Adams, John Quincy, 38
Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, 305, 363, 364, 400
Alabama, 144, 147, 155, 221, 230, 231
Alsop, Joseph, 334
Amar, Akhil, 436n15
Amendment analogues, 270, 415; institutional foundation for, 271–274
Amendment simulacra, 270, 277, 375, 415
American Revolution: relationship to Constitution, 116; role of Convention in, 116; vs. French Revolution, 383
Amnesty oath: as formulated by Johnson, 138, 139, 158; as formulated by Lincoln, 138–140
Annapolis Convention, 41–44, 45, 47, 49, 84, 123, 125, 427n33; report of, 46, 60; and signaling function, 127
Anti-Federalists: in ratifying states, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 78, 83, 89; and Constitutional Convention, 84, 160, 175, 294, 434
Arm-in-Arm Convention. See National Union Convention
Army: supervision of Southern elections, 110, 112, 114, 204, 211, 213, 230; military control of Southern states, 111, 131, 151, 195, 198, 210, 225, 234, 242, 248; role of, during Reconstruction, 202, 208, 209, 212, 244, 247; purge of high command, 214, 215, 219–220
Arthur, Chester, 474n126
Article Five, 9, 15–17, 19, 20, 59, 85; and Federalism, 16, 17–18, 23, 25, 121, 147, 186, 199, 204, 241, 269, 328, 348, 413, 435n12; and Fourteenth Amendment, 22, 102, 111, 115, 186, 189, 198, 199, 200, 209, 231, 246; formalism and, 29, 70, 91, 329, 382; meaning of, 71–81, 87, 232, 388; and pluralist reading of, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 85; and Constitutional Convention, 73; and constitutional change, 88, 91, 108, 115, 116, 120, 129, 130, 140, 153, 206, 207, 262, 270, 276–277, 321, 322, 328, 331, 388, 391, 405, 407–408, 410, 413, 415, 416; First Amendment and, 91; and rules of recognition, 91, 92; exclusivity of, 92; and Reconstruction, 99, 100, 104, 111, 113, 114, 117–118, 119, 161, 173, 189–190, 198–199, 204; and Thirteenth Amendment, 101, 103, 115, 123, 147, 157, 194; Senate and, 109; and hypertextualism, 115, 117, 131, 260, 261, 277, 315; Supreme Court and, 117, 245, 265, 345; Presidency and, 135, 183, 266, 274, 314, 327–328, 341, 388; and role of Congress, 183, 338, 446n41; limits on popular sovereignty, 261; and New Deal, 262, 263, 266, 269–271, 272, 273, 314, 315–316, 333, 341, 346, 347, 383, 388, 476n19; amendments to, 270, 323, 324, 325, 335, 342, 343, 350, 359, 361, 375, 404, 476n22; court-packing and, 337, 404; and Reagan administration, 390. See also Constitutional amendments
Article Four: Guaranty Clause of, 104–105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 174, 442n23, 444n24
Article One, Section Five of, 104, 108, 109
Articles of Confederation: as basis for Convention, 9, 50, 430n63; Article XIII of, 34, 35, 36, 38, 43, 48, 51, 52, 54, 59, 62, 77, 111; Article VI of, 41, 427n33; and ratification of Constitution, 57, 59, 63, 72, 73, 137, 168, 232, 237, 348, 378
Ashurst, Henry, 338
Assassinations, constitutional significance of, 24, 100, 137–138, 138, 149, 169, 216, 265, 267, 271, 274, 276, 277, 474n126, 476n24
Bandwagon effect: Federalists and, 39–40, 41, 42, 44, 46–47, 48, 53, 55, 94, 169, 200, 279, 286; in the states, 57–65, 136, 147, 208, 214; and Anti-Federalists, 84; and Reconstruction, 125, 147, 150, 155, 200, 214, 286; of Emancipation Proclamation, 132, 134, 135; in 1930s, 279, 320, 355; and court-packing, 337; revisited, 358–359
Benedict, Michael, 228–229, 465n36
Bigler, William, 129
Bill of Rights, 59, 64, 78, 79, 339, 466n50; English, 81, 162
Bingham, John, 12, 160, 168–169, 206; on ratification of Fourteenth Amendment, 193, 194–195, 196–197, 197, 231, 232, 461n29, 469nn79,80; and black suffrage, 236, 461n28; and higher lawmaking, 260, 279–280, 328; and revolutionary reform, 284–285; as radical, 446n41; and Thaddeus Stevens, 460n22, 461n23; on martial law, 461n26
Black, Hugo, 261, 264, 265, 288, 353, 355, 368, 393, 489n45
Black Codes, 165
Blacks: Fourteenth Amendment and, 88; enfranchisement of, 106, 110, 164, 170, 194, 197, 210, 218, 236, 237, 440n12, 441nn15–17, 442n18; and voting, 106, 110, 164, 170, 194, 197, 210, 213, 218, 236, 247, 455n5, 469n78, 473n126; and Congress, 118; Fifteenth Amendment and, 118; Thirteenth Amendment and, 155, 158; loyalty of, 181; and Supreme Court appointments, 396
Blair, Frank, 234–235, 236, 237, 250, 354, 472n126
Bolshevik Revolution, 11–12
Booth, John Wilkes, 137, 216, 265, 274, 276
Bork, Robert, 27, 392, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 419
Bowdoin, James, 45
Bradley, Joseph P., 239, 240, 241, 243, 247–248
Brandeis, Louis, 292, 305, 310, 343, 360, 368, 484n47; and Radford Case, 304; and Tompkins Case, 370, 371, 374; on common law, 371–372
Breyer, Stephen, 397
Brooks, James, 167, 441n16, 455n10
Brown v. Board of Education, 117, 276, 399
Bryan, William Jennings, 248
Buchanan, James, 127, 128, 130, 456n14
Burger Court, 397
Burgess, John, 118
Bush, George, 395, 396, 398, 402, 403
Butler, Ben, 179, 227, 228, 486n2, 489n45
Butler, Pierce (Justice), 261, 262, 263, 304
Butler, Pierce (Senator), 65
Capitalism, industrial, 248, 256, 286–287; regulated, 302, 380–381, 390, 401
Cardozo, Benjamin, 292, 343, 355n, 360, 368, 488n32, 489n45
Carroll, Daniel, 51
Carter, Jimmy, 390
Catledge, Turner, 334
Catron, John, 273
Chase, Salmon P.: on national unity, 114, 127; as Chief Justice, 225, 239–240, 241–242, 243, 274, 275, 276, 277, 470nn92,93; and impeachment proceedings, 467n63
Chase Court, 294
Child labor, 257, 261–262, 263, 374
Child labor amendment, 261–262, 263, 264, 266
Citizenship: passive vs. active, 6; national, 23, 182, 198–199, 200, 236, 244, 250, 269, 275, 276; of blacks, 164, 170, 181, 237; and higher lawmaking, 187; state, 198–199. See also Fourteenth Amendment
Civil rights, 8, 155, 156, 258, 407n, 472n126, 473n126, 491n5
Civil Rights Act, 170, 173, 272, 445n25
Civil War: and Reconstruction, 7, 8, 10, 22, 108, 114, 116, 159, 161, 172, 235, 256, 273, 388; and Article Five, 16, 115, 415; and national unity, 23, 280, 407; histories of, 117; beginning of, 130; meaning of, 144, 161, 255; defeat of South in, 165; root cause of, 180–181; survival of Constitution and, 185, 313; nationalism and, 198; financing of, 378, 383
Civil War amendments, 9, 183, 238, 259, 299, 471n126, 474n126; legality of, 20, 22; and grasp of war theory, 115; and Slaughterhouse Case, 245, 247, 248. See also individual amendments
The Civil War and Reconstruction (Randall), 117–118, 119, 447n51
Clinton, Bill, 278, 397, 399, 473n126
Coleman v. Miller, 117, 261, 262, 265, 266, 415, 491n1
Collins, John, 47–48, 59, 65, 232
Command of the Army Act, 214, 215, 217, 221, 223
Commerce Clause, 257, 297, 329
Common law, 232, 246, 270, 360, 370, 475n17; New Deal critique of, 305, 371
Compromise of 1877, 472n126
Concept of Law (Hart), 92
Congress: and revolutionary reform, 24, 189, 397; and court-packing, 26, 329–333, 336–340; and constitutional change, 29, 71, 73, 150–151, 174, 182, 348–349; First (1789), 64, 65, 78, 79, 149, 237; and higher lawmaking, 73, 74, 151, 163, 260, 264; and state legislatures, 86, 150–151; Thirty-ninth, 101, 102–103, 109, 110, 111, 138, 165, 166, 167, 179, 183, 195, 444n23; and Fourteenth Amendment, 103, 110, 111, 112, 162, 189, 194, 197, 232; exclusionary powers of, 104; Thirty-sixth, 127, 129; and slavery issue, 130, 132; Thirty-eighth, 131, 133, 206n, 274; and 1860 election, 132; and 1862 election, 132; and Emancipation Proclamation, 136; and Thirteenth Amendment, 136, 143, 147, 149, 150–151, 155–157; and Presidency, 177–178, 184, 188, 192, 230, 267, 272, 285, 288, 289, 301; Fortieth, 184, 193; Southern readmission to, 193, 196, 197, 198, 200, 205, 231, 238, 457n32, 461n26, 462n31; and ratification process, 201–205, 341–342; Forty-first, 239; Supreme Court and, 242, 257, 261, 322, 349; 1994 Republican takeover of, 258; New Deal, 262, 271, 272, 279, 285, 288, 303, 310, 316, 320–324, 340, 475n19; Seventy-fifth, 337–338; in 1980s, 391; Confiscation Acts of, 450n30; Forty-fifth, 473n126; 104th, 473n126. See also Constitutional amendments; Exclusion Crisis
