1. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1998); Anna Gibbs interview (2012); Whitefeather, “Gaa-danapinaniding,” 16–19; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 185, 289; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 7, 16. The Battle River fight was not the only major military event between the Ojibwe and the Dakota at Red Lake. There were a number of battles at several other river outlets and village sites, especially at the Sandy River outlet, where even today residents regularly find arrowheads and war club stones.
2. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1998); Anna Gibbs interview (2012); Benton-Banai, “Indinawemaaganag”; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 76–94; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78. Eugene Stillday claims that the word Obaashiing is actually a derivation of ombaasin, meaning “updraft,” because of the wind current across the narrows (interview, April 13, 2015). See also Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 185, 289. The oral history of Fannie Johns (September 26, 1909–January 5, 2005) is obtained from Fannie Johns interview with Charles Grolla (April 7, 2004). Her Indian name, Ogimaakwe, is variously translated as Queen, Female Chief, or Boss Lady. She was from the bullhead clan (owaasisii). Johns was raised by her grandmother, Ikwezens (Girl), who lived to be 102 years old and was alive during the time of conflict between the Ojibwe and Dakota at Red Lake.
3. Benton-Banai, “Indinawemaaganag”; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78; Mann, 1491; Josephy, 500 Nations; Leustig, 500 Nations.
4. On emergence of the Ojibwe as a distinct people, see Warren, History of the Ojibway People; Pinker, The Language Instinct; Campbell, American Indian Languages; Copway, Traditional History; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami. Information on the evolution of the Ojibwe language, dialect variance, and its relationship to other Algonquian languages is based on Treuer, Living Our Language; Nichols and Nyholm, Concise Dictionary; Valentine, Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar; Rhodes, Eastern Ojibwa-Chippewa-Ottawa Dictionary; Bloomfield, Eastern Ojibwa.
5. The Leech Lake communities of Inger, Ball Club, Bena, and Squaw Lake (who comprised most of what the U.S. government would call the Winnibigoshish Band) speak northern Ojibwe—no use of the suffix jig in participle formations, no initial vowel change on long aa vowels in participles, and differentiated use of gaa in place-names and conjunct tense markers. The Leech Lake communities of Oak Point, Bear Island, Sugar Point, Onigum, and Boy River (who comprised most of what the U.S. government would call the Pillager and Mississippi bands) have more in common with the dialects of Mille Lacs and St. Croix than they do with the northern communities on the Leech Lake reservation.
When François Dollier de Casson and René de Bréhant de Galinée traveled to Sault Ste. Marie during the winter of 1669–70, they made a telling observation of the skills of Ojibwe fishermen: “The river forms at this place a rapid so teeming with fish, called white fish, or in Algonkin attikamegue, that the Indians could easily catch enough to feed 10,000 men. It is true the fishing is so difficult that only Indians can carry it on. No Frenchman has hitherto been able to succeed in it, nor any other Indian than those of this tribe.” See “The Journey of Dollier and Galinée, 1669–1670,” in Jameson, Early Narratives, 207. Ojibwe fishing skills proved to be exceptional, and necessarily so. Everyone else who tried failed. And when the Ojibwe came to Red Lake, failure at fishing, even in the most dangerous circumstances, meant starvation.
6. The Dakota creation story says that the Dakota were created and placed on the shore of the sacred water. The late Dale Childs from Prairie Island, Minnesota, has shared the Dakota creation story many times, including in a textualized version included in Waziyatawin, What Does Justice Look Like, 18–20. In most versions of that story a specific place is not directly mentioned, although Waziyatawin and many other Dakota people believe the sacred body of water referenced in that story was Bdote, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers near present-day Fort Snelling. Other locations referenced by Dakota people include Mille Lacs Lake or another lake elsewhere in northern Minnesota. Although the physical location of the creation place of the Dakota is a subject of some internal debate in the Dakota tribal community, nobody questions the fact the Dakota were in Minnesota long before the Ojibwe. Archaeological evidence, oral history, and the direct observations of Dakota, Ojibwe, and French occupants and travelers in Minnesota support that conclusion. But the archaeological and oral records also support the conclusion that the Dakota were not the first occupants of Minnesota’s lake country. William Warren reports personally observing the remains of earthen lodges in Mille Lacs County (present-day Kathio State Park) that were customarily built by the A’aninin, or Gros Ventre (Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 161, 178–80). The types of lodges occupied definitely fit the precise description of the lodges A’aninin people lived in throughout the period of early contact between that tribe and the French, British, and Americans. The Dakota did not customarily build the same types of dwellings. These observations suggest that the Dakota may have forced out the A’aninin and occupied the A’aninin lodges at Mille Lacs. Other archaeological findings in Minnesota support these conclusions about the presence of A’aninin people in Minnesota antedating the Dakota settlement of the region. See Juneau, “Indian Education”; Parkman, LaSalle; Ojakangas and Mastch, Minnesota’s Geology; Streiff, “Mille Lacs Kathio”; Lloyd A. Wilford, “Field Diary and Notes,” unpublished manuscript, 1933, Minnesota Historical Society; Wilford, “Prehistoric Indians of Minnesota”; Wilford, “Revised Classification”; Gibbon and Caine, “Middle to Late Woodland Transition”; Gold, “Archaeological Investigations at Petaga Point”; Hennepin, Description of Louisiana; Hiller, “Reminiscences”; Johnson, “Cultural Resource Survey”; “Kathio State Park Archaeology”; Mather, “Archaeological Overview”; Bleed, “Archaeology of Petaga Point”; Brower, Memoirs; Buffalohead and Buffalohead, Against the Tide; Cooper, “Archaeological Survey.”
The linguistic connections between the Cheyenne (Algonquian language family) and Ojibwe and the likely migration route of the Cheyenne make it probable that they occupied Minnesota before or contemporaneously with the A’aninin.
7. The connections between these names and their Ojibwe counterparts (Zaagiing and Gaa-danapananiding) are obvious to speakers or those who peruse Ojibwe dictionaries. For reference and further reading, see Nichols and Nyholm, Concise Dictionary; Vogel, Indian Names; Cutler, Brave New Words; Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names; The Ojibwe People’s Dictionary, http://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (2003); Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 15. The earliest written cartography of Red Lake as Red Lake appears in the form of a 1737 French map, which charts the place as Lac Rouge (Red Lake). Jean-Baptiste de La Vérendrye observed Dakota people living at Red Lake in 1734. See Lawrence J. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 210. These references suggest that the Dakota, Ojibwe, and French all referred to the lake as Red Lake long before the Battle River fight, when the Dakota still occupied all of Upper and Lower Red Lake. From that we can deduce that the common story about how Red Lake got its name gave the words “red lake” new meaning rather than its formal name in Ojibwe (or any other language). See also Kavanaugh, La Vérendrye; Crouse, La Vérendrye; and Combet, In Search of the Western Seas. The Vérendrye maps and 1755 French map also refer to the lake as Red Lake.
1. Opening quote, Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 356. The primary sources on White Thunderbird throughout this chapter are Whitefeather, “Waabi-bines,” and Anna Gibbs interview (2001). The U.S. government called the band the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians. Although the Ojibwe called themselves anishinaabe (meaning “the people”) or Ojibwe (a term used to refer specifically to the Ojibwe people rather than to all Indians), the French mispronounced and variously wrote the word Ojibwe as Ojibway, Ojibwe, Jibwa, Chipwa, Chippewa, and the morphed word stuck. The formal name the U.S. government wrote into treaties with Red Lake was Chippewa. The word was never repudiated by Peter Graves, Roger Jourdain, or other Red Lake leaders in the 1900s because they all spoke Ojibwe and it seemed natural to them that English-speaking people (such as those in the U.S. government) would have a different word for Ojibwe people. Graves, Jourdain, and others used English when speaking to outsiders, so they used Chippewa when talking to them. Today, tribal leaders and educators have been teaching others to use tribal words of self-reference, and Ojibwe and anishinaabe are winning out in the terminology discussion. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 10; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 356–67. Jean Baptiste Cadotte Jr. came to Red Lake in 1796 and left a member of his party behind. In 1852, Red Lake chief Feathers in Different Directions (Wewanjigwan) told William W. Warren that the Dakota never mustered sufficient strength to challenge Ojibwe control of Red Lake afterward. The 1807 Meriwether Lewis map shows Red Lake and Thief River Falls as Ojibwe territory. The map and Warren references help validate the time-line for Ojibwe control of Red Lake.
2. Keating, Narrative, 2:169. See also Hilger, Chippewa Child Life, 34.
3. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 135.
4. Ona Kingbird interview (1993). Ona Kingbird said that her maternal grandmother was a full-blooded Cree woman. Language was learned most actively on the maternal side, and even in the late twentieth century, Kingbird said that her Ojibwe had a few Cree influences.
5. James Lileks, “My Minnesota: Artist Proud of Red Lake Nation Flag Design,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, November 30, 2013; Brill, Red Lake Nation, 9; Medwe-ganoonind Times 1.2 (March 23, 2004): 1.
6. James, Narrative; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 35, 42, 50–52, 87, 141–53; Copway, Traditional History, 140–50; Copway, Life, Letters; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78.
7. In fact, it has been so long since the clan system disintegrated among the Dakota that some Dakota doubt that they ever had a clan system. But early European contact records and Dakota oral history affirm that they did. Daniel Seaboy interview (1999).
8. Whitefeather, “Waabi-bines”; Archie Mosay interview (1992); Vernon Whitefeather interview with David Treuer (1995); Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 165.
9. James, Tanner Narrative; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 35, 42 50–52, 87, 141–53; Copway, Traditional History, 140–50; Copway, Life, Letters; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1996); Anna Gibbs interview (1994); Archie Mosay interviews (1992, 1994). The word doodem comes from the morpheme de, meaning “heart or center.” The relationship between the words ode’ (his heart), oodena (village), doodem (clan), and dewe’igan (drum) has caused considerable confusion among some scholars, who have claimed that one of these words was derived from another when in fact they simply share the same root morpheme de. The heart is the center of the body (ode’). The village is the center of the community (oodena). The clan is the center of spiritual identity (doodem). The drum is the center of the nation, or its heartbeat. The drum is put in the center of the dance area for most Ojibwe ceremonies, and dancers move clockwise around it in recognition of this understanding. Although de means “heart or center,” we pertains to sound, giving the word for drum the compound meaning of “heartbeat.” The English word totem is derived from the Ojibwe word doodem, or clan. The word doodem is given in its independent form. However, it is more commonly used in its dependent (possessed) forms indoodem (my clan), gidoodem (your clan), the obviative odoodeman (his or her clan), and other dependent forms. This helps explain the variety of divergent spellings found in missionary and fur trader references. The variety of spellings for clan in Ojibwe is the result not just of different orthographies, but also of the different forms of the noun. Although understanding the morphological composition of clan as the center of spiritual identity seems the most widely held view with the elders I interviewed, it is still possible that that clan (doodem) and village (oodena) share both a cultural and a linguistic root. Certain clans did dominate certain villages to the point where those villages were identified by their totemic assignations. Over time the difference in the concept of clan and village could have conflated in some areas. Nicolas Perrot and Ruth Landes refer to use of a clan symbol as a symbol for the entire village. It is still possible that those symbols were being used to represent the chiefs of the village, who spoke for everyone, rather than to ascribe them to everyone living there. See Blair, Indian Tribes, 1:37, 62, 347; Landes, Ojibwa Sociology, 31.
