ripe, their canes are nicked to prevent sap from flowing to them and they are left to raisin on the vine.
Australia has a plethora of other grape varieties reflecting its history of immigration and the untrammelled inventiveness of its vignerons. Pinot Gris is popular as is Muscat and Petit Verdot, and then there is Tempranillo, Sangiovese, Nebbiolo, and countless others. There are also some offbeat cult wines such as Marsanne from Nagambie Lakes, Viognier from South Australia, and Verdelho from New South Wales. Merlot, although common enough, is mostly used for blending or bulk wine.