Congressional leadership, model of, 18–19
Connecticut: role in ratifying Constitution, 37; rejection of Annapolis Convention, 42
Conservative branches, role in constitutional change, 125, 135, 144, 164, 178, 182, 183, 188, 210, 211, 267, 268, 291, 311, 354, 386
Constitution: debates over, 4–5, 10–15, 49–68, 90, 122, 259; ratification of, 5, 13, 22, 35, 40, 51, 54, 55, 57–64, 65, 66, 73, 78, 83, 86, 89, 90, 237, 432n97; two-track system of, 5; and government intervention, 7, 256; conservative view of, 24, 307, 361; revision of, 28, 29–30, 73, 130, 313; and change, 33; Article Seven of, 34, 38, 73, 199–200; Supremacy Clause, 36; pluralism of text and practice in, 72; and popular sovereignty, 84, 94, 121, 250, 307, 384, 419; American Revolution and, 116; modification of, 119; and elections, 124; as landmark of liberty, 131; and Southern states, 134, 177; oath to support, 139; Three-Fifths Compromise of, 184; survival of, 185; and state conventions, 201; Congress and, 201–202; grant of power over money, 240; review of, in Reconstruction, 245; New Deal, 257, 310, 313; transformative thrust of, 259; interpretation of, 280; and powers of Supreme Court, 322–323; as layman’s charter vs. lawyer’s contract, 377, 378; modern, 382, 383; dualist ideas in, 384; continuity of, 386–389, 402; nationalism and, 407–408. See also Article Five
Constitutional amendments, 4, 10, 40, 383; procedures for, 15–16, 70, 73, 74, 79–80, 85, 117–118, 135–136, 142, 150, 269, 326, 405; Presidency and, 18, 26, 132, 133, 135, 299–301, 307–308, 314, 322, 410, 411; and Congress, 54, 55, 64, 86, 117–118, 132–133, 150–151, 174, 178, 179, 316–317, 321, 326, 329, 337–340, 341, 490n1; ratification of, 60, 71, 74–75, 103, 117–118, 124, 135–136, 388, 410; during Reconstruction, 99, 100, 115, 116, 123, 124, 152, 155, 199, 235; and “grasp of war” theories, 115–116, 446n45; and elections, 127; and referenda, 128–129, 410–412; and New Deal, 260, 277, 299, 307, 314, 315–316, 345; Supreme Court decisions on, 261; on child labor, 261–262; supermajority requirements for, 410. See also Article Five; individual amendments
Constitutional calendar, 138, 191, 195, 199, 210, 268, 286
Constitutional change: Republican model of, 23; role of separation of powers in, 23, 122, 123, 125; adverse possession and, 93, 94, 216, 439n41; theories of, 115; role of war in, 115–116; New Deal model of, 258, 406–407; Congress and, 274, 276; and Presidency, 274, 299; and Supreme Court changes, 405, 408; reforms in, 412–416; role of Vice-Presidency in, 474n126. See also Article Five; Assassinations
Constitutional change, consolidating phase of: during Founding, 40, 64–65, 66, 67, 69, 85, 86, 279; during Reconstruction, 124, 149, 211, 234–247, 266, 268, 273; and Presidency, 150–157; during New Deal, 265, 266, 268, 279, 372, 405
Constitutional change, proposal phase of, 49–57, 66, 67, 69, 86, 90; during Reconstruction, 124, 163, 186, 266; and Presidency, 130–136, 173–178; at Founding, 169; during New Deal, 266, 286–306
Constitutional change, ratifying phase of: and Founding, 66, 67, 69, 86, 87. See also Constitution: debates over
Constitutional change, signaling phase of: during Founding, 39–49, 66, 67, 69, 85, 169, 279; during Reconstruction, 123, 163, 166–173, 266; and Presidency, 126–127, 274, 390, 398; during New Deal, 265, 266, 279
Constitutional change, triggering phase of: during Founding, 39–40, 49–57, 59, 66, 67, 69, 85, 86, 87, 90, 430n63; during Reconstruction, 124, 163, 178–183, 186–188, 190, 201, 202, 462nn31,34; and Presidency, 136–141, 144, 149, 151; and Congress, 142, 176–177, 194, 195, 300; nationalization and, 202, 204, 205, 209; during New Deal, 306–311, 312–315
Constitutional Convention, 9, 35, 36, 66, 160, 169, 260, 279; Washington at, 22, 80; legitimacy of, 48, 58, 89, 175; call for, 49; constitutional proposal at, 49–53, 131–132, 286; and Congress, 54, 63, 129, 201–202; and Article Five, 73, 75; English precedents for, 81–82, 319, 388, 437n25; meaning of, 81–85; elections for delegates to, 83, 90; and ratification rules, 90, 111, 137, 149, 168; and signaling function, 127; and Washington Peace Convention, 129; duration of, 287
Constitutional moments, 5, 7, 87–88, 160, 248, 346, 409, 410, 411, 420, 471n126. See also Constitutional change
Constitutions, state, 77, 80, 84; Southern, 105, 111, 112, 143, 145, 197, 198, 214, 231
Continental Congress: role in Founding, 35–36, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46–47, 59, 63–64; and impost on foreign commerce, 40, 42, 427nn22–24; and Constitution, 53–54; and Presidential Electors, 57; stabilizing role of, 57; and Philadelphia Convention, 129
Contract with America, 397
Convention of 1688, 33, 81, 82, 83, 162, 169, 437n25
Convention/Congress: defined, 162–163, 168; and Article Five, 168; popular sovereignty and, 168, 169, 186, 189, 207; assault on legitimacy of, 170; and Presidency, 173, 182, 188, 189, 192, 276; defense of mandate, 189–201, 354; and Fourteenth Amendment, 190, 193, 199, 354; and Federalist tradition, 200; threats of impeachment, 209, 211, 268; threats of jurisdiction-stripping, 209, 211, 226, 241, 243, 294, 354; and higher lawmaking, 260, 286. See also Congress: Thirty-ninth, Fortieth, Forty-first
Conventions: and Shays’ Rebellion, 44, 45; federal, 71, 87, 266; meaning of term, 81, 86, 162, 179–180; of the People, 100; secessionist, 130
Conventions, state: vs. state legislatures, 35, 42, 71, 80, 83, 85–86, 89, 142, 143, 148, 207, 300, 341–342, 426n16; ratifying, 36–37, 55–56, 57–59, 63, 64–65, 78, 82; and proposal of amendments, 46; Constitution and, 52, 71, 86, 87, 89, 201, 294, 436n18; and Article Five, 71; during Reconstruction, 107–108, 110, 111, 193, 197, 201, 202, 203, 204, 213, 220; and issue of slavery, 128, 140, 141–150; Southern, of 1865, 141, 149; of 1868, 221
Coolidge, Calvin, 281
Corporatism, 287, 290, 296, 298, 302, 312, 313, 380
Corwin, Edward, 487n3
Costigan, Edward, 338, 340, 485n67
Coughlin, Father, 317
Court-packing: Roosevelt and, 24, 25–26, 255, 299, 315, 318, 322, 323, 324, 327, 330, 335–337, 348, 351, 354, 363, 379, 417, 485n60, 488n34; and Reconstruction Republicans, 211, 239, 248, 273; of Grant era, 268, 273, 288; threat of, 268, 269, 273, 299, 313, 322, 334, 341, 377, 401; Court response to, 315, 330, 343; and English precedent, 319; public opinion and, 324–325, 333, 346; defense of, 329
Crittenden, John J., 128–129, 448n17, 449n22, 450n28
Cummings, Homer, 293, 318, 323, 325, 328–329, 355n
Currie, David, 362
Dahl, Robert, 490n61
Dane, Nathan, 45, 46, 47, 429n46
Davis, Jefferson, 449n24, 464n8
Decentralizers, 49–50, 51. See also New Jersey Plan
Declaration of Independence, 77
Delaware: role in ratifying Constitution, 35, 157; rejection of Thirteenth Amendment, 136, 147, 157