According to Edward Benton-Banai, the deer clan (waawaashkeshi) was, according to legend, completely exterminated for having violated the taboo about marriage. William W. Warren relates a similar story, although he claims it was the moose clan (mooz) that was wiped out. If there were married couples and families in a village, there had to be at least two clans in the village, and typically five or more.
10. Archie Mosay interview (1992); Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1995); Anna Gibbs interview (1995); Edward Benton-Banai interview (1989); Mary Roberts interview (1990); Nancy Jones interview (1994); William (Billy) Daniels interview (2006); Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 41–53; Keesing, Kin Groups, 60; Radcliffe-Brown, Structure and Function, 117; Schenck, Voice of the Crane, 29; Hickerson, Southwestern Chippewa, 88; Bishop, Northern Ojibwa, 343; Cleland, Rites of Conquest. The eagle is still the adopting clan today in Red Lake and most surrounding communities. In some first nations of northwestern Ontario, the marten clan (waabizheshi) is the adopting clan for children with a nonnative father. In some other communities of Ontario, the adopting clan is determined at a jiisakaan (shake tent), where the practitioner divines the adopting clan, which can vary for each individual. At Red Lake and most other places in Ojibwe country, the patrilineal structure of clan inheritance is never altered with the introduction of a non-Indian father. Warren cites five original clans (History of the Ojibway People, 44); Benton-Banai cites seven (Mishomis Book, 74). Some Ojibwe and Oji-Cree villages in northern Ontario saw successive waves of missionaries who spoke tribal languages and achieved high conversion rates, nearing 100 percent in some places. As a result, the importance of clan became devalued and was eventually forgotten. In Bearskin Lake, Ontario, for example, fluency rates remain near 100 percent even today, but the clan system is virtually nonexistent. The very meaning of the word doodem has changed at Bearskin Lake as well. Instead of “clan,” or literally, “spiritual heart or center,” doodem means simply “friend” (Thomas Beardy interview, 1992). My conversation with Beardy about doodem began as I observed his Ojibwe-language class at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, in June 1992. He had written on the blackboard, “Awenen gidoodem?” He asked what that meant, so I replied, “Who is your clan?” He responded, “‘Who is your clan?’ No. What is ‘clan’? That means ‘Who is your friend?’” Not only had the word changed, but the concept of clan had been erased from the collective memory of his community. Beardy showed no shame or offense during our conversation. For him, the concept of clan and the meaning of the word doodem were simply different in his part of Ojibwe country. This helps explain why John Long, who stayed at Nipigon, Ontario, from 1777 to 1779, believed that doodem meant “friend” or “animal friend,” rather than “clan” or “spiritual heart or center.” See Quaife, John Long’s Voyages, 110–12. Long’s writings were initially published in 1791. The dynamic of religious and cultural change came early for some of the eastern Ojibwe communities, and it did not necessarily follow language loss.
11. Thomas Stillday Jr. interviews (1995, 1998); Anna Gibbs interviews (1995, 2000); Eugene Stillday interview (2006); Lawrence Henry interviews (1990, 1994); Mary Roberts interview (1991); Melvin Eagle interview (2000); Archie Mosay interview (1992); Edward Benton-Banai interview (1989); Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 41–53, 87–88; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78.
12. Copway, Traditional History, 140; Doty, “Northern Wisconsin in 1820,” 197. Extract from Schoolcraft, Narrative Journal, now widely available in many reprinted forms. For reference and citation, I used the reprint, which has numbered pages, rather than the formal report to John C. Calhoun in 1821. For this quote, which is from Charles Christopher Trowbridge and is included with Schoolcraft’s journal in the Calhoun report, see Williams, Schoolcraft’s Narrative Journal, 486.
13. Thomas Stillday Jr. interviews (1995, 1998); Anna Gibbs interviews (1995, 2000); Eugene Stillday interview (2006); Lawrence Henry interviews (1990, 1994); Mary Roberts interview (1991); Melvin Eagle interview (2000); Archie Mosay interview (1992); Edward Benton-Banai interview (1989); Warren, History of the Ojibwe People, 41–53, 87–88; Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74–78.
14. Referring to sturgeon, name is pronounced nah-may.
15. Copway, Traditional History, 144; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, xvi, 59; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 36; Baraga, Chippewa Indians, 9; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 15:157; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 270; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 23; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 7:74; Buck, Indian Outbreaks, 19. Leadership—ogimaawiwin—literally means to be “esteemed” or “held to high principle,” from the morpheme ogi, meaning “high,” found in other Ojibwe words such as ogichidaa (warrior), ogidakamig (on top of the earth), and ogidaaki (hilltop).
16. See Black-Rogers, “Dan Raincloud.” The cliff behind the White Sand Dunes is called the Precipice (Negawajiw).
17. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1996).
18. McKenney, Sketches, 315–16.
19. Bray, Nicollet Journals, 155; Warren, History of the Ojibway People; Susan Jackson interview (1996); Hilger, Chippewa Child Life, 39–55. Names had spiritual power and gave direction and meaning to one’s life. They were acquired by either fasting or dreaming. The name giver and the name receiver both used the word niiyawe’enh (my namesake) to refer to each other. Niiyaw (my body) carries the critical meaning in the word. When someone gave a name, the name giver took part of his or her spiritual essence and put it into the body of the name recipient. They became spiritually related for life. The name giver then functioned much like a godparent in Christian tradition.
20. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1996); Anna Gibbs interview (1996); Mary Roberts interviews (1989, 1991). Male leaders were called ogimaa, female leaders, ogimaakwe.
21. Child, Holding Our World Together; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks.
22. Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 111; Baraga, Chippewa Indians, 45; Parker, Carver Journals, 106–7; Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1996).
23. Pond, The Dakota, 124, 140–41; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 136; Bray, Nicollet Journals, 165. Forever Queen (Gaagige-ogimaansikwe) of the Pembina Band had a formal political position and even signed the Pembina Band Treaty in 1878. Men who functioned as women were called ikwekaazo, meaning “one who endeavors to be like a woman.” Women who functioned as men were called ininiikaazo, meaning “one who endeavors to be like a man.” Ikwekaazo and ininiikaazo had significant influence in politics. Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm) interview (1992); Archie Mosay interview (1993); Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh, 67–68, 110, 167–68; Henry and Thompson, New Light, 1:163–65; Kellogg, Early Narratives, 221–81; Kinietz, Chippewa Village, 155; Grant, “Saulteux Indians,” 2:357; McKenney, Sketches, 315–16; Catlin, Letters and Notes, 2:214–15; Pond, The Dakota, 124; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 59:129, 185–211, 310; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:18–20; James, Tanner Narrative, 105–6; Kugel, To Be the Main Leaders, 71–73, 92n.
24. Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:482–86, 567–71, 648–52, 685–90, 839–42, 853–55, 862–65, 974–76; Tanner, Atlas, 156; Blegen, Minnesota, 171–73; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:320–21.
25. Smith, Leadership among the Southwestern Ojibwa, 7:11.
26. Copway, Traditional History, 144.
27. Paul LeJeune in Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 6:243. See also Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 38:265; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 127–28, 319; Copway, Traditional History; James, Tanner Narrative, 313–16; Stout, “Ethnohistorical Report” 97. Treaty Council Minutes of 1837, National Archives, Washington, DC, microfilm 234, p. 12; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 207; Diedrich, The Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, 6, 10; Schoolcraft Papers, Reel 4, 1827, Library of Congress; Birk, John Sayer Journal, 46; Thomas L. McKenney, Sketches, 315–16.
28. Jameson, Winter Studies, 136; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 66.
29. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 6:243, 20:155, 66:221; Blair, Indian Tribes, 1:145, 264.
30. Pond, The Dakota, 60; Robinson, History of the Dakota, 111; Schulenberg, Indians of North Dakota, 43; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:86.
31. Bray, Nicollet Journals, 199–211; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 264; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 87–89; Pond, The Dakota, 70, 93–96; Parker, Carver Journals, 108–10; Baraga, Chippewa Indians, 24; Gilman, Gilman, and Stultz, Red River Trails, 46; White, The Middle Ground, 76–77, 151; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 82; Wheeler-Voeglin, “Anthropological Report,” 67; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 55; Evangelical Society of Missions of Lausanne, “Report of June 11, 1835: The Mission of Canada,” 118–19, Grace Lee Nute Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; William W. Warren to Alexander Ramsey, August 28, 1850, R 5, Alexander Ramsey Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
32. Baraga, Chippewa Indians, 24; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 132; Johnston, Ojibway Ceremonies, 59–60; Pond, The Dakota, 61, 69–70; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, xvi, 55; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 67, 272; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 264; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 23–24, 37, 73; Bray, Nicollet Journals, 154, 168, 277; Diedrich, The Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, 2; Lund, Chief Flat Mouth, 19; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 81; Kellogg, French Regime, 125; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 47:223; James, Tanner Narrative, 113.
33. Catlin, Letters and Notes, 1:238–40; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 139, 264, 313; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 135; Featherstonhaugh, Canoe Voyage, 1:362–63; Johnston, Ojibway Ceremonies, 75–76; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 24–25; Lewis, Valley of the Mississippi, 173–75; Pond, The Dakota, 130–31, 133; Sibley, “Memoir of Jean Nicollet,” 223, 224; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 104; Eastman, Dahcotah, xx; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 47:223; Boutwell, “Schoolcraft’s Exploring Tour,” 1:130–31; Milner, “Warfare in Eastern North America,” 105–51; Strezewski, “Patterns of Interpersonal Violence,” 249–80; Catlin, Letters and Notes, 1:245–46; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, xvi, 253; Williams, Schoolcraft’s Narrative Journal, 202–3; Kellogg, Early Narratives, 155; Bray, Nicollet Journals, 275; Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (1994); Anna Gibbs interview (1994); Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 67, 170.
34. Henry, Travels and Adventures, 203–4. This quote appears on page 195 of the repaginated reprint. Bray, Nicollet Journals, 180; Wahlberg, The North Land, 29.
35. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 106–7, 171–72, 219–20, 267–69; Kohl, Kitchi-Gami, 271–72; Robinson, History of the Dakota, 65; Zapffe, Indian Days, 116–17; Keesing, Menomini Indians, 102; James, Tanner Narrative, 72; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 48; Schulenberg, Indians of North Dakota, 47.
36. Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 40; Robinson, History of the Dakota, 28; Hurt, “Dakota Sioux Indians,” 101; David Thompson quoting a Red Lake chief in 1798 cited in Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 7:16.
37. To Walk the Red Road, 86; We Choose to Remember, 50.
38. James, Tanner Narrative, 142; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 18.
39. George Anthony Belcourt as cited in Indian Claims Commission, “Findings on the Chippewa,” 116; Kane, Holmquist, and Gilman, Northern Expeditions, 182; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 244; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 14, 17–19; Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 35; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 16; Schulenberg, Indians of North Dakota, 13. The word pembina is corrupted from the Ojibwe word aniibiiminan, meaning highbush cranberries, of which there was a great abundance near the village. The Ojibwe name for the place was Gaa-aniibiiminikaag, or “the place where there are a lot of highbush cranberries.”
40. Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 34; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 17; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 357.
41. Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 43; Indian Claims Commission, “Findings on the Chippewa,” 107, 462; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 18; James, Tanner Narrative, 141, 197.
42. Hickerson, Chippewa and Their Neighbors, 71, 95; Diedrich, Famous Chiefs, 29; Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 61–62; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 19, 133, 136; Indian Claims Commission, “Findings on the Chippewa,” 117, 446–64; Sharrock and Sharrock, “History of the Cree,” 297; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 8, 220n; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 21; Goiffon, “Autobiography: 1824–25,” translated by Charlotte Huot, unpublished manuscript, 67, Grace Lee Nute Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
43. Nute, Documents, 303, 308, 310, 328, 371; Keating, Narrative, 2:149; Kane, Holmquist, and Gilman, Northern Expeditions; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 10, 17; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 18, 326; Gilman, Gilman, and Stultz, Red River Trails, 9.
44. Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 21–22; Catlin, Letters and Notes, 1:53, 57–58, 262–63; Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 53, 56–57; Sharrock and Sharrock, “History of the Cree,” 269; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 133; Indian Claims Commission, “Findings on the Chippewa,” 113.
45. Indian Claims Commission, “Findings on the Chippewa,” 113.
46. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 130; Treaty with the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians, 1847 (August 21, 1847); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:567–69; for further analysis of the treaty, see Tanner, Atlas, 156; Blegen, Minnesota, 171–73; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:320–21; Gilman, Gilman, and Stultz, Red River Trails, 40.
47. Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities.
48. Nute, Documents, 175; Gilman, Gilman, and Stultz, Red River Trails, 34; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:213; Kellogg, British Regime, 296. In 1811, the Earl of Selkirk (a Scottish philanthropist and utopian idealist) purchased a controlling interest in the Hudson’s Bay Company. The company purchased settlement rights to a 116,000 square-mile stretch of land encompassing most of Manitoba, part of North Dakota, and a sliver of Minnesota, including Pembina. No Indian agreed to this land cession and neither did the U.S. government. The international border between the United States and Canada had not yet been surveyed.
49. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:214.
50. Alfred Brunson to Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, “The North Red River Settlement,” September 15, 1837, 1, Grace Lee Nute Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Brunson, “Upper Mississippi Missions”; John Fritzen, “History of Fond du Lac and Jay Cooke State Park,” unpublished manuscript, 1964, 3, Minnesota Historical Society; Goiffon, “Autobiography,” 41–42; Williams, Schoolcraft’s Narrative Journal, 139; Grace Lee Nute, “Missionaries among the Indians of the Northwest,” Hamline Radio Hour 28 (November 27, 1928), Minnesota Historical Society; Tanner, “History of Fort Ripley,” 10:191; Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux, 69; Dickason, Canada’s First Nations, 265.
51. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 2.
52. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 19.
53. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 2; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 16.
54. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 289. In addition to being a significant informant for Warren, Feathers in Different Directions met Schoolcraft in 1832.
55. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 2; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 22.
56. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 6; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 17.
57. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1850: 58. See also Roger Jourdain, “Early History of Red Lake Reservation,” 2, 3, undated historical sketch, submitted to Red Lake Tribal Council, January 31, 1985, Red Lake Archives; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 6; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 17, 18. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs report further elaborated on fields of winter wheat cultivated by the Red Lake Indians and a substantial agricultural effort under way. S. T. Bardwell to American Missionary Association, May 31, 1851, included with Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1851: 88.
58. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 21; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1869: 38; Jourdain, “Early History of Red Lake Reservation,” 5; Brill, Red Lake Nation, 21.
59. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 17, 19, 21, 135; Wub-e-ke-niew, We Have the Right, 41.
60. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 356–57; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 11; To Walk the Red Road, 8–9; Wub-e-ke-niew, We Have the Right, xvii–xix. Warren suggests 1810 as the date for this battle, but Dan Needham Sr., Red Lake hereditary chief and grandson of Sun Shining Through, confirms the participation of his grandfather as a leader in that battle. Sun Shining Through died in 1902, advanced in years. His birth date is not known, but was around 1810. The late 1820s would be the earliest he could have led such a battle.
61. To Walk the Red Road, 8–9; “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” 51st Congress, 1st Session, House Exec. Doc., Serial 2747, Exec. Doc. 247.
62. Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 20; To Walk the Red Road, 8–9; “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” 51st Congress, 1st Session.
1. Opening quote, “Articles of a Treaty Made and Concluded at the Old Crossing of the Red Lake River,” 39, 36th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Exec. Doc. Hereafter, “Articles of a Treaty.”
2. http://sites.mnhs.org/historic-sites/alexander-ramsey-house/history.
3. Major Edwin Clark, letter to the editor, Minneapolis Journal, December 4, 1916; Smith, Leadership among the Southwestern Ojibwa, 7:21; Diedrich, The Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, 32.
4. The original Red Lake chief Little Rock, for whom the village is named, was chief in the early 1800s. It is probable that Sitting Rock was actually his son, and used his father’s name to validate his own hereditary right to chieftainship.
5. George Bonga to Henry Whipple, August 12, 1866, box 4, Whipple Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Henry Bartling to R. B. Van Valkenburgh, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 12, 1865, National Archives Microfilm Publication, RG 75, microfilm 234, roll 154, p. 131; James Harlan to Dennis N. Cooley, October 26, 1865, National Archives Microfilm Publication, RG 75, microfilm 234, roll 154, p. 223.
6. At Peguis, a ninety-year-old chief encouraged an attack on the Dakota refugee villages on the Red River, but there were no serious military campaigns. See Dickason, Canada’s First Nations, 266; Schultz, Over the Earth I Come, 268, 270; Fannie Johns interview with Charles Grolla (April 7, 2004); Meyer, White Earth Tragedy, 240; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 7:22.
7. Archie Mosay interviews (1992, 1994); Melvin Eagle interview (1995); Vennum, Ojibwa Dance Drum. The Ojibwe and Dakota had a long history of cultural exchange. The Ojibwe gave the Dakota the medicine dance, which the Dakota called the wakan dance. It proliferated and dominated Dakota religious experience in Minnesota for at least a hundred years. See Treuer, Ojibwe in Minnesota, 20, 89n15; Pond, The Dakota, 86–99, 110–11, 159–61.
8. Adam Lussier interview (1993); Adam Lussier, “The Legend of the Drum,” unpublished story, 1990, Red Lake Archives.
9. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Annual Report, 1863, 449; Folwell, History of Minnesota; Meyer, White Earth Tragedy; Wilson, Remember This; Wilson, Footsteps of Our Ancestors; Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux; Schultz, Over the Earth I Come, 28; Gibson, The American Indian; Radin, The Winnebago Tribe.
10. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 29; Tanner, Fifty Years, 299–301, 511–15.
11. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 130, 133.
12. Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 1:851–54, 2:482–93; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:190; Tanner, Atlas, 156; Royce, Indian Land Cessions, 802, 804, 828, 840, 844; Winchell, Aborigines of Minnesota, 2:619–31; Office of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1863: 328–31, 341–46, 1867: 397, 1868: 301, 1870: 305, 1871: 588, 1872: 209, 210, 1874: 195, 1875: 53, 298, 1876: 84, 1878: 78, 81, 1880: 103–5, 1884: 103, 1885: 114–16, 1886: 168–70; Nichols, Lincoln and the Indians, 72–74.
13. Treaty with the Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians, 1847 (August 21, 1847); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:567–71, 648–51, 685–90, 853–55, 861–62; Tanner, Atlas, 156; Blegen, Minnesota, 171–73; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:320–21, 4:190–91, 305–7; Treaty with the Chippewa Indians, 1854 (September 30, 1854); Treaty with the Chippewa Indians, 1855 (February 22, 1855); David Herriman to Willis Gorman, May 29, 1854, enclosed with Willis Gorman to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 5, 1854, M1101, National Archives Microfilm Publications, microfilm 234, roll 150; Galena Daily Advertiser, March 20, 1855; Weekly Minnesotan, October 21, 1854; Minnesota Democrat, October 18, 1854; St. Anthony Falls Minnesota Republican, October 19, 1854; Washington Evening Star, February 17, 1855; Minnesota Weekly Times, January 17, 1855; Kvasnicka, “From Wilderness to Washington,” 56–57; Dunn, The St. Croix, 21–22; Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi and Lake Superior, August 2, 1847 (9 Stat. 904, Ratified April 3, 1848, Proclaimed April 7, 1848), in Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:567–69; Henry Dodge to William Medill, October 8, 1846, included in Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1846. See also Jourdain, “Early History of Red Lake Reservation”; Schultz, Over the Earth I Come, 279; Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 160; Treaty with the Chippewa—Red Lake and Pembina Bands, 1863 (October 2, 1863).
14. Josephy, 500 Nations, 374–79.
15. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 6:243, 20:155, 66:221; Flat Mouth to Commissioner, National Archives, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Letters Received, microfilm roll 234, p. 387; Blair, Indian Tribes, 1:264; Kugel, To Be the Main Leaders; Joseph A. Wheelock editorial, St. Paul Daily Press (October 15, 1863); Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 22; Major C. P. Adams to Lieutenant D. Scott, December 4, 1865, Moses N. Adams Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
16. Official records, including the original treaty, correspondence of Alexander Ramsey, treaty commissioner, and William P. Dole, commissioner of Indian Affairs, and the Journal of Proceedings for the treaty are all archived as “Articles of a Treaty Made and Concluded at the Old Crossing of the Red Lake River,” 36th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Exec. Doc. See also Treaty with the Chippewa—Red Lake and Pembina Bands, 1863 (October 2, 1863); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:853–55, 861–62. See also Blegen, Minnesota, 172; Robinson, Early Economic Conditions, 3:63, 85, 115; 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Exec. Doc. 115 (Serial 2449): 53.
17. “Articles of a Treaty,” 8.
18. “Articles of a Treaty,” 9.
19. “Articles of a Treaty,” 11, 12.
20. Hole-in-the-Day to President Abraham Lincoln, June 7, 1863, 38th Congress, 1st Session, House Documents, 1863–64, Serial 1182, 3:448–51.
21. “Articles of a Treaty,” 13, 14.
22. “Articles of a Treaty,” 22.
23. “Articles of a Treaty,” 29.
24. Henry B. Whipple Diary, January 13, 1862, Whipple Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
25. Nichols, “Translation of Key Phrases,” 514–24. Nichols’s arguments are well substantiated in other places, including Van Antwerp, “Negotiations for the Chippewa Treaty”; Satz, Chippewa Treaty Rights, 131–53; Auger and Beardy, Glossary of Legal Terms.
26. “Articles of a Treaty,” 18–30.
27. “Articles of a Treaty,” 32, 35.
28. “Articles of a Treaty,” 21.
29. “Articles of a Treaty,” 39.
30. Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, xix.
31. “Articles of a Treaty,” 5, 45.
32. Henry B. Whipple as cited in Hawkinson, “The Old Crossing Chippewa Treaty,” 298–99.
33. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 74, 143; Grand Forks Herald, September 25, 1988; “Red Lake History: The Beginning,” Red Lake Nation News (http://www.rlnn.org/MajorSponsors/HistoryProjectBeginning.html).
34. Beaulieu genealogy in this and the following paragraph taken from Ransom Judd Powell Papers, Genealogy Microfilm 455, Family 93, Minnesota Historical Society; U.S. Census listing for Paul H. Beaulieu (1940); U.S. Indian Census Roll for Paul H. Beaulieu (1885–1940); John Clement Beaulieu and Bernadeen Kirt, “Beaulieu Family Genealogy,” undated manuscript, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
35. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 143–45; Henry B. Whipple to Joel Bassett, November 14, 1866, Joel Bassett Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
36. David Thorstad, “The Sad Legacy of Moose Dung and Red Robe,” Monthly Review (September 11, 2012), http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2012/thorstad091112.html.