Democracy: dualistic, 5–6, 28, 68, 70, 89, 90, 91, 92, 251, 258, 291, 327, 333, 350, 384, 388, 394, 417; American, 11; direct, 83; representative, 83; deliberative plebiscite in, 83–84; quasidirect, 83–84; Constitution and, 309; and party bickering, 325; theory of New Deal, 369
Democratic Party: and popular mandate, 67, 68, 70; and slavery issue, 132, 133, 134; and Thirteenth Amendment, 135, 188; and debate over Fourteenth Amendment, 161, 182, 211; national conventions of, 234, 308, 310; and election of 1868, 234–236, 354; and election of 1874, 247, 472n126; history of, 282; in 1930s, 282, 286, 289, 311, 320, 326, 328, 331, 332, 380; Southern, 282, 292; 1932 platform of, 283, 380; 1936 platform of, 308; 1980 election and, 390; and Force Act, 473n126
Dorr, Thomas, 442n23
Douglas, William O., 261, 264, 356, 393, 394
Drake, Charles, 204, 275n, 467n63, 470n105
Dred Scott decision, 170, 275, 297, 299, 329, 375, 376
Due Process Clause, 9, 163, 174, 275, 329, 338, 339, 364, 369, 374
Dukakis, Michael, 395
Dunning, William, 118
Economic royalism, Roosevelt’s asssault on, 308–309, 320, 341, 346
Edgerton, Joseph, 451n40
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 393, 396
Election of 1860, 122, 126–127, 132, 274, 284, 294, 472n126
Election of 1862, 132–133, 284, 294
Election of 1864, 123, 132–133, 134, 135, 188, 206, 284, 294; absence of South in, 184
Election of 1866, 21, 163, 168, 179–181, 183, 184, 199, 206, 207, 210, 235, 284; Republican victory in, 185, 186, 267, 294; popular sovereignty in, 187, 236, 267; as triggering election, 188, 193, 194, 197, 207, 294
Election of 1867, 218–219, 230
Election of 1868, as consolidating election, 20, 21, 182, 188, 189, 190, 210, 211, 214, 219, 234–238, 249, 250, 251, 268, 284, 354
Election of 1874, 247, 471n126
Election of 1876, 247–249
Election of 1894, 282
Election of 1900, 248
Election of 1928, 282
Election of 1932, 255, 266, 274, 281–285, 286, 309; as signaling election, 284
Election of 1934, 284, 289, 298, 301, 310, 472n126
Election of 1936, 24, 267, 272, 284, 298, 302, 305, 306, 313, 316, 320, 341, 342, 380; as triggering election, 306–311, 313, 359
Election of 1938, 337, 345, 346, 355, 358–359, 361, 485n64, 486n1; as consolidating election, 359
Election of 1940, 355, 358–359, 361, 372
Election of 1980, 390
Election of 1984, 391
Election of 1986, 391
Election of 1988, 395
Elections: consolidating, 20, 25, 64–65, 211, 234–238, 268; ratifying, 90, 437nn33,34, 438nn35–38; and Constitution, 124; and constitutional amendments, 127, 183, 203, 410; national, and separation of powers, 185; triggering, 186–188, 206, 267, 294, 306–312, 314; signaling, 266, 281–290, 472n126; Presidential, as forum, 389, 410
Elections to state ratifying conventions, 57, 58, 83, 438n34
Electoral calendar: role in constitutional change, 124, 125, 214, 384–385, 386. See also Constitutional calendar
Electoral College, 126, 133, 236, 248, 249, 469n72
Electoral Commission (1876), 247
Emancipation. See Slavery: abolition of
Emancipation Amendment. See Thirteenth Amendment
Emancipation Proclamation: as constitutional signal, 18, 25; and elections of 1864, 123; bandwagon effect of, 131–132, 136; legal problems of, 131–132; as constitutional proposal, 131–135, 136; Congress and, 136; and amnesty oath, 139, 155; as war measure, 451n43
Equal opportunity, 309, 310, 396
Equal protection, 9, 163, 164, 174, 267, 275, 276, 277, 329, 369. See also Fourteenth Amendment
Equal Rights Amendment, 413, 414
Erie Railroad v. Tompkins, 370, 372
Exclusion, politics of: of Founders, 88–89, 106–107, 173, 174, 176, 182, 183, 184, 191, 194, 200, 204, 223
Exclusion Crisis, 100–104, 106, 108, 117–118, 166–173, 191, 207, 444n23; and black suffrage, 106, 107; and Article Five, 109, 183; and Fourteenth Amendment, 110–113, 163, 174–176, 246; and Presidential leadership, 177–178
expressio unius, 75–77
Fair Labor Standards Act, 262, 357, 373
Fairman, Charles, 243, 460n10, 466n49
Federal Filled Milk Act, 368
Federalism: status during Reconstruction, 17–18, 22, 181, 187; continuing importance of, 23, 415; and Founding, 50; and New Deal Court, 372. See also Article Five: and Federalism
Federalist Papers, 175–176
Federalists: and Constitution, 9, 11, 33, 34, 35, 36, 52, 61, 64, 66, 89, 120, 237, 434n125; and unconventional appeals to the People, 10–11, 15, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 78, 176, 232, 279, 388; and higher law, 13, 315; and constitutional amendments, 17, 18, 22, 30, 414; and state vs. nation, 20; separation of powers and, 21, 122; relationship to Revolutionary War, 22; legal problems of, 34–39; and state conventions, 36–37, 46, 55–56, 58, 435n12; and ratifying conventions, 82–83, 149; and state legislatures, 160, 201; meaning of term “convention” for, 162; self-image of, 258; and nationalism, 259; and revolutionary reform, 293
Fessenden, William Pitt, 160, 174, 175, 176, 202–203
Field, Stephen, 226, 470n92, 476n23
Fifteenth Amendment, 107
Fifth Amendment, 304, 338, 339
Fisher, Sidney George, 119
Foner, Eric, 118
Force Bill of 1890, 474n126
Formalism: advantages vs. disadvantages of, 28–31, 162, 186, 343–344, 416–417; Johnsonian, 188–189; formal rejection of, 261–266; revolt against, 347. See also Article Five; Hyperformalism
Founding: revolutionary character of, 9, 10–11, 38; moral basis of, 32, 33; illegality of, 49–53, 56, 58, 60, 64, 237, 429n57; extended process of, 67; unconventional statecraft of, 69, 72, 131, 135; popular sovereignty and, 87, 88, 388; politics of exclusion in, 88–89; failures of, 88–91; legal relationship to Reconstruction, 99, 100, 121; as response to civil war, 161; as precedent for New Deal, 279, 379
Founding Fathers, 9, 32–33, 153, 287, 387
Founding Federalists: and constitutional revision, 11, 13, 15, 16, 86, 184–185, 383; exclusion of women and blacks, 13; unconventional activities of, 39, 72; and Article Five, 75, 161
Fourteenth Amendment: due process clause of, 9, 276, 338, 339; and equal potection, 9, 10, 16, 18, 21, 22, 99, 101, 211, 219, 222, 228, 255, 266, 276; and elections of 1868, 20, 21, 188, 236, 250; and national citizenship, 23, 182, 198, 199, 204, 205; Reconstruction Congress and, 25, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 125, 162, 163, 173, 177, 178–183, 189, 192, 202, 207, 208, 212, 225, 232, 264; Southern veto of, 25, 190, 192, 193, 195, 197, 207, 209, 246, 250, 264, 388, 460n8; blacks and, 88, 107, 117, 164; legal questions about, 102–103, 248; proposal of, 103, 107, 109, 110, 111, 272, 275, 276, 277; saving the, 106–109; ratification of, 110–113, 115, 117, 154, 176–177, 178, 186, 187, 189, 190, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202, 204, 209, 210, 214, 229, 231, 234, 242, 273, 280, 446n41; as revolutionary reform, 121, 159; debates over, 160–161, 165, 190, 245–246; drafting of, 168; unconventional defense of, 174, 245; and election of 1866, 178–183, 184, 188, 235; textualist account of, 183–185; Radical view of, 193, 198; and political victory, 206; popular mandate for, 236; and Supreme Court, 241, 264, 489n38; consolidation into higher law, 244, 245, 249; election of 1868 and, 251; constitutional foundation of, 280; Reconstruction Congress and, 354, 444n23; Reconstruction Republicans and, 375–376; after 1877, 473n126. See also Johnson, Andrew: and Fourteenth Amendment; Reconstruction Acts