37. Borgerding, “Father Thomas’ History,” 1.
1. Opening quote: Hawkinson, “The Old Crossing Chippewa Treaty.” Bad Day and Frank English depositions (August 21, 1930), Court of Claims Doc. H-76, p. 13–15, 135, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives; Borgerding, “Red Lake St. Mary’s Mission.”
2. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” House Exec. Doc., 51st Congress, 1st Session, Serial 2747, Exec. Doc. 247:133–34; “1890s Reports Describe Chippewa Treaty Talks,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 31, 1986, 1.
3. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247; Depositions (August 21, 1930), Court of Claims Doc. H-76, p. 13–135, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives; Borgerding, “Red Lake St. Mary’s Mission.”
4. The 1930 depositions should be filed in the National Archives, but are conspicuously missing. The reason why these documents are not to be found in U.S. government archives is the subject of much conjecture because their absence has made it difficult for Red Lake to document its understanding of this history while so many nonnative people have financially and personally profited from the taking of the lake, but what really happened to the government’s copies remains a mystery. Peter Graves kept the copies provided to Red Lake’s attorneys, which are now stored in Red Lake.
5. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:24; Captain Hassler to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 12, 1869, as cited in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 23.
6. Treaty with the Chippewa—Red Lake and Pembina Bands, 1863 (October 2, 1863); Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi and the Pillager and Lake Winnibigoshish Bands, 1863 (March 11, 1863); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:839–42, 974–76; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:193–96; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 267–69; Report of Ashley C. Morrill, August 18, 1862, as cited in Winchell, Aborigines of Minnesota, 2:656; Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi, 1867 (March 19, 1867); John Johnson to Edwin A. Hatch, September 13, 1867, Henry Whipple Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Pioneer, August 27, 1867; St. Cloud Times, July 11, 1868.
7. Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:862–65, 974–76.
8. John Johnson to Henry Whipple, July 7, 1864, box 3, Henry Whipple Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Ashley C. Morrill, Indian Agent, to Clark W. Thompson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, May 7, 1863, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Correspondence File, National Archives; Bagone-giizhig Affidavit in Joel Bassett Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; George C. Whiting to George W. Manypenny, February 20, 1856, National Archives Microfilm Publications, RG 75, microfilm 234, roll 151:0158–59; James Lloyd Breck to William Chauncey Langdon, September 30, 1857, box 46, vol. 42, Protestant Episcopal Church Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Hole-in-the-Day to President Abraham Lincoln, June 7, 1863, House Doc., 38th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 1182, 3:448–51; Minneapolis State Atlas, May 4, 1864; Washington Evening Star, April 26, 1864; Alexander Ramsey to William P. Dole, October, 1863, House Doc., 38th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 1182, 553–54; John Johnson to Henry B. Whipple, April 28, 1864, Henry Whipple Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1863: 449; Article 12, Treaty with the Chippewa, Mississippi, Pillager, and Lake Winnibigoshish Bands, 1864 (May 7, 1864); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:862–65; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:194.
9. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 23.
10. McClurken, Fish in the Lakes, 357.
11. Henry Whipple to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 14, 1866, National Archives Microfilm Publications, microfilm 234, roll 599:1408–17.
12. Borgerding, “Father Thomas’ History,” 1.
13. Article 4, Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi, 1867 (March 19, 1867); Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:975.
14. Treuer, Ojibwe in Minnesota, 35; St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy. Ojibwe land cession by executive order includes “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:2–3, 14–15, 25, 95–110; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:233.
15. Chief of Engineers, Reports, Serial 1447 (1870), 282–89; “Damages to Chippewa Indians,” House Exec. Doc., 48th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 2200 (1884), 76:1–21; “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2449, 115:1–82; “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:1–12 (includes a full report from Henry Rice on flooding from dams, survey problems, and abortive legislation on arrearages and compensation); Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:210, 234.
16. 23 Stat. 385; “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:35.
17. Lucius Q. C. Lamar to Grover Cleveland, February 17, 1887, enclosed with “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449 (1887), 115:2; Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 314. Whipple’s other letters advocating greater effort at White Earth removal can be found in Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 2333 (1886), vol. 44; Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2449, 115:53; 24 Stat. 44. See also Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:201. Many historians laud Whipple as a brave hero who defended the Indian from politicians when he actually stood up to anyone who thwarted assimilation and relocation. See the Minnesota Public Radio documentary on Whipple that aired several times in November 1994 and Folwell, History of Minnesota.
18. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:72. In Minnesota, chipmunks were commonly called ground squirrels until after World War I, which explains the translation of agongos as ground squirrel rather than chipmunk when the Northwest Indian Commission and later Nelson himself came to Red Lake. The Ojibwe used the word agongos to refer to Norwegians because of the chipmunk-like sounds in their language.
19. 24 Stat. 388–91.
20. “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 115:1–82; 44 Stat. 24; Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 1st Session, Number 44, Serial 2333; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:205–11; 17 Stat. 189, 539; 18(3) Stat. 173–74; Office of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1869: 49, 1873: 182, 1874: 195, 1875: 53, 298, 1876: 84, 1877: 129, 1878: 78, 82, 1880: 103–5, 1882: 98, 1884: 103, 1885: 114–16, 1886: 168–70; Commissioner of Indian Affairs to Secretary of the Interior, January 16, 1886, in Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 1st Session, Number 44, Serial 2333, 5; Meyer, White Earth Tragedy, 57–61.
21. This and the following two paragraphs: “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2449, 90, 91.
22. “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 90–92.
23. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1871: 593, 1874: 30, 1877: 127; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 27.
24. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1885: lxi; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 27.
25. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 28; 50 Cong. Rec., 273, 396–400, 829 (includes testimony for the Nelson Act about exploitative lumber harvest in Minnesota); Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:224.
26. “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 93; John D. C. Atkins to Grover Cleveland, enclosed with “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 115:3.
27. Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2449, also known as the Northwest Indian Commission Report, 115:12, 14, 22–25, 82–95.
28. “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 84.
29. “Agreement with the Red Lake Band of Chippewa” (August 23, 1886), in “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 115, 8; “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 93.
30. “Agreement with the Red Lake Band of Chippewa” (August 23, 1886), 6.
31. “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 94.
32. “Agreement with the Red Lake Band of Chippewa” (August 23, 1886), Article I.
33. “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 115:9.
34. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 27.
35. 25 Stat. 642; 50th Congress, 1st Session, House Journal, Serial 2529, Number 204; Agreement signed July 8, 1889; House of Representatives, Exec. Doc. 247, 51st Congress, 1st Session, 27, 32; Exec. Order, November 21, 1892.
36. 48th Congress, 1st Session, House Reports, Serial 2253, Number 183; 49th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 2435, Number 176; Senate Exec. Doc., 49th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2449, 1:2–22, 115.
37. 50th Congress, 1st Session, House Journal, Serial 2529, Number 999; “Red Lake Chippewa Indians of Minnesota,” 50th Congress, 1st Session, House Journal, Serial 2600, Number 789.
38. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:2; Hilger, Chippewa Families, 5.
39. 50 Cong. Rec., 273, 336, 396–400, 829; 25 Stat. 642–46.
40. Primary records about the Nelson Act of 1889, its incorporation of the Northwest Indian Commission findings, implementation of the allotment provisions of the Dawes Act, redress for damages caused by the dams, and the unique situation at Red Lake are in the government documents for findings of the Northwest Indian Commission, debate over the act, and the legislation itself. See “Findings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 115:1–82; House Journal, 50th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 2529, 204, 789, 999; 50 Cong. Rec., (1886–89), 1971, 9129–31, 9353, 9616; Chief of Engineers, Reports, Serial 1447 (1870), 282–89; “Damages to Chippewa Indians,” House Exec. Doc., 48th Congress, 1st session, Serial 2200, 76:1–21. See also Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:219–35. The Nelson Act is 25 Stat. 642. Full findings of the Chippewa Commission are available at “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247. See also Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 4.
41. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:72.
42. “Message of the President of the United States” in “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:1.
43. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:75–76.
44. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:77–78.
45. Statement of Father Thomas Borgerding, St. Mary’s Mission, Red Lake, winter 1948, 1, Red Lake Archives.
46. Nichols, “Translation of Key Phrases,” 514–24. Nichols’s arguments are well substantiated in other places, including Van Antwerp, “Negotiations for the Chippewa Treaty,” 131–53, and Auger and Beardy, Glossary of Legal Terms.
47. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:13–14, 70.
48. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:15.
49. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:85.
50. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:73, 79.
51. Father Thomas Borgerding statement, 1; Father Thomas Borgerding deposition (August 23, 1930), Court of Claims Doc. H-76, p. 16–17, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives.
52. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:81.
53. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:67. When Rice opened council at Leech Lake, he was even more offensive, telling the chiefs, “Talk about your land, about not parting with your land, you don’t know what you are saying; you do not own a foot of land. This land was taken from you and from the British, and the Great Father has never given it back to you, but as a kind father, has permitted you to live here as his children.” Fifth Council at Leech Lake, August 13, 1889; “Proceedings of the Northwest Indian Commission,” Serial 2449, 46.
54. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:68, 69, 78.
55. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:71.
56. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:69.
57. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:69.
58. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:68–71.
59. “Message of the President of the United States,” in “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:2.
60. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:71, 72.
61. For information on this and the next two paragraphs, see “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:83, and Father Thomas Borgerding deposition, 18–20.
62. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:83, 85.
63. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:83, 85. See also Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 37.
64. Henry M. Rice to T. J. Morgan, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:3; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 135.
65. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:2; Hilger, Chippewa Families, 5.
66. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 31, 130; Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 5.
67. Genealogy Microfilm 455, Family 93, Ransom Judd Powell Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; U.S. Census Listing for Paul H. Beaulieu (1940); U.S. Indian Census Roll for Paul H. Beaulieu (1885–1940). Robert Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake: Profile of an Indian Leader,” unpublished manuscript, 2003; John Clement Beaulieu and Bernadeen Kirt, “Beaulieu Family Genealogy,” undated manuscript—both Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
68. Thomas J. Morgan to John W. Noble with map attachments, July 1890, Secretary of the Interior Correspondence Files, 1890, National Archives, Washington, DC, enclosed with Jim Walker, “Red Survey Report,” 2003, Red Lake Archives.
69. Don Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” unpublished manuscript, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives; Robert Treuer, “A Passion to Protect,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 31, 2002, A21.
70. To Walk the Red Road, 5–6.
71. Father Thomas Borgerding deposition, 12–96. See also Borgerding, “Red Lake St. Mary’s Mission.”
72. Bad Day deposition; Joseph C. Roy deposition (August 21, 1930), Court of Claims Doc. H-76, 45, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives.
73. M. R. Baldwin to Secretary of the Interior, February 26, 1896, National Archives, Kansas City, RG 75 as cited in Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 8.
74. John F. Norrish to George A. Burbank, January 1891; W. C. Smiley to U.S. Surveyor General, August 14, 1903—both Jim Walker Survey Papers, Red Lake Archives; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1921: 104.
75. Field Operations to John F. Norrish, Surveyor General, October 1891, Jim Walker Survey Papers, Red Lake Archives.
76. General Land Office to Surveyor General, January 1901, Jim Walker Survey Papers, Red Lake Archives (emphasis in original). Major Red Lake surveys include the 1872 Merrill Survey, 1873 Adley Survey, 1879 Hamilton Survey, 1885 Butler Survey, 1885 Darling Survey, 1892 Wilcox and Ralph Survey, 1928 General Land Office Map. “Red Lake Boundary and Survey Historical Discussion,” Jim Walker Survey Papers, Red Lake Archives.
77. Office of Indians Affairs, Reports, 1890: 112, 1892: 277, 1894: 152; “Correspondence Relating to Timber on the Chippewa Indian Reservations,” 55th Congress, 3rd Session, Senate Doc. No. 70, Serial 3731, 25–47, 84–88; Crookston Times, December 12, 1898, 8.
78. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:298.
79. Secretary of the Interior, Reports, 1891: xliii, 1895: xi, 1896: xx, 1898: xxxiii. A flurry of editorial letters and reports in local newspapers is thoroughly discussed in Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:236n45, including Crookston Daily Times, April 27, 1893, 3; Mississippi Valley Lumberman (Minneapolis), April 28, 1893, 6, and May 19, 1893, 4; Pioneer Press, May 18, 1893, 2; Crookston Times, May 19, 1893, 1; Anoka County Union, September 27, 1893, 1; Minneapolis Journal, October 6, 1893, 9.
80. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 6; Hagg, “Logging Line,” 127.
81. Thomas J. Morgan, Brainerd, Minnesota, August 5, 1889, National Archives, Kansas City, RG 75. See also “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” 53rd Congress, 2nd Session, House Reports, Serial 3269, Number 459; 54th Congress, 1st Session, House Reports, Serial 3457, Number 119; Secretary of the Interior, Reports, 1895: xi–xii; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 33.
82. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1896: 51.
83. Hagg, “Logging Line,” 127; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 33.
84. John G. Morrison Jr., “My Forbears and the World They Lived In,” in Bourgeois, Morrison, and Wight, Mainly Logging, 74. Information on this and the following paragraph is well documented in Secretary of the Interior, Reports, 1896: xxi, 1899: xvii, 1900: lvi, 1901: lxxiii, 1902: 29; Land Office, Reports, 1896: 101–3, 1898: 68, 104–6, 1904: 340; House of Representatives, “Report in the Matter of the Investigation of the White Earth Reservation,” 62nd Congress, 3rd Session, Report Number 1336, Serial 6336, submitted January 16, 1913, 5, also known as the Graham Report. See also Mississippi Valley Lumberman, July 25, 1896, 14; Crookston Times, July 15, 1896, 4, 17. The Graham Report did much to expose the collusion and fraud in sales of Red Lake lands in the 1890s, even though it was never acted upon or used to seek justice.
85. Indian Appropriation Act, 30 Stat. 924; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 69th Annual Report (June 30, 1900), 71; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 34.
86. Minnesota State Demographic Center, Census Data by County; Minnesota Digital Library, “Minnesota’s Logging History.”
87. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 45.
88. Chippewas of Minnesota: U.S. Congress Committee on Indian Affairs, 1920, 247, 345; 63 Cong. Rec., Serials 1095, 3773; 39 Stat. 123–37; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 45.
89. House Doc. 645, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session; 35 Stat. 268.
90. 64 Cong. Rec. (1916) 137; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 54.
91. 64 Cong. Rec., 1752, 2310, 4759, 7846, 7865, 8275, and appendix 1100–1102.
92. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 34, 43.
93. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1901: 69; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 35. Timber harvests were included in every report to the commissioner in this time period. See the improving return to the people of Red Lake starting in 1904 in Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1904: 218.
94. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 37; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1905: 79.
95. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1906: 245; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 28, 44; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:298.
96. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, “Peak Logging Years,” http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/forestry/anniversary/peaklogging.html.
97. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 148.
98. Thomas J. Morgan to John W. Noble, November 17, 1892, Commissioner of Indian Affairs Correspondence File; “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:27, 32; Exec. Order, November 21, 1892; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 4; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:298.
99. 31 Stat. 134; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 69th Annual Report (June 30, 1900), 89, 522; Department of the Interior, Reports, 1899: 212.
100. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 8.
101. Steve Mosbeck, “The History of Moose Dung’s Section and How the Section Influenced the Settlement of Thief River Falls,” unpublished manuscript, March 27, 1975, Red Lake Archives.
102. Jones v. Meehan (175 U.S. 1); Thief River Falls Times, April 21, 23, 28, 30, 1975.
103. 31 Stat. 1077; Thief River Falls News, December 5, 1901, 1, December 26, 1901, 1; “Chippewas of Minnesota.” This report includes a huge array of testimony from January 21 to March 22, 1920.
104. Minnesota v. Hitchcock (U.S. Supreme Court, docket 185); commission authorized by 32 Stat. 400.
105. “Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,” Exec. Doc. 247:2–3, 14–15, 25, 95–110, 822–27; “Report in the Matter of the Investigation of the White Earth Reservation,” 62nd Congress, 3rd Session, House Reports, Serial 6336, submitted January 16, 1913, 1336:524–649; 56 Cong. Rec., 56, 2566; 58 Cong. Rec., 685, 3660, 4413, 5546, 5825; 33 Stat. 539; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:231–33, 265–68; Meyer, White Earth Tragedy, 51–52, 64–65; Joseph Auginaush interview (1994); White Earth Land Recovery Project, Research Division, Winona LaDuke interview (November 28, 1994).
106. “Proceedings with the Chippewa Belonging to the Red Lake Reservation,” embedded in 57 Cong. Rec., 5 Serial 2183, 204, 227.
107. “Proceedings with the Chippewa,” 225–26.
108. “Proceedings with the Chippewa,” 226.
109. “Proceedings with the Chippewa,” 221.
110. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 4, 131, 133.
111. Information on this and the following paragraph are taken from “Signature Roll for Chippewa Belonging to the Red Lake Reservation,” embedded in 57 Cong. Rec., Serial 2183, 229. Fred Dennis, a young, aspiring white lawyer, is recorded in the council log as stenographer. Years later he developed a friendly relationship with Peter Graves, and eventually worked on Red Lake’s fishing rights and land case with the Court of Claims.
112. Thief River Falls News, May 8, 1903; 57 Cong. Rec., Doc. R532; 32 Stat. 1009; William W. Folwell to Hubert Work, July 29, 1927, Commissioner of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files; E. B. Merritt to William W. Folwell, August 16, 1927, Commissioner of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files.
113. 35 Stat. 46–50; 57 Cong. Rec., Serial 2183; H.R. 15804; “Red Lake Indian Reservation,” special report, 58th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Report 36, Serial 4570; 58 Cong. Rec., 358; “Indians of Red Lake Reservation,” House Reports, 58th Congress, 2nd Session, Report 735, Serial 4578; Thief River Falls News, December 24, 1903, 1.
114. “Looks Like an Early Opening,” Thief River Falls News-Press, April 7, 1904, 1; Wub-e-ke-niew, We Have the Right, 146; Thorstad, “The Sad Legacy of Moose Dung and Red Robe.”
115. William H. Bishop to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, February 2, 1908, Red Lake Archives; “Bicentennial Observance Is Held in Thief River Falls Saturday,” Thief River Falls Times, July 12, 1976, 4.
116. “Bicentennial Observance.”
117. 31 Stat. 134; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 69th Annual Report (June 30, 1900), 89, 522; Department of the Interior, Reports, 1899: 212; King, “Logging Railroads,” 104-5; Hagg, “Logging Line,” 124.
118. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 8.
119. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1, 4, 38–39.
120. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 12; “Chippewas of Minnesota,” 112, 160, 353.
121. General Land Office, Homestead Circular, 1895; “NOW GIT! That Is What Uncle Sam Says to Red Lake Sooners,” Crookston Times, May 9, 1896, 1; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 32.
122. “Statement of Halvor Steenerson,” 57 Congr. Rec., 5 Serial 2183, 242.
123. 57 Cong. Rec., 5 Serial 2183, 242.
124. The most complete list of correspondence on ditching and land issues in Red Lake’s ceded lands is compiled in the legal briefs and supporting documents for 25 U.S.C. §70, Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. United States and U.S. Court of Claims Docket 388–82L (Docket 189-C in settlement). More than one hundred letters and several studies are compiled there relating to this issue. See also Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 13.
125. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 13; General Council Resolution 7, November 25, 1933, Red Lake Archives; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 31. Sixteen named steamboats operated at Red Lake, and many smaller craft as well. To Walk the Red Road, 52.
126. Hagg, “Logging Line,” 129; Bemidji Pioneer, August 3, 6, 13, 20, 1906.
127. House of Representatives, “Report in the Matter of the Investigation of the White Earth Reservation” (“Graham Report”), 5.
128. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 3; Brill, Red Lake Nation, 20; Daniel M. Browning to W. F. Campbell, February 8, 1895; Daniel M. Browning to Hoke Smith, March 12, 1895—both Red Lake Archives.
129. Father Thomas Borgerding deposition, 31–32; M. L. Burns deposition, August 22, 1930, Court of Claims Doc. H-76, 102, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives. McPherson to M. R. Baldwin, March 25, 1896; Daniel M. Browning to Hoke Smith, March 12, 1895; Charles H. Burke to Hubert Work, January 19, 1925—all Red Lake Archives; Wahlberg, The North Land, 1–59. White settlers started squatting on tribal land before the Nelson Act was even signed. In 1888, Esther D. Goldner was the first white person born in Roseau County, in a house built by her family on tribal land before the land was ceded, sold, or homesteaded. Daniel M. Browning to Hoke Smith, March 12, 1895, Red Lake Archives.
130. Mittelholtz offers “The Old Chief’s Village” as a translation of Ondatamaaning, which is likely how it was differentiated to him in English, although “The Source” is a more literal translation. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1.
1. Opening quote, Don Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” unpublished manuscript, 4, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives. Nodin Wind’s obituary appeared in the Bemidji Pioneer, February 2, 1981. There are conflicting details on the precise date of his birth as it appears in the 1930 federal census, the Minnesota Death Index, and the Indian Census Roll, Red Lake (1885–1940), but the family’s stated birth date of April 15, 1874, appears the most reliable and is substantiated by the death index. Wind was first married at age eighteen in 1892, but the fate of his first wife is not known. By 1930, he was married to Circling Thunderbird Woman (Gezhibinesiikwe), who was ten years younger than him and the mother of his children as they appear in subsequent census data and his obituary. See Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Schedule, 15th U.S. Census, 1930; Office of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Roll, Red Lake, 1885-1940; Minnesota Death Index, 1908–2002. At time of his death, Nodin Wind had twelve grandchildren, including Leonard Hawk, who became a prominent spiritual leader at Ponemah in his own right; forty-nine great-grandchildren; and forty-four great-great-grandchildren. See also Bemidji Pioneer, May 6, 1977, 2; Brill, Red Lake Nation, 41, 100.
2. The last known funeral conducted by Nodin Wind outside of Red Lake was in Mille Lacs, for Peter Sam (June 22, 1904–April 18, 1961). See U.S. Indian Census Roll for Peter Sam, 1885–1940; U.S. Census for Peter Sam, 1930; Minnesota Death Index; William Blackwell Sr. interview (August 2, 1996).
3. Wind’s role in the parade is reported in the Bemidji Pioneer, July 3, 1976, 11. Maude Wind married a Spears and Dorothy married a Martin: Bemidji Pioneer, February 2, 1981.
4. Anna C. Gibbs interview (February 4, 2015).
5. The saying about seeing the world, popularized in various forms by Henrik Scharling (1876), H. M. Tomlinson (1931), Anaïs Nin (1961), and recently by Stephen Covey, has unattributable authorship. Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 14.
6. Information on Ramsey’s position and politics on Indian education in this and the following paragraph is available in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 20.
7. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 21.
8. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 70–75.