Frankfurter, Felix, 27, 261, 264, 355–356, 393, 394, 486n3, 490n59; and Coleman case, 475n7
Franklin, Benjamin, 377
Frazier-Lemke Act, 303–304
Freedmen’s Bureau Bill, 170–171, 173, 272
Freedom, 33, 91, 309, 310, 338, 339; differing conceptions of, 401
Freedom, economic: New Deal understanding of, 256–257, 283, 287, 302, 370; and Supreme Court, 257, 364–365, 369; and Hoover, 281–282, 303; and private property, 303–304, 305, 310, 338, 339, 369
Freedom of contract, 26, 257, 303, 305, 310, 338, 339, 364, 369, 400. See also Lochner v. New York
Freedom of religion, 91, 338, 339
Freedom of the press, 339
Free markets. See Laissez-faire
French Revolution, vs. American Revolution, 383
Friedman–Harry Marks Clothing Co., NLRB v., 363
Gallup Poll, 324–325, 333, 488n34
Garfield, James, 473n126, 476n24
Garner, John Nance, 271–272
Gely, Rafael, 342
Georgia v. Stanton, 212, 463n7
Gerry, Elbridge, 47, 52, 53, 72, 74, 429n57
Ginsburg, Ruth, 397
Glorious Revolution, 33, 81, 83, 162, 319, 388
Gold Clause Cases, 294
Golove, David, 407n
Government, activist national: and Great Depression, 7–8; New Deal compared with Reconstruction, 23–26; Supreme Court and, 25, 26, 262, 263, 268, 305, 335, 343, 349, 358; and New Deal Constitution, 257, 260, 492n16; mobilization of People behind, 267, 359, 377, 380; electoral mandates for, 269, 274, 281, 282, 284, 309–310; Roosevelt and, 297–298, 317, 353, 358; resistance of Old Court to, 302–303, 389, 390. See also New Deal Revolution
Government, limited, 257, 284, 288, 292, 303, 310, 312, 338; and Supreme Court, 261, 263, 269; and Democratic Party, 282
Governments, state, 25, 138, 145–146, 153, 158, 209, 213; reestablishment of civil, 174, 175, 177, 212, 219, 220, 231, 234, 244, 264; and use of Army, 247, 248
Grant, Ulysses S.: election to Presidency, 20, 133, 214, 215, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 227, 236, 237–238, 249, 251, 273, 354; similarities to Washington, 238; and consolidation, 239, 241, 244; and Supreme Court, 242, 243, 352; and Ku Klux Klan, 247; and Fourteenth Amendment, 250; court-packing by, 268, 273, 288
Great Compromise, 51
Great Depression, and constitutional change, 7–8, 88, 270, 273, 280, 294, 354, 380, 400, 402, 407
Guaranty Clause. See Article Four
habeas corpus,195, 241–242, 243
Hamilton, Alexander: and Philadelphia Convention, 35, 43, 44, 46, 50, 52, 53, 430nn59,63, 431n78; role in ratification, 63, 137, 430n59
Hammer v. Dagenhart, 257, 261, 262, 263, 269, 374, 376, 377
Hancock, John, 60
Hancock, Winfield S., 218–219
Harding, Warren, 281
Harlan, John Marshall, 396
Hart, H. L. A., 92
Hayes, Rutherford B., 247, 248, 249, 251, 472n126
Henry, Patrick, 13, 60, 61, 434n125
Herrick, Anson, 134
Higginson, Stephen, 47
Hill, Anita, 396
Historians, 118–119
Hoar, George, 474n126
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 292, 371, 372, 374
Hoover, Herbert, 281–282, 286, 292, 309, 325; on New Deal, 306; Supreme Court nominations of, 353
Hopkins, Harry, 355n
House of Representatives: and Founding, 65; and constitutional change, 71, 133, 134, 135, 151; exclusionary policies and, 107, 178; and Reconstruction, 151, 152, 174, 182, 195, 197, 202, 222, 234; elections to, 178–183, 184, 247, 286, 289, 390; and impeachment, 219; debates on New Deal legislation, 287; Democratic control of, 472n126
Howard, Jacob, 467n63
Hughes, Charles Evans: and Coleman case, 261, 266; and Article Five, 263, 265; on Fourteenth Amendment, 264, 274, 279, 290, 291, 292, 353, 489n38; and NIRA, 294, 295; and Schechter Case, 297, 298, 363; and Adkins case, 305; on expansion of Supreme Court, 330, 484n47; and New Deal Revolution, 342, 355n, 360, 367–368; and Supreme Court switch, 343, 351, 486n81; retirement of, 357, 358; and National Labor Relations Act, 362, 363; on Lochner case, 364; and Parrish case, 364–365, 366
Hyman, Harold, 133
Hyperformalism, 91, 101, 312–316
Hypertextualism, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 342–344; and Reconstruction, 99, 102, 103, 110, 113, 114, 115, 190; and Article Five, 115, 117, 131, 260, 261, 277, 315
Ickes, Harold, 322–323
Impeachment, 25, 230; articles of, 179; threats of, 209, 211, 268; rules to govern, 467n63. See also Johnson, Andrew: impeachment of
Institutional resistance, theory of, 29
Interstate commerce, 286, 479n65
Interstate Commerce Act, 286
Is NAFTA Constitutional? (Ackerman and Golove), 407n, 491n5
Izard, Ralph, 65
Jackson, Andrew, 84, 126, 270, 352
Jackson, Robert, 329, 330, 333, 347, 355n, 358, 393, 400, 401, 402
Jacksonian Revolution, 84
Jameson, John, 80
Jay, John, 48
Jefferson, Thomas, 69, 126, 282, 285, 287, 289, 292, 352
Johnson, Andrew, 13, 100, 255, 271, 272; and Fourteenth Amendment, 18, 19, 20, 22, 123, 163, 166, 173, 174, 176, 177–178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188, 190, 193, 194, 199, 205, 207, 217; struggle with Congress, 18–19, 24, 102, 106, 109, 113–114, 153, 160, 163, 169, 173, 179, 180, 188, 203, 207, 221, 234, 268, 275, 385; impeachment of, 19, 20, 24, 179, 209, 211, 215, 218, 219, 222–223, 224, 227–230, 354, 465n36, 466n45, 467n62; switch in time, 20, 24, 188, 189, 228, 229, 235–236; emancipation of slaves and, 25; and Supreme Court, 114, 222, 273, 275; Thirteenth Amendment and, 123, 138, 140, 141–150, 152, 156, 158, 159, 161, 188–189, 206, 388–389, 447n52; use of presidential power, 124; Lincoln’s assassination and, 138, 216, 276; and North Carolina Proclamation, 138, 140, 158; Annual Message to Congress, 151, 225n; vetoes of, 163, 170–173, 202, 214, 224, 225, 226–227, 231, 232, 272, 464nn9,18; role in Reconstruction, 164–165, 166, 228, 447n54; stubbornness of, 172; and Congressional elections, 178, 180; National Union Convention and, 180, 191; “swing around the circle” of, 180, 182; and national elections, 206, 210, 465n31; as commander-in-chief, 208, 217, 221, 222, 227, 228; and Southern governments, 208, 209; view of Republican Congress, 208; and Reconstruction Acts, 212, 213, 217, 464n18; purge of Army command, 214–217, 219, 220, 227; proclamation of amnesty, 217; on 1867 elections, 218; legalism of, 219, 220, 222, 224; and Military Division of the Atlantic, 222; appointments of, 239; conservative vision of Constitution, 267
Johnson, Lyndon, 276
Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 107, 170, 174, 176, 195, 231
Jones, Willie, 64
Jones & Laughlin, NLRB v., 362–363, 488n34
Judicial appointments, transformative: of Roosevelt, 26, 27, 261, 272, 314, 331, 351–354, 358, 359, 361, 368, 373, 404, 405, 490n45; as tool for constitutional change, 26, 27, 273, 381, 393, 405, 407, 408, 409, 412, 418, 492n10; of Reagan, 26–27, 398, 402; of Lincoln, 274, 275; and Presidential elections, 393–394, 397
Judicial opinions, transformative: of New Deal, 26, 27, 269–270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 335, 346, 359–377, 391, 406, 415, 416–417
Justices, Supreme Court, 25–26, 79, 225–226, 239–240, 244, 245, 246; Reagan-Bush, 27, 398–399, 400, 406; and New Deal, 259, 261, 262, 263, 272, 281, 295, 296, 299, 304–306, 314, 317–318, 330, 348, 362; and constitutional amendments, 327, 328, 340, 353, 406, 413, 417, 418; nomination of, 335, 336; and Article Five, 345; and 1938 campaign, 346; and defense of Constitution, 367; modern, 375, 392–393, 401, 403; as distinguished professionals, 392; as constitutional visionaries, 393, 395, 399, 404, 406, 407. See also Supreme Court
Kansas, 218, 262, 264, 265, 266
Kennedy, Anthony, 395, 398, 399
Kennedy, John F., 276
King, Rufus, 45, 46, 47, 52, 427n23, 428n46
La Follette, Phil, 325
La Follette, Robert, 323
Laissez-faire, 11, 24, 27, 377; and New Deal, 256, 257, 261, 280, 302, 303, 304, 305, 312, 316, 370, 375, 380, 400, 418; and Democratic Party, 282; death of, 401–402, 489n38
Landon, Alf, 306–308, 310–311, 313, 324, 402, 481n85
Lawmaking, higher, 3–31, 90–91; and Founding, 4–6, 33, 48, 52, 120, 121, 237; transformative periods of, 7–8, 13, 26–27, 136, 207–252, 259, 272, 273, 276, 390, 396, 397; the professional narrative, 7–15, 119; unconventional adaptation in, 9, 22–23, 42, 69, 82, 84–85, 93, 120, 148, 150, 159, 163, 187, 191, 237, 264–278, 280, 311, 350, 383, 384, 472n126; unconventional actions in, 14–15, 39, 84, 87, 152, 157–159, 205, 293, 295, 314, 328, 382, 383, 384, 417; beyond Article Five, 15–17, 70, 72, 79, 382, 415; during Reconstruction, 17–23, 106, 163, 165, 180, 199, 204, 207; from Reconstruction to New Deal, 23–26; from Roosevelt to Reagan, 26–28; beyond formalism, 28–31, 415; legal focus in, 69–85, 406, 412; and Congress, 73, 74, 109, 163, 340, 412, 449n22; problematic aspects of, 93, 468n63, 492n22; by normal institutions, 127–129; transformations in, 136, 259; and publication of laws, 154; and Presidency, 159, 172, 314, 412; participation of South in, 183–184; citizenship and, 187–188; unconventional threats in, 209, 210, 238, 268, 359; precedents in, 232, 265, 270, 319; in New Deal, 263, 285, 308, 328; of Reagan-Bush era, 398–399; institutional weight in, 405, 406, 412; popular responsiveness in, 405–406, 409, 412; problem-solving capacity in, 406, 412; nationalism and, 407–408. See also Article Five; Separation of powers; Supreme Court
Lawyers, 7, 8, 16, 30; discussion of Constitution, 9, 10, 377, 378; discussion of Reconstruction, 21–22, 99, 116, 246–247, 276; and revision of Constitution, 28, 70, 72; study of constitutional practice, 85; and analysis of illegality, 93, 94; property vs. constitutional, 94; and hypertextualism, 115, 117, 131, 260, 316, 392; and presidential appointments, 215–216; and Fourteenth Amendment, 232; and role of We the People, 252, 419; New Deal and, 256, 257, 259, 270, 368; opposition to NIRA, 293; and Supreme Court opinions, 373; and making of Constitution, 377; and constitutional solutions, 416, 419, 420
Lee, Richard Henry, 36, 46, 54, 55, 449n22
Lee, Robert E., 100
Legal posivitism, and rules of recognition, 92
Legal pragmatism, 347–348, 486n3
Legal Tender Acts, 239, 243, 244, 250, 270
Legislatures, state: vs. state conventions, 35, 71, 80, 83, 85–86, 89, 142, 143, 148, 207, 300, 341–342, 426n16; and ratification, 71, 73, 80, 82, 85–86, 87, 103, 111, 112, 140, 145, 148, 149, 150–151, 154, 177, 178, 186, 204, 208, 264, 388, 491n1; and Constitutional Convention, 89, 94, 284; during Reconstruction, 100–101, 103, 108, 110, 111, 141, 142, 198, 201, 230, 233; Federalists and, 201; and 1867 elections, 218; elections to, 341. See also Conventions, state
Lenin, Vladimir, 12
Leuchtenburg, William, 301, 319, 335, 336, 478n38
Liberty. See Freedom
Lincoln, Abraham: Emancipation Proclamation of, 18, 25, 123, 131–132, 133, 134, 136; assassination of, 24, 100, 114, 122, 137–138, 149, 169, 216, 265, 267, 271, 274, 276, 277, 282; election of, 123, 126–127, 128, 133, 266, 274, 284, 472n126; Thirteenth Amendment and, 123, 134, 136, 137, 144, 147–148, 149, 153, 161, 178, 184, 388–389; nomination for Presidency, 125–126; inauguration of, 127, 129, 478n38; and higher lawmaking, 130, 158, 159, 279–280, 376; leadership of, 133, 274; and Congress, 134, 184, 267, 274, 275, 285, 287; appointments to Supreme Court, 208, 274, 275, 352, 463n2; and Southern governments, 208, 449nn27,28; Cabinet appointments of, 215, 216; and Constitution, 313; and Corwin Amendment, 448n17; and freed slaves, 450n33
Lippman, Walter, 301–302
Lochner v. New York, 280, 364, 365, 374, 375, 377; repudiation of, 26, 27, 257, 269, 392, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402
Lochnerianism, 269, 304, 339, 342, 349, 364, 365, 366, 370–371, 372, 373, 375, 376
Louisiana Bill, 461n31
Louisiana Purchase, 287
Louisville Bank v. Radford, 303, 304, 305
Luther v. Borden, 443n23
Maclay, William, 65
Madison, James, 5, 10, 160, 232, 279, 319; electoral mandates and, 12, 89; and higher lawmaking, 33, 73, 74, 75, 260, 280, 328; and the Founding, 38, 40, 41, 46, 50, 52, 54, 55, 59, 63, 66, 129; and James Monroe, 42; and James Wilson, 78; and Bill of Rights, 79; on Guaranty Clause, 105, 108; and Philadelphia Convention, 175, 176, 377, 428nn35,38, 429n49, 430nn63,65, 431nn82,83
Mandates: electoral, 12, 83, 89, 126, 267, 269, 280, 281, 284, 290, 309–311, 313, 314, 315, 320, 325–326, 328, 340, 341, 346, 348, 354, 386, 388, 398, 408, 411; role in constitutional change, 12, 67–68, 70, 83, 89, 90, 124–125, 126, 133, 189, 206, 303; Presidential, 24, 126, 128, 129, 133, 157, 267, 296, 298, 325–326, 405; and Convention/Congress, 189–201, 210, 225, 267; Congressional, 331. See also Popular sovereignty
Marshall, John, 259, 260, 279, 315
Marx, Karl, 347
Maryland, 41, 43, 49, 51–52, 53, 60, 61
Massachusetts: role in ratifying Constitution, 35–36, 37, 47, 52, 58, 59–60; state constitution of, 45, 82; civil rights in, 156; at National Union Convention, 180. See also Shays’ Rebellion
Maximum hours laws, 26, 363, 364. See also Lochner v. New York
Mayflower Farms Inc. v. Ten Eyck, 489n38
McCardle, Ex parte, 223–227, 238, 241, 242, 243, 294, 354, 415, 466n50
McCardle, William, 223, 466n49
McClellan, George, 133
McConnell, Michael, 471n126
McDonald, Forrest, 60
McFeely, William, 136–137
McHenry, James, 51
McKinley, William, 276
McPherson, Edward, 166–167, 169n
McReynolds, James Clark, 261, 262, 263, 318, 352, 363, 486n2, 489n45; retirement of, 357, 358, 373
Meade, George, 222
Mencken, H. L., 313
Mercer, John Francis, 53
Miller, Samuel, 245–246
Minimum wage laws, 305, 312, 338, 363, 365–366, 373, 378, 379, 400
Mississippi, 141–144, 147, 148, 229, 230, 242, 244
Missouri Compromise, 378
Moley, Raymond, 325
Monroe, James, 42
Morris, Gouverneur, 51, 74, 429n57
Mount Vernon Conference, 41–42, 49
Murphy, Frank, 355–356
Nasby, Petroleum V., 181n
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): Supreme Court and, 271, 286–287, 288, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 303; Roosevelt and, 290, 302, 385, 479n51; Congress and, 296, 302, 380; and business elite, 310; corporatism of, 312, 380
Nationalism: of Democrats, 13–14; of Federalists, 13–14, 49, 50, 238, 240, 259; of Reconstruction Republicans, 13–14, 21, 150, 198, 238, 240–241; and Civil War, 144, 407; and New Deal, 279, 298; and civil rights, 407n; and Constitution, 407n, 413, 415
National Labor Relations Act (NLRA): Supreme Court and, 262, 271, 334, 346, 350, 351, 357, 361, 362, 368, 378, 391; Roosevelt and, 480n6, 488n34
National Union Convention, 179–180, 182, 191, 458nn45,46
Native Americans: political exclusion of, 88
Nebbia v. New York, 364, 480n79, 489n38
New Deal Democrats: and activist national government, 7, 10, 23, 256, 284; and constituent authority, 11, 15, 296; and higher law, 13, 26; inclusion of blacks and workers, 14; and separation of powers, 25; and constitutional change, 29–30, 66, 67, 88, 90, 91, 259, 265, 284, 380; compared with Reconstruction Republicans, 267, 268, 272, 284–285, 286, 294; 1934 victory of, 289; mandate of, 340. See also Democratic Party