9. The ordinance translates as follows: “The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country, together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take letters of declaration of naturalization.” Acte pour l’établissement de la Compagnie des Cent Associés pour le commerce du Canada, contenant les articles accordés à la dite Compagnie par M. le Cardinal de Richelieu, le 29 avril 1627.
10. See, for example, the compelling story of Lutiant LaVoye (French–Ojibwe from Red Lake) in Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 150–59.
11. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 70–72.
12. Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities.
13. Baraga, Diary.
14. Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities, 129.
15. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 21–22.
16. Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities, 135.
17. Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 23, 53, 67; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 27–28.
18. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 16.
19. Fruth, Century of Missionary Work, 102.
20. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 33, 72–75.
21. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 26.
22. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 145.
23. Whipple, Lights and Shadows, 146.
24. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 44, 75.
25. Bigglestone, “Oberlin College,” 27. Frederick Ayer grew up in Massachusetts and New York and served in mission work at Mackinac Island beginning in 1822 and then at La Pointe by 1830. In spite of Theodore Blegen’s assertion that Edmund F. Ely was the primary advocate for the mission to Red Lake, historical records make it clear that Ayer was in fact the impetus for the mission and brought in Ely as a partner. See Oberlin Evangelist, September 27, 1843; Boutwell, Ely, Ayer, and Hall to David Greene, March 6, 1843, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University. The mission at Pokegama was opened in 1836. After the Ojibwe left, Ely was among the missionaries who maintained the mission in spite of its abandonment by the Indians. See William T. Boutwell to Samuel Pond, June 29, 1842, Samuel Pond Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Neill, “Battle of Lake Pokegama”; Pond, “Indian Warfare in Minnesota,” 133–34; Larpenteur, “Recollections”; S. Freightner Sharp, “Tenting on Pokegama Lake,” unpublished, undated manuscript, Minnesota Historical Society; Grace Lee Nute, “Missionaries among the Sioux and Chippewa,” Hamline Radio Hour 26 (November 20, 1928), Minnesota Historical Society. See also Meyer, White Earth Tragedy, 61–62, 69; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 74; Blegen, Minnesota, 146; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:179–81.
26. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 130; Wright, “Reminiscences,” 46–48; William T. Boutwell to Samuel W. Pond, June 29, 1842, Manuscripts Relating to Northwest Missions, Grace Lee Nute Papers, Minnesota Historical Society; Schell, In the Ojibway Country, 5–6; Frank Hugh Foster, “The Oberlin Ojibway Mission,” 1892, 2–3, Papers of the Ohio Church History Society, Oberlin; “Frederick Ayer”; Oberlin Evangelist, May 10, 1843; Elizabeth Ayer to Robert Stuart, February 23, 1843, Michigan Superintendency, Office of Indian Affairs, Letters Received, National Archives RG 75, microfilm 54; Hickerson, “William T. Boutwell.”
27. Bigglestone, “Oberlin College,” 30; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 2; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 17.
28. John P. Bardwell (American Missionary Association) to Luke Lea (Commissioner of Indian Affairs), September 1, 1851, in Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1851: 179, 440; Roger Jourdain, “Early History of Red Lake Reservation,” 3, undated historical sketch, submitted to Red Lake Tribal Council, January 31, 1985, Red Lake Archives; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 20.
29. John P. Bardwell, American Missionary Association, report, included with Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1852: 341; Jourdain, “Early History,” 4.
30. Wright, “Reminiscences,” 2–9; Oberlin Evangelist, March 13 and 27, 1844; Bigglestone, “Oberlin College,” 30–31; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1, 20.
31. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 25.
32. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 76.
33. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 2.
34. Eugene Stillday interview (May 7, 2015); E. B. Hickstrom to Roger Jourdain, September 4, 1979, Red Lake Archives; Wah-Bun Chapel, Gubernatorial Citation of Honor, July 19, 1978, Red Lake Archives.
35. Borgerding, “Priest Expelled,” 1. Fruth gives a parallel version of this event in Century of Missionary Work, 16. White, We Are at Home, 146–56; Priscilla Buffalohead, “Peace Queens, Women Warriors, and Resistance Fighters: Women in Native Communities of the Eastern Woodlands and Great Plains,” undated, unpublished manuscript, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
36. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 3.
37. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 4.
38. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 4; Charles H. Burke Powwow Prohibition, February 24, 1923, Red Lake Archives; Code of Indian Offenses, March 30, 1883, Office of Indian Affairs, http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Code_of_Indian_Offenses.
39. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 4.
40. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 68th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Resolution 24 (December 10, 1923), Minnesota Field Hearings, Official Transcripts (August 26–29, 1924), 596.
41. In 1935, the government widened the road from Red Lake to Redby and forced several families to exhume the remains of buried relatives and move them. Hilger, Chippewa Child Life, 82.
42. Hilger, Chippewa Families, 82.
43. Dan Raincloud, Ponemah spiritual leader, annually traveled to Nett Lake to pick rice in addition to harvesting local Red Lake river beds. See Vennum, Wild Rice and the Ojibway People, 187.
44. Debilitating waves of smallpox were documented in the Red Lake region in 1824, 1835, 1837, 1838, and 1839. See Evangelical Society of Missions of Lausanne, “Report of June 11, 1835”; Burpee, Journals and Letters, 257n; Sharrock and Sharrock, “History of the Cree,” 286–88; Blegen, Minnesota, 117; Tanner, Atlas, 170.
45. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 22, 24, 26, 28, 35.
46. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1905; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 35.
47. E. B. Merritt to William H. Bishop, March 19, 1912, Red Lake Archives.
48. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1, 45.
49. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 126.
50. Dr. Thomas Rodwell, as cited in Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 139–40.
51. Reverend Lyman Abbott, “Education for the Indian,” Lake Mohonk Conference Keynote Address, 1988, as cited in Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, 109.
52. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 53.
53. Captain Hassler to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 12, 1869, and Lieutenant George Atcheson, both as cited in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 23.
54. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1896: 51, 1900: 18, 24; also Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 24–25, 30.
55. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 35; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 32.
56. Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, 117–20.
57. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 40; To Walk the Red Road, 49.
58. Eugene Stillday interview (May 2, 2015). Joe Dick and other older Ponemah speakers frequently called Ponemah Aazhooding, although Obaashiing is more common among younger speakers there today.
59. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 259.
60. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 687; Captain William A. Mercer to William A. Jones, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, July 20, 1900, Correspondence Files.
61. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 35, 37, 41.
62. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 37.
63. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 150–59.
64. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 427.
65. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1900: 260, 662.
66. Hilger, Chippewa Families, xi, 78.
67. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 48.
68. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 61.
69. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 44–47, 50–51. Dickinson Construction of Bemidji got the contract for the construction job.
70. Erika Bailey-Johnson interview (April 1, 2015); Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 52.
71. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 52.
72. Brookings Institution, “The Problem of Indian Administration: Report of a Survey made at the request of Honorable Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, and submitted to him, February 21, 1928” (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1928).
73. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 46–47.
74. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 53–55. The availability of impact aid monies began in 1950, with passage of Public Law 81–815.
75. Charles H. Burke Powwow Prohibition; Code of Indian Offenses; Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 3; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 27.
76. Serving in Red Lake were George Highlanding, Stands Forever (Gabegaabaw), Lewis Jourdain, Striped Day (Beshi-giizhig), Joseph Bellanger, Henry Taylor, Joseph Mason, Little Frenchman (Wemitigoozhiins), John Martin, William Jourdain, David Lajeunesse, Clifford Sitting, Peter Graves, Joseph V. Roy, Norman Kelly, Charles A. Beaulieu, Michael Lussier, Bazile Maxwell, Francis Gurneau, Bazile Lawrence, Little Chief (Ogimaans), Patrick Lussier, Baptiste Thunder, Leo DesJarlait, William Blue, William Fineday, Warren Greenleaf, Augustus Lajeunesse, Peter Sitting, Edward Prentice, Frank Prentice, Charles Prentice, John Squirrel, Alex Jourdain, Geoffery Chase, Albert Jones, John A. Smith, Louis Yellow, Louis Barrett, Llewelyn Parkhurst, Herman Smith, Herman English, Charles White, Marvin Yellow, Simon Beaulieu, Thomas Barrett, John English, Louis Caswell, Louis Jourdain, Louis B. Harwood, Charles Harkins, Lizziam Archambeau, Earl Robinson, Theodore Murphy, Royce Graves, Matthew Sayers, Melvin Strong, Frank Stately, Albert Stately Jr., and Thomas Cain. Serving in Ponemah were Joseph Brown, Charles Jackson, John Stillday, George Blakely, James Downwind, Charles Dick, Michael Blakely, Spencer Whitefeather, John Signa, Peter Martin, Daniel Perkins, George Oldman, Charles Bug Sr., John George, Harold Johnson Sr., Alfred Wind, and Thomas Cain. See Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 40.
77. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 133–34.
78. Nodin Wind’s recognition as chief is well recorded in the communication around creating the constitution for the General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, reprinted in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 85–86. See also references in the Indian Appropriation Bill (January 10, 1919), 72; and General Council Resolutions 4 (November 29, 1920), 6 (March 14, 1921), 1 (August 23, 1924), 1 (January 16, 1937)—all Red Lake Archives. We do not know the details of every meeting he had with various chiefs at Ponemah to obtain permission to represent the community in 1909, but he did have their sanction, as evidenced in his words at subsequent meetings in Washington and Red Lake and the absence of any objection to them by Every Wind and King Bird at the time and any of the other many representatives from Ponemah active in Red Lake’s political process afterward.
79. The 1930 census shows Nodin Wind’s occupation as a commercial fisherman at Red Lake. See Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Schedule, 15th U.S. Census, 1930. Bobby Whitefeather and Darrell Seki, both of Ponemah, have been elected as tribal chairmen at Red Lake in recent years.
1. Opening quote: David B. O’Rear, “In Memoriam: A Tribute to the Memory of My Friend, Peter Graves,” Red Lake Archives, reprinted in Bemidji Pioneer, March 14, 1991. Details of Collins Oakgrove’s encounter with Peter Graves are taken from Collins W. Oakgrove interview (April 23, 1996). For more bibliographical information on Oakgrove, see Treuer, Living Our Language, 165–77; “Collins Wayne Oakgrove,” Red Lake Nation News 10.206 (June 19, 2014). Collins Wayne Oakgrove was born March 16, 1944, and died June 15, 2014. His parents were Francis W. Oakgrove and Julia Dolly Johnson. Oakgrove was a veteran of the U.S. Navy, doing one tour in Vietnam in 1967, and worked for many years as instructor of Ojibwe at the University of Minnesota and the Leech Lake Bug-O-Nay-Geshick School. Details about the Ponemah store, Thomas and Mary Spears, kerosene lamp use, electrical service, and Peter Graves were corroborated by Anna C. Gibbs interview (February 4, 2015). Anna C. Gibbs (Waasabiikwe, or Moonlight Shining on the Water Woman) was born on December 17, 1944, and was a contemporary and classmate of Collins Oakgrove. The REA contract to establish electrical service to Ponemah in 1952 is referenced in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 3, 54.
2. Peter Graves interview with Arch Grahn (October 5, 1950), Minnesota Historical Society. Information in this paragraph and through this chapter is taken from several primary sources: Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives. This letter is on the letterhead of the General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, which also lists the Hereditary Chiefs as Okemahwahjewabe (Ogimaawajiweb, or Chief Going over the Hill), Nayaytowub (Na’etoowab, or Sits in Deliberation), William Sayers, Mayskogwon (Miskogwan, or Red Feather), Payshegeshig (Bezhigiizhig, or Solitary Sky), John F. Smith, and Alfred Wind. It also lists Xavier Downwind as chairman and Peter Graves as secretary-treasurer. The four-page letter is an autobiography and stands as one of the most reliable primary source documents of Graves’s career because it is in his own words and full of details, names, and dates for critical events. Peter Graves also gave a long and substantive autobiographical interview that details his early life and personal views; see Graves interview. Peter Graves drafted a position paper and issued it as a formal statement of the General Council. It was presented to the Minnesota Indian Conference in Bemidji on April 11, 1950, and also at the Indian Affairs conference in Bemidji on June 1, 1956. It provides great insight into Graves’s position on several critical issues and his relationship with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. See “Statement of the General Council,” June 1, 1956, Red Lake Archives. In addition, there are numerous newspaper articles and a well-researched biography of Peter Graves in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 110–11. See also Jack Newman, “Temporary Post Lasts Six Years: Indian Judge Is Still on the Job,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, July 6, 1942; Jay Edgerton, “Death Comes for Peter Graves,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 16, 1957; Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 7, 1958, 1; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County; David B. O’Rear, “In Memoriam” and “Death of Peter Graves,” Red Lake Archives; Minnesota Chippewa Tribal Council, Resolution 36: Tribute to Peter Graves; To Walk the Red Road, 11–13; Vincent Staples-Graves interview (May 9, 2015); Peter Strong interview with Robert Treuer and Gary Fuller (June 20, 2003). Strong is a grandson of Peter Graves and also a half brother to Roger Jourdain. Graves claims May 20, 1872, as his birth date in his interview with Arch Grahn, but provides June 1872 in his letter to Mark Burns.
3. White Crane’s daughter Madeline, who married Michel Cadotte, had two daughters who married Warrens. Charlotte and Marie Cadotte married Truman and Lyman Warren. The Cadottes were strict Catholics, but the Warrens, true to their Puritan roots, were Protestants. Most of the Warren clan followed Protestant traditions as they spread out to Red Lake. Child, Holding Our World Together, 33, 37, 62; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 3.
4. Omen was more Scottish than English and held fast to Scottish Catholicism rather than Anglican, Methodist, or Presbyterian religious beliefs.
5. Peter Strong reported that Omen went back to Canada to retrieve personal belongings and was caught, tried, and hanged, presumably for his role in the Riel Rebellion. Strong interview.
6. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 111.
7. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 111.
8. Matsen, “Battle of Sugar Point,” 269–75; King, Seeds of War, 83; Gardner, Minnesota Treasures, 16–19; Greiner, Minnesota Book of Days, 203; Associated Press, “Emma Bear, Last Survivor of Battle of Sugar Point, Dead at 103,” Brainerd Daily Dispatch, July 17, 2001.
9. Graves interview; To Walk the Red Road, 13.
10. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
11. Graves interview; Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
12. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 111.
13. Bemidji Daily Pioneer, July 12, 1912.
14. Don Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” unpublished manuscript, 1, 2, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives. The general council referred to here was the general council for all Minnesota Ojibwe; Red Lake’s general council had not yet been formed.
15. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 2. The petition of the chiefs was reported on in the Minneapolis Journal, December 24, 1913.
16. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 2.
17. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939. The entire constitution for the General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians is reprinted in Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 85–86. Graves submitted to the U.S. Congress all charter documents and the first dozen tribal resolutions, which were appended to the Indian Appropriation Bill (January 10, 1919), 72.
18. For a good overview of the OIA dynamics discussed in this paragraph and the next, see Hoxie, A Final Promise.
19. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 68th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Resolution 24 (December 10, 1923), Minnesota Field Hearings, Official Transcripts (August 26–29, 1924), 568, 569, 577.
20. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 131.
21. Anna C. Gibbs interview (February 4, 2015).
22. Woodlands: The Story of the Mille Lacs Ojibwe.
23. General Council Resolutions 4 (November 29, 1920), 6 (March 14, 1921), 1 (August 23, 1924), 1 (January 16, 1937)—all Red Lake Archives.
24. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 36.
25. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
26. Roger Jourdain, “Mis-qua-ga-me-we-saga-eh-ganing,” undated historical sketch, Red Lake Archives.
27. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 579. See also Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 3.
28. “Statement of the General Council,” June 1, 1956, Red Lake Archives.
29. Edgerton, “Death Comes for Peter Graves”; Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, “Statewide Baseline Study,” 1996, http://www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/water/water-types-and-programs/groundwater/groundwater-monitoring-and-assessment/statewide-baseline-study.html.
30. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
31. “Chippewa Indians of Minnesota,” Committee on Indian Affairs, House of Representatives, Testimony Transcripts on House Resolution 26, March 1, 1924.
32. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 1–584.
33. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 139, 582.
34. Office of Indian Affairs Internal Memo, 1924, Red Lake Archives. See also Jourdain, “Mis-qua-ga-me-we-saga-eh-ganing.”
35. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 583.
36. For information on the Red Lake claims case in this and following paragraphs, see The Chippewa Indians of Minnesota v. U.S. (U.S. Court of Claims, H76), filed with the Court of Claims February 26, 1927; Jourdain, “Mis-qua-ga-me-we-saga-eh-ganing”; 44 Stat. 555; 45 Stat. 423; 45 Stat. 601. There are more than one hundred letters pertaining to Red Lake’s Court of Claims case in Fred Dennis Correspondence File, Red Lake Archives. Legislative enablement of the claims process is documented in 75th Congress, 3rd Session, Chapter 777, No. 755 (June 28, 1938); 49 Stat. 1826; 35 Stat. 268.
37. 60 Stat. 149.
38. G. E. E. Lindquist to Harold Ickes, July 7, 1933, Red Lake Archives.
39. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 35–36.
40. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 56.
41. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 47, 50.
42. 43 Stat. 412; 39 Stat. 138; 44 Stat. 475.
43. Bemidji Sentinel, February 27, 1925, 1.
44. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 49.
45. For information in this and the next few paragraphs on the cyclical impact of fire on soil fertility, see Diamond, Collapse. On the trophic cascade effect, see John Terborgh and James Estes, Trophic Cascades. On the process at Red Lake, see Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 49; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 14.
46. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 50.
47. Red Lake Superintendent to Francis E. Leupp, April 18, 1908; Carlos Avery to C. F. Darrall, April 10, 1908; C. F. Larrabee to Carlos Avery, April 5, 1908; C. F. Larrabee to Red Lake Agency Superintendent, April 13 and 30, 1908; Carlos Avery to Francis E. Leupp, March 25, 1908; Francis E. Leupp to Halvor Steenerson, April 4, 1908—-all Red Lake Archives. See also Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1863–1934.
48. To Walk the Red Road, 55.
49. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 51–52.
50. “Statement of Halvor Steenerson,” Congressional Record, 57th Congress, 2nd Session, Serial 2183, 242; 25 U.S.C. §70, Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. United States and U.S. Court of Claims Docket 388-82L (Docket 189-C in settlement); Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 13.
51. Graves interview; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 14.
52. 25 U.S.C. §70, Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. United States; 25 U.S.C. §§1401, “Funds Appropriated in Satisfaction of Indian Claims Commission”; Tom Robertson, “Red Lake Band to Reforest 50,000 Acres,” Minnesota Public Radio, August 25, 2011; Michael Meuers, “Red Lake to Restore Great Pine Forests,” The Circle, September 10, 2011.
53. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 95–96.
54. Information on the development of Red Lake’s commercial fishery in this and subsequent paragraphs is taken from Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery”; Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 15; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 46–48; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 38–42, 85–124; Hagg, “Logging Line,” 132.
55. Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery”; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 87, 98.
56. S. A. Selvog, February 21, 1925, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City. The full text of commercial regulations imposed at Red Lake by the state is available in Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery.” Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 565–631.
57. James F. Gould, Minnesota State Game and Fish Commissioner, to A. C. Kvennes, September 14, 1926, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City.
58. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 607; Snyder Act, 43 Stat. 233.
59. Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery.”
60. Charles H. Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, to James F. Gould, January 19, 1926, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City.
61. Peter Graves to Edward L. Rogers, January 13, 1927, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 49; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 103–4.
62. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 101.
63. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 103–4, 107; Peter Graves to Edward L. Rogers, January 13, 1927.
64. General Council Resolution 1 (February 19, 1927), Red Lake Archives; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 109.
65. The law passed on March 22, 1929: Chapter 84, Section 5592, Subsections 1–8. See Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery.”
66. Graves interview.
67. The General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians approved of the arrangement on March 1, 1929, almost a month before the contract was executed, which enabled them to move quickly after the contract with the state was in place. See “The Proceedings of the General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians,” March 1, 1929, Red Lake Archives.
68. Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery”; Fred Dennis, “Semi-Final Story Pertaining to the Acquiring of the Land around the North and Eastern Shores of Upper Red Lake,” undated manuscript, Red Lake Archives.
69. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 117.
70. Frederic L. Kirgis to Harold L. Ickes, June 30, 1936, Secretary of the Interior Correspondence File; Fred Dennis to Governor Harold Stassen, January 24, 1939, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City.
71. Peter Graves to Harry E. Speakes, May 11, 1939, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City.
72. Raymond H. Bitney to Peter Graves, General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, February 2, 1939, Bureau of Indian Affairs Correspondence Files, National Archives, Kansas City.
73. Minnesota State Senate Bill 697, 51st Session (1939). Raymond Bitney to Fred Dennis, April 19, 1939; Theodore Quale to Raymond H. Bitney, April 14, 1939; E. L. Tungseth to Fred Dennis, April 15, 1939—-all National Archives, Kansas City, RG 75, box 517485. Fred Dennis to Tom C. White, January 19, 1945; R. T. Buckler Memo, November 19, 1934; William Heritage to Raymond H. Bitney, February 21, 1936; Raymond H. Bitney to John Collier, March 30, 1936—all Red Lake Archives; Dennis, “Semi-Final Story.”
74. Fred Dennis to Richard T. Buckler, November 19, 1934; Fred Dennis to Richard T. Buckler, May 23, 1941; Fred Dennis to Ed Rogers, May 23, 1941—all Red Lake Archives.
75. Dennis, “Semi-Final Story.”
76. Reclamation and condemnation proceedings and strategies are well documented in tribal correspondence. See especially Fred Dennis to Raymond H. Bitney, April 25, 1935; Fred Dennis to John Collier, April 25, 1935; Fred Dennis to Robert C. Bell, April 25, 1935; Raymond H. Bitney to John Collier, May 27, 1935; Fred Dennis to E. V. Willard, June 14, 1935; Fred Dennis to Peter Graves, June 14, 1935; Erling Swenson to Fred Dennis, June 20, 1935; E. V. Willard to Fred Dennis, June 18, 1935; Fred Dennis to Erling Swenson, June 22, 1935—all Red Lake Archives; Fred Dennis, “Report to Red Lake Fisheries Association,” July 1, 1935–June 30, 1936, Red Lake Archives.
77. Van Oosten and Deason, “History of Red Lake’s Fishery.”
78. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 54; Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks, 41.
79. Return of the Red Lake Walleye, documentary film (University of Arizona: Native Nations Institute, 2012); Red Lake Department of Natural Resources, “Red Lake Fisheries Program,” http://www.redlakednr.org/Fisheries.html; Larry Oakes, “’87 Walleye Case,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, May 23, 1999, 1.
80. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939; Graves interview.
81. Graves interview; “Statement of the General Council,” June 1, 1956.
82. W. Barton Greenwood to Marlys Kingbird, August 29, 1954, Red Lake Archives.
83. Wheeler-Howard Act, 48 Stat. 984 (June 18, 1934), codified as 25 U.S.C. §461. Raymond H. Bitney to David G. Mandelbaum, July 6, 1939; Raymond Bitney to Fred Dennis, July 7, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Mark L. Burns, July 7, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Peter Graves, July 8, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Mark L. Burns, July 14, 1939—-all Red Lake Archives.
84. Fred Dennis to R. T. Buckler, November 19, 1934, December 18, 1935, May 21, 1936; Fred Dennis to Peter Graves, November 14 and December 18, 1935, January 29, 1937; Raymond H. Bitney to Peter Graves, January 10, 1935, February 2 and 16, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, January 21, 1935, February 24 and December 23, 1936, January 29 and July 30, 1937, January 13, 1938, March 16, May 19, and June 13, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Fred Dennis, January 24, March 19, and May 2, 1936, February 1, 1937, February 16 and 23, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to John Gunderson Rockwell, September 29, 1938; Raymond H. Bitney to A. L. Hook, October 3, 1938; J. H. Brott to Peter Graves, January 3, 1939; Raymond H. Bitney to Benjamin E. Youngdahl, March 11, 1939; Agency Superintendent to Fred Dennis, June 2, 1943; Fred Dennis to Tom White, January 19, 1945; Peru Faver to D. E. Murphy, June 11, 1947; E. K. Burlew Memorandum, October 22, 1940—all in Submarginal Land File, Red Lake Archives.
85. 10 Fed. Reg. 2448 (1945); House of Representatives Bill 4540, 75th Congress, 1st Session (February 9, 1937); 56 Stat. 1039 (December 4, 1942).
86. Brad Swenson, “Red Lake Gains 32,000 Acres,” Bemidji Pioneer, January 8, 1989, 1, 14; Jourdain, “Mis-qua-ga-me-we-saga-eh-ganing.”
87. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 52–53.
88. Vandersluis, History of Beltrami County, 24.
89. Ex Parte Crow Dog, 109 U.S. Supreme Court 556; Major Crimes Act, 23 Stat. 385.
90. Public Law 280, as it is commonly known, is properly cited at PL 83–280 (18 USC §1162 and 28 USC §1360). Bois Forte was later exempted from Public Law 280 by act of Congress on May 23, 1973 (25 USC §1323). For analysis, see Sarah N. Cline, “Sovereignty under Arrest? Public Law 280 and Its Discontents,” master’s thesis, Oregon State University, May 20, 2013. 39 Minn. 853, 867 in Sigana v. Bailey, 282 Minn. 367.
91. Sigana v. Bailey, 282 Minn. 367, went all the way to the Minnesota Supreme Court. Roman Sigana, Respondent v. Allen Bailey and Isaac Johnson, Appellants. There is a great review of the case law on Public Law 280 in Christopher Lundberg, “Public Law 280 and Its Relevance for State Courts: Jurisdictional Limits on the State and the Importance of Ensuring Tribal Court Adjudication When Appropriate,” unpublished manuscript, December 2006, Red Lake Archives, also available at http://www.lsej.org/documents/118871Public%20Law%20280%20Final%20Paper.pdf. See also State v. Holthusen, 261 Minn. 536, 113 N. W.2d 180; In re Settlement of Beaulieu, 264 Minn. 406, 119 N.W.2d 25; and State v. Lussier, 269 Minn. 176, 130 N.W.2d 484.
92. Newman, “Temporary Post Lasts Six Years.”
93. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 111; Edgerton, “Death Comes for Peter Graves.”
94. Graves interview.
95. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 69th Annual Report (1900), 687.
96. Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
97. Graves interview; Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
98. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 44.
99. General Council Resolutions 1 (June 27, 1927), 1 (September 18, 1944), 9 (September 4, 1945), 4 (September 14, 1947), 3 (July 30, 1950), 2 (September 24, 1950)—all Red Lake Archives.
100. “Statement of the General Council,” June 1, 1956, Red Lake Archives; Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, Special Commission on the Chippewa Indian Tribes of Minnesota, 589; Peter Graves to Mark L. Burns, January 9, 1939.
101. Edgerton, “Death Comes for Peter Graves.”
102. Frell M. Owl to Don C. Foster, April 18, 1952; Frell M. Owl to Brigadier-General J. E. Nelson, April 17, 1952; General Council Resolution 5 (April 6, 1952); Tribal Council Resolution 115–59 (October 13, 1959)—all Red Lake Archives; Anna Gibbs interview (April 14, 2015).
103. O. D. Morken to Peter Graves, July 20, 1956; W. McLaughlin to Peter Graves, October 5, 1956; BIA Mineral Prospecting Permit, May 29, 1956—all Red Lake Archives.
104. McClurken, Fish in the Lakes, 383.
105. Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer (June 20, 2003).
106. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 55.
107. Strong interview.
108. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 110; Edgerton, “Death Comes for Peter Graves”; Raymond H. Bitney to Mrs. Marion Gridley, February 21, 1939, Red Lake Archives.
109. Harlan Beaulieu interview (April 5, 2013).
1. Opening quote from Brill, Red Lake Nation, 154; Susan Stanich, “Red Lake’s Chief: Roger Jourdain’s Friends, Foes Agree He Puts Reservation First,” Duluth News-Tribune, undated press clipping, Red Lake Archives. Information on Roger Jourdain throughout this chapter is taken from several key sources. Jourdain was widely covered by the press. There are two great biographies of him: Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 79–97; Robert Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake: Profile of an Indian Leader,” unpublished manuscript, 2003, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives. I also relied on Floyd Jourdain interview (April 23, 2012); Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer (June 20, 2003); Chuck Haga, “Roger Jourdain, 1912–2002,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 23, 2002, 1; Pat Doyle, “Residency Rule Foiled Would-Be Tribal Leader,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, August 7, 1990, 1; Rodney Jourdain to Robert Treuer, June 15, 1970, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives; Brad Swenson, “Roger Jourdain, 1912–2002,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 23, 2002, 1, 9; Molly Miron, “Friends Remember Jourdain: First Chairman of Red Lake Band of Chippewa Admired,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 24, 2002, 1, 7; Linda Greer, “Bemidji Recognizes Roger Jourdain Day,” Bemidji Pioneer, April 4, 2002, 3; Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr and Red Lake High School Students (1993), video, Red Lake Archives.
2. Floyd Jourdain interview (June 8, 2015).
3. Ruth Fevig, Gladys Graves, and Alice Tatum. Ruth was previously married to Calvin Beaulieu.
4. Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
5. Don Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” unpublished manuscript, 14, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
6. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 15–16.
7. To Walk the Red Road, 17.
8. Lakota Times, 1991, as cited in Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 80; John Greeting Spears Sr. (1908–68) was four years older than Roger Jourdain. Jourdain gives a nearly identical interview in Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
9. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 21.
10. Nathan Head received the nickname “Scan” because he frequently used the word scandalous. Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer; Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 23.
11. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 23.
12. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 7, 14.
13. Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr. Paul H. Beaulieu was born July 30, 1889, and died on April 8, 1955. Ransom Judd Powell Papers, Genealogy Microfilm 455, Family 93, Minnesota Historical Society.
14. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 7, 14.
15. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 8.
16. Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 8.
17. Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
18. Stanich, “Red Lake’s Chief.”
19. Peter Graves interview with Arch Grahn (October 5, 1950), Minnesota Historical Society.
20. “Red Lake Nation: A Status Report,” Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, May 23, 1990, 3; Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
21. U.S. Census listing for Paul H. Beaulieu (1940); U.S. Indian Census Roll for Paul H. Beaulieu (1885–1940); Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 12.
22. “New Council Held Out as Reservation Possibility: Rival Groups Could Both Lose, Indians Told,” and “Red Lake Governing Rights Argued before Committee,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 7, 1958, 1.
23. Shirley M. Cain, “Red Cloak: Tom Cain, Warrior and Teacher,” The Circle, May 1990; Mark Boswell, “Tom Cain, Portrait of an Ojibwe Man,” Ojibwe News, March 21, 1990, 6.
24. Information on this and the next chapter is documented in “Report and Recommendations,” Departmental Hearing Committee on Red Lake Tribal Governance Dispute to Secretary of the Interior, March 5, 1958. R. W. Quinn, Bureau of Indian Affairs Field Trip Report, June 23, 1958; R. D. Holtz, “Red Lake Band of Chippewa Tribal Government Meeting,” March 19, 1958—-both Red Lake Archives.
25. “Hereditary Chiefs Council Spokesman Arrested, Freed as Power Inquiry Proceeds,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 8, 1958, 1.
26. “Report and Recommendations,” Departmental Hearing Committee; Quinn, Field Trip Report, June 23, 1958; Holtz, “Red Lake Band of Chippewa”; D. S. Myer and Red Lake Tribal Business Association, Meeting Minutes, July 8, 1952, Red Lake Archives.
27. “Rival Red Lake Factions Await Result of Hearings,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 10, 1958, 1.
28. “Department of Interior Holds Fate of Councils,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 10, 1958, 1.
29. Minneapolis Journal, June 15, 1953; “Rival Red Lake Factions Await Result of Hearings,” 1.
30. “Rival Red Lake Factions Await Result of Hearings,” 1.
31. “Rival Red Lake Factions Await Result of Hearings,” 1; “Guide Course for Indians Is Proposed at College,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 7, 1958.
32. “Red Lake Band Must Form New Government,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, March 20, 1958, 1–2; Findings and Recommendations of Special Departmental Committee on Controversy over the Governing Body of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, Secretary of the Interior, Reports, March 5, 1958.
33. “Red Lake Band Must Form New Government,” 2.
34. Findings and Recommendations of Special Departmental Committee; “Red Lake Band Must Form New Government,” 2.
35. “Red Lake Group Organized for Closed Reservation,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, March 25, 1958, 1; “Red Lake Fisheries Holds Election,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, April 1, 1958, 1.
36. “Red Lake Election to Be Held on May 22,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, April 19, 1958, 1–2; “Let’s Help Them,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, May 2, 1958, 8; “Closed Red Lake Reservation Group to Meet Sunday,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, May 8, 1958, 1; Bemidji Daily Pioneer, March 20, 1958, 2; “Candidates for Red Lake Poll May 22,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, May 16, 1958, 2; “Jourdain and Jahnke Win at Red Lake,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, May 21, 1958, 1; “Meetings on New Indian Bylaws Set,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, June 18, 1958, 2.
37. “Indian Affairs Committee to Meet in Bemidji,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, January 24, 1958; “Indian Meet Slated Here Wednesday,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, February 3, 1958; “Chippewas Will Discuss Property Titles Wednesday,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, May 28, 1958, 2; “Decision on Appeal from Settlement Voted to Law Firm at Red Lake Meeting,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, June 12, 1958, 1–2.
38. “Jourdain Is Voted Head of Red Lake Indian Band,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, January 8, 1959, 1; Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, 143; “Indians Vote for Amended Constitution,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 18, 1958, 1; “Tribal Council of Red Lake to Be Elected January 6,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 28, 1958, 1, 3; “New Tribal Council Installed,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, January 22, 1959, 1.
39. Information for this section is taken from Beito, Coya Come Home; Dan Gunderson, “Coya’s Story,” May 3, 2004, Minnesota Public Radio; Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 4; Allery, “Roger Jourdain,” 10