New Deal Revolution: relation to Reagan Revolution, 8; and Old Court, 9, 256, 280–281, 290, 291, 301, 312–316, 318, 347, 350, 351, 360, 379, 380, 381, 404, 405; professional discussions of, 9, 10; constitutional foundations of, 10, 34; as act of constituent authority, 11; and presidential leadership, 18, 25; separation of powers and, 23–25; and institutional impasse, 24; Supreme Court and, 24, 25, 212, 256, 290, 310, 347; similarity to Federalist period, 69; exclusionary politics during, 88; debates during, 90; and Reconstruction period, 211, 265, 274–278, 325, 354, 383; switch in time in, 212; constitutional struggles of, 255; correction of market failure in, 256; repudiation of gold standard, 256, 288, 294; three areas of activist concern in, 256; historical precedents for, 259, 265, 280, 319; legitimacy of, 260; First Hundred Days of, 266, 283, 301, 312, 391; Second Hundred Days of, 267, 271, 301, 302, 310; relationship to Founding, 268–271; break with Article Five, 269, 271, 346–347, 350; use of amendment analogues in, 270, 271–274; as precedent, 278, 389; two cycles of, 280; announcement of, 283; and Black Monday, 303; pragmatism of, 347; in 1930s, 358; opposition to, 385; liberalism of, 390
New Hampshire, 36, 37, 57, 58, 62, 82
New Jersey, 136, 147, 230, 233
New Jersey Plan, 49–50, 430n59
New State Ice Company v. Leibmann, 305
New York: role in ratifying Constitution, 34, 35, 36, 53, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64; and Congress, 40, 49; and Annapolis Convention, 46
NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel, 362, 363
North Carolina, 34, 40, 58, 64, 147, 149, 150, 237, 432n96
North Carolina Proclamation, 138, 140, 158
Nye, Gerald, 325
O’Connor, Sandra Day, 394, 396, 398, 399
Old Court: and New Deal, 9, 26, 27, 259, 261, 280–281, 290, 291, 292, 303, 312–316, 318, 321, 338, 346, 347, 350, 351, 360, 362, 379, 380, 381, 404; and Constitution, 338; and laissezfaire, 401–402
O’Mahoney, Joseph, 340
168 Days, The (Alsop and Catledge), 334
Ord, Edward, 219
Oregon, 230
Original Meanings (Rakove), 435n12
Panic of 1873, 247
Panic of 1893, 282
Paper money, 61, 239–240, 241, 244, 288
Parker, John, 353
Parliament, British, 81, 82, 119, 388, 437n26
Peckham, Rufus, 365
Pennsylvania, 37, 38, 55–56, 58, 61, 78
People, the: definition of, 187; political elites and, 187–188. See also Popular sovereignty
Perry, Benjamin, 144–145, 146, 147
Philadelphia Convention. See Constitutional Convention
Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 27, 399, 400, 401, 402, 408
Plessy v. Ferguson, 399
Political parties: role in constitutional transformation, 126, 161, 284–285
Politics, 6; constitutional, 6, 166; normal, 6, 247–251, 472n126, 474n126
Pope, John, 219
Popular sovereignty: breadth of popular support, 5, 400; unconventional forms of, 10, 116, 119, 207; appeals to, 13, 50–51, 75, 201, 206, 272, 279, 387, 410; and Continental Congress, 36; faith in, 37, 323, 389, 413; in American history, 70, 80, 91, 311, 379; in practice, 79, 384; and Constitution, 84, 94, 200; and the Founding, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 279; and constitutional change, 124, 157–158, 176, 279, 289, 307, 309–311, 321, 344, 409, 414; and Reconstruction, 157, 162, 169, 204, 250; and Convention/Congress, 168, 169, 188; election of 1866 and, 187, 236; New Deal and, 259, 280, 307, 377; theory of, and Article Five, 491n1. See also Article Five
Popular Sovereignty Initiative, proposal of, 414–417, 420
Positivism, humanistic, 92
Pragmatism, legal, 347–348
Precedent, role of: in Founding, 81–82, 388; as source of law, 232, 278, 403, 404, 405, 407, 408, 415, 420; in New Deal, 259, 265, 278, 279, 280, 325; and common law, 270; in Reagan administration, 277, 419–420; Roosevelt and, 319, 321–322; in defense of courtpacking, 329; and American people, 376, 389; in Supreme Court decisions, 399. See also stare decisis
Presidency: and constitutional amendments, 18, 26, 132, 133, 135, 138, 192, 266, 410, 411, 413; during Reconstruction, 24, 157, 173, 196, 201, 215, 230; transformations of, 24, 27; plebiscitarian, 126, 127, 135, 136, 381, 388, 403; and signaling function, 126–130; Founding vision of, 127; and proposal function, 130–136; and Article Five, 135, 266; pardoning power of, 140, 152, 153; conservative, 157–159, 164–165, 271; vanguardism in, 159; and Congress, 177–178, 184, 188, 192, 212, 230, 267, 272, 285, 288, 289, 301, 407; and Supreme Court, 249, 331, 404, 405; constitutional functions of, 258; Democrats’ control of, 274; and revolutionary movements, 278, 280; Reagan-Bush, 400, 402, 403; and referenda, 410, 411–412; power of, 443n23. See also Popular Sovereignty Initiative
Presidential leadership: during Andrew Johnson administration, 18, 25, 123–159, 166, 178, 188; during Roosevelt administration, 18, 26, 27, 265, 271, 274, 277, 286, 291, 296, 300, 314, 317–320, 331, 352, 389; and Constitution, 30–31, 408, 412, 420; during Lincoln administration, 123–138, 265, 274; and Thirteenth Amendment, 266; and court-packing, 273; and vice-presidential exception, 276, 277; rise of, 279–281, 287; opposition to, 285; during Reagan administration, 391, 398; modern practice of, 405; and reform, 415. See also Judicial appointments, transformative
Progressive Party, 283, 323, 410
Prohibition, repeal of, 282, 300, 341–342
Public Utility Holding Company Act, 302
Pure Food and Drug Act, 286
Rakove, Jack, 435n12
Randall, James, 117–118, 119, 447n51, 459n57
Randolph, Edmund, 50, 60, 62, 63–64
Rawls, John, 411
Raymond, Henry, 180, 191–192, 458n44, 460n14
Reagan, Ronald: Presidency of, 8, 26, 256, 258, 277, 390, 402, 403, 419–420; and transformative judicial appointments, 27, 255, 394, 395; and New Deal precedents, 277, 389; and Article Five, 390; compared with Roosevelt, 390; and Congress, 390–391; and budget deficits, 391; Supreme Court appointments of, 392, 394; and Roe v. Wade, 398, 402
Reagan Revolution, 391, 394, 397, 403, 419, 420, 492n10
Reconstruction, 7, 8, 10, 11, 25, 34, 160, 222; professional discussions of, 9, 10, 21–22; Article Five and, 16, 17, 91, 99, 100, 111, 115, 270, 273, 348; patterns of, 17–23; presidency during, 24; compared with Federalist period, 69, 122–124, 125, 160, 198–200, 203, 204, 205, 207, 225, 232, 294; exclusionary politics during, 88, 106–107; debates during, 90; legal relationship to Founding, 99, 100, 120; Radicals during, 106, 118, 156, 158, 170, 176, 178, 189, 193, 194, 197, 218, 219, 222, 228, 462n31; military rule during, 110, 111, 112, 195; Constitution and, 117, 387; history of, 118–119; racism during, 163, 164, 181, 182, 218; conservative vision of, 164–165; Presidential, 164–166; struggle against, 212, 385; consolidating, 241–247, 249; end of, 248; compared with New Deal, 274–278, 354, 379; and revolution, 383
Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution (Foner), 118
Reconstruction Acts, 19, 110, 111, 186–187, 205, 207, 208, 229; First, 190, 197, 199, 200–201, 205, 464n18, 466nn48–50; conservative side of, 200–201; Second, 202, 205, 210, 213, 220, 221, 230; Supreme Court and, 209, 273, 294; constitutionality of, 209–210, 225n; and Andrew Johnson, 212, 463n5; Stanbery interpretations of, 212–213, 463n8; Third, 213; arrests under, 223, 225; Fourth, 230; unconventional effort to repeal, 234–235; and voting of blacks, 236, 237; and Supreme Court, 242
Reconstruction Congress: and Andrew Johnson, 18–19, 24, 102, 106, 109, 113–114, 153, 160, 163; separation of powers and, 21, 122, 123, 125; and Fourteenth Amendment, 25, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 125, 162, 163; and Dred Scott decision, 329. See also Fourteenth Amendment
Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 281
Reconstruction Republicans, 7, 9, 29; and constituent authority, 11, 15, 116; and higher law, 13; inclusion of blacks and workers, 14, 106; and constitutional amendments, 16, 17, 18, 21; in control of Congress, 20, 104, 114, 123, 202, 234, 238; relationship to Civil War, 22; and Andrew Johnson, 24; separation of powers and, 25, 122, 123, 125; and constitutional change, 29–30, 66, 67, 88, 90, 91, 100, 269, 280, 328; and revolutionary reform, 100; compared with Federalists, 234, 269; self-image of, 258; and Article Five, 264, 269; compared with New Deal Democrats, 266–268, 272, 284–285; and Fourteenth Amendment, 375, 388
Reed, Stanley, 261, 353, 354, 355, 368, 372, 393, 489n45
Referenda, national, 128, 129, 323, 410–412, 414, 492n22; vs. state conventions, 128–129
Rehnquist, William, 398
Rehnquist Court, 419
Republican Party: and Andrew Johnson, 170, 173, 178–179, 180, 189, 208; during Reconstruction, 178–179, 181, 185, 247; victory in 1864, 274; Progressive wing of, 281, 310; in 1860, 284; in 1934 election, 289; in 1936 election, 311, 320; in 1938 election, 354, 355, 486n1; 1940 convention of, 358; control of Senate, 390, 474n126; and Roe v. Wade, 398; and Rutherford Hayes, 473n126; victory of 1888, 474n126
Republican Revolution of 1994, 277–278
Republicans: popular mandate of, 67, 68, 70, 124–125, 135, 188, 190, 232; in Congress, 127, 132, 133, 135, 358, 444n23; in executive branch, 128, 133, 135; and debates over Fourteenth Amendment, 161, 176, 180, 190, 191; electoral victory of, 185; and Southern governments, 208, 247; and national power, 282
Resolution of 1861, defining war aims, 130, 217
Revolutionary reform, tradition of, 12–14, 19, 67, 95, 268, 286; and Congress, 24, 135, 189, 285, 289; Supreme Court and, 24, 272, 366–367; and Founding process, 32–68, 69–70, 93, 258, 279, 293; and ratification rule, 66; and popular authority, 85, 291; and Reconstruction Republicans, 100, 125, 189, 258; and constitutional amendments, 121, 164; and Presidency, 123, 184; public commitment to, 267; and New Deal, 279, 289, 311; and separation of powers, 385
Rhode Island: role in ratifying Constitution, 34, 35, 37, 40, 53, 59, 61, 64, 65, 123, 149, 150, 237; and Congress, 40, 47–48, 49; Trade Bill, 65
Richberg, Donald, 293
Right-to-life movement, 398
Roberts, Owen: and Coleman case, 261, 265, 290, 291, 292, 342, 343, 351, 360, 488n34, 489n38; and Parrish case, 363–364, 486n81; and economic liberty, 364–365; and New Deal Revolution, 367–368
Robinson, Joseph, 292, 316, 336, 338, 352
Roe v. Wade, 26, 27, 139, 392, 398, 399, 400, 492n10; and public opinion, 402
Roosevelt, Franklin D.: and New Deal, 8, 9, 10, 24, 260, 383; electoral mandates and, 12, 24, 267, 269, 281, 284, 290, 303, 311, 332; and Supreme Court, 25, 26, 285, 290, 306, 307, 308, 310, 334, 345, 355–356, 478n38, 479n65; use of transformative judicial appointments, 26, 27, 255, 261, 271, 272, 277, 300, 314, 331, 351–354, 376; court-packing plan of, 255, 268, 313, 317–318, 322, 323, 324, 326, 327, 330, 331, 332–333, 335–337, 346, 348, 351, 354, 363, 403–404, 417, 485n60, 488n34; election in 1932, 255, 266, 274, 283, 286; appointments to Supreme Court, 261, 290, 291–292, 306, 313, 314, 352–353, 355–356, 394, 490n45; use of Presidency, 265, 272, 274, 388, 389; election in 1936, 267; and New Deal Congresses, 267, 285, 287–288, 301, 302, 317, 323, 331; and activist government, 279, 285; on Schechter case, 296–298, 301–302, 306, 308, 316, 480n67; and constitutional change, 299–300, 317, 319, 418; and NIRA, 301, 385; and Constitution, 307–309, 310, 317; on liberty, 309, 310; and judicial reorganization, 314, 320; use of English precedents, 319, 321; and Burton Wheeler, 320–321, 322, 323–324, 327, 338, 340, 341, 349, 350; on constitutional amendments, 326–328, 341, 417; objection to Article Five, 328; third term of, 357, 358, 361, 373, 402; Constitution Day speech, 377–382, 403; and Article Five, 388; compared with Reagan, 390. See also Government, activist national; Presidential leadership
Royal Charter of 1663, 442n23
Rutledge, Wiley, 358
Saulsbury, Willard, 157
Scalia, Antonin, 27, 392, 394, 397, 398, 399, 401, 419, 492n10
Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States: Supreme Court opinion on, 295, 300, 303, 305, 313; Roosevelt and, 296–298, 301–302, 306, 308, 316, 362, 363, 374n, 480n67
Schoonmaker, Cornelius, 58
Secession: of southern states, 7, 22, 100, 129, 130, 138, 144, 151, 175; threats of, 34, 35, 61, 65; and First Congress, 64; and Reconstruction, 114, 115, 151
Securities Acts, 302
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 288, 303, 356
Senate: and Founding, 65; and constitutional change, 71, 133, 151; and Reconstruction, 150, 151, 152, 174, 203, 204, 214, 215, 216, 217, 221, 235; override of Presidential veto, 172–173, 225, 232; and Fourteenth Amendment, 197; and impeachment, 223, 224–225, 227, 228, 467n63; and 1874 elections, 247; 1932 election and, 286; 1934 election and, 289; hearings of, 326, 328–333, 406; and Supreme Court appointments, 352, 353, 394, 395, 397, 405; 1938 election and, 355; 1940 election and, 358; 1980 election and, 390; Republican majority in, 391, 472n126
Separation of powers: role in constitutional change, 21, 24, 25, 31, 122, 123, 125, 184, 190, 209, 280, 327, 342–343, 379, 385–386; during New Deal, 23, 327, 333; during Reconstruction, 173, 200, 209, 234; and national elections, 185, 200, 385
Seward, William: proclamation on Thirteenth Amendment, 18, 101–102, 103, 105, 109, 113, 124, 146, 148n, 153–155, 156, 157, 169n, 264, 440n4, 446n43; proclamation on Fourteenth Amendment, 112, 113, 114, 127, 136, 169, 211, 233, 249, 250, 251, 264; and ratification of Thirteenth Amendment, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 156, 194; and Fourteenth Amendment, 177, 235, 237, 265
Seymour, Horatio, 236, 249, 251
Shamir, Ronen, 293
Sharkey, William, 141, 142, 143
Shays’ Rebellion, 38, 44–46, 47, 428n45, 429nn49,52
Shellabarger, Samuel, 456n14
Sherman, John, 156, 197, 200–201, 462n31
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 133, 222
Sickles, Daniel, 217
Slaughterhouse cases: and Reconstruction amendments, 211, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249; as consolidating event, 250–251, 252, 268, 270, 273, 375
Slavery, 7, 13, 266, 450nn29–33, 474n126; abolition of, 9, 11, 100, 102, 105, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 152, 157, 159, 162, 163, 181, 194, 267, 274, 375, 450nn29–33; debate over, 18; and political exclusion, 88, 106–107; and Guaranty Clause, 105; compromises with, 122, 127–128, 130, 132, 184, 378; Constitution and, 184, 378; 1860 election and, 284; Corwin Amendment and, 448n17. See also Thirteenth Amendment
Smilie, John, 78
Social Security, 256, 307, 368, 403
Social Security Act, and Supreme Court, 262, 271, 302, 334, 346, 350, 351, 357, 361, 368, 480n67
South Carolina: and Annapolis Convention, 42; role in ratification of Constitution, 60, 65, 148; ratification of Thirteenth Amendment, 144–150, 155; at National Union Convention, 180; constitution of, 228
Spiller, Pablo, 342
Stalin, Joseph, 317
Stanbery, Henry, 212–213, 239, 463n8
Stanton, Edwin M., 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 227; and Congress, 464n20
State conventions, 36–38
States’ rights, 282, 299, 352, 369, 372. See also Federalism
Statute of 1818, 154
Stephens, Alexander H., 165
Stevens, Thaddeus: and Guaranty Clause, 106; on status of South, 113, 114, 155; and Andrew Johnson, 149, 160, 166, 167–168, 255, 441n16; as radical, 170, 219, 385; stubborness of, 172; view of Fourteenth Amendment, 193–194, 197, 460n20; military bill of, 195, 198, 461nn23,28,31, 462n31; opposition to, 446n41; John Bingham and, 460n22, 461n23
Stone, Harlan, 261, 292, 343, 358, 360, 368, 369, 374; and Adkins case, 305; and Carolene case, 489n45
Story, Joseph, 370
Strong, William, 239, 240, 241, 243
Struggle for Judicial Supremacy, The (Jackson), 347
Sumner, Charles: and black suffrage, 106, 107, 440n13; and women’s suffrage, 106, 110, 113, 114, 158, 160, 170, 172, 229, 441n15; Dec. 4 resolution of, 150, 153, 155, 156; and Thaddeus Stevens, 446n41; and impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 468n63
Super-majority requirements: for Supreme Court nominations, 407, 409, 412, 417–418; for constitutional amendments, 410; and Supreme Court decisions, 482n26
Supreme Court: during New Deal, 9, 24–25, 256, 257, 259, 267, 268, 269, 272, 285, 290, 301, 310, 311, 314, 343, 347, 370–371, 372, 385, 402, 404; modern, 16, 140, 403; decisions of, 17, 114, 136, 244, 245, 288, 408; and Reconstruction Republicans, 20, 208–209, 222, 229, 238, 239, 242, 243, 249, 268, 294; and Andrew Johnson, 24, 216, 222, 223–224, 227; packing of, 24, 25–26, 211, 248; Roosevelt and, 25, 26, 285, 290, 306, 307, 308, 310, 478n38, 479n65; unanimous decisions of, 25, 268, 295, 304, 305, 373, 381; appointments to, 26, 261, 275, 292, 352, 485n64; Article Five and, 117, 260–261, 262–264; and 1860 election, 127; Fourteenth Amendment and, 196, 244, 275; and Reconstruction Acts, 210; consolidating opinions by, 211, 408; institutional independence of, 226; and consolidation, 238–247, 251; expansion of, 239, 275, 308, 318, 325, 334, 470n91; shrinking of, 239, 250, 273, 275, 325, 470n91; and nationalism, 240–241; and judicial review, 241; jurisdiction of, 241–244, 294, 354; and Congress, 242, 257, 261, 274, 322, 349; and popular sovereignty, 245, 300, 312–313; and common law, 246; and Presidency, 249, 331, 405; and welfare state, 262; of Lochner era, 280; switch in time of, 290–291, 298, 314–315, 333–334, 335, 345–351, 361, 381, 399, 400, 404, 485n64, 489n38; Four Horsemen of, 292, 357; during Civil War, 318; during Reconstruction, 318; suspensive veto of, 321, 322; impact of dissenters on, 373, 374; conservatism of, 392; nominations to, 404–405, 407, 415, 417–418. See also Justices, Supreme Court
Sutherland, George, 304, 305, 363, 368, 486n2
Swift v. Tyson, 370
Switches in time: during Reconstruction, 20, 24, 125, 147, 188, 189, 211, 226, 233, 235–236, 268; during Civil War, 133–135; during New Deal Revolution, 212, 262, 263, 268, 273, 290, 298, 324, 333–342, 343, 345–350, 354, 355, 359, 404; of Supreme Court, 290–291, 298, 314, 332, 333–334, 335, 345–351, 381, 399, 400
Taft, William Howard, 292, 465n25
Taney, Roger, 270, 274, 443n23
Tennessee, 101, 110, 166, 170, 189
Tennessee Valley Authority, 288
Tenth Amendment, 295, 329, 374
Tenure of Offices Act, 215, 220, 221, 223, 224, 227, 467n62
Texas v. White, 114
Thirteenth Amendment, 9, 18, 19, 22, 99; legal questions about, 101–102; ratification of, 103, 104, 109, 113, 115, 124, 125, 137, 138, 140, 146, 152–153, 159, 188, 205, 206, 210, 280, 439n2, 440n4, 447n51; saving the, 105–106; as revolutionary reform, 121; and presidential leadership, 122, 134, 136, 149, 166, 184, 188–189, 266, 388–389; proposal of, 124, 131, 134, 135, 178, 274; and Congress, 136, 143, 147, 149, 150–151, 170, 184, 194; and nationalistic process of ratification, 140–150, 157; rejection of, 141–144; participation of South in, 141–150, 161, 180; and Black Codes, 165; unconventional activities and, 205; and political victory, 206; and need for Fourteenth Amendment, 245–246; constitutional foundation of, 280. See also Seward, William; Slavery: abolition of
Thomas, Lorenzo, 222
Tilden, Samuel J., 247, 248–249, 472n126
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 252
Trial of the Constitution (Fisher), 119
Tribe, Laurence, 446n46
Trumbull, Lyman, 156, 157, 203, 204, 224, 229, 243, 452n59, 470n107
Union, Federal, 130, 138, 185; and Southern states, 142, 159; conservative vision of, 170, 179, 180; loyalty to, 181, 192; preservation of, 218
Unionists: compared with Federalists, 121–122; violence against, 165, 166, 195
United States v. Carolene Products, 368–369, 372, 374, 489n38; rational basis test of, 369
United States v. Darby, 373, 374, 375, 376–377, 392, 408
Vandenberg, Arthur, 332
Van Devanter, Willis, 334, 335, 351, 353, 368, 484n47, 486n2, 491n1
Vice-presidential exception, 276–277, 471n126
Virginia: role in ratifying Constitution, 34, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 78; and Congress, 40, 42; and Mount Vernon Conference, 41, 49; and Washington Peace Convention, 129; during Reconstruction, 229, 242
Voting: for delegates to Continental Congress, 90; of blacks, 106, 110, 164, 170, 194, 197, 210, 213, 218, 236, 247, 455n5, 469n78, 473n126; during Reconstruction, 110, 181, 212, 213, 464n11. See also Blacks: enfranchisement of
Wade, Benjamin, 128, 218, 219, 228
Wagner Act. See National Labor Relations Act
War, role in constitutional change, 115–116
Warren Court, 324, 397, 398, 419
Washington, George, 5, 53, 60, 126, 238, 279–280, 287, 357; at Constitutional Convention, 22, 377; and the Founding, 38, 41; Farewell Address, 80, 81; similarities to Grant, 238
Washington Peace Convention, 129, 449n27
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 398
Welfare state, 7, 375, 400; repudiation of, 8; consolidation of, 255; Federalists as founders of, 259; and Supreme Court, 262; and Congress, 485n67
West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 363–364, 365, 366, 400, 486n81, 488n34
We the People, vol 1: Foundations (Ackerman), 5–6, 399n
We the People: Interpretations (Ackerman), 349, 403
Wheeler, Burton, 13, 325, 342, 482nn19,27; and Roosevelt, 320–321, 322, 323–324, 327, 338, 340, 341, 349, 350; testimony at Senate hearings, 329–331, 333; and Supreme Court, 334, 335, 337; Article Five and, 342, 345, 348–349
Wheeler-Bone amendment, 323, 325, 332
White, Byron, 398
Wickard v. Filburn, 374n
Williams, George, 461n23
Willkie, Wendell, 356–358, 361, 373, 487n20
Wilson, James (Congressman), and impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 465n36, 468n63
Wilson, James (Founder), 50–51, 53, 78, 160, 232, 437n25, 451n43; Law Lectures (1790), 79
Wilson, Woodrow, 230, 282, 283, 290, 318, 352
Women: exclusion by Federalists, 13, 88; role during New Deal, 14; role during Reconstruction, 14, 106; minimum wages for, 305, 363, 379, 400; appointments to Supreme Court, 394
Women’s movement: and constitutional amendments, 139, 413; and Supreme Court appointments, 397
Work Relief Bill, 301
World War II, constitutional implications of, 280, 346, 358, 407n
Yeaman, George, 451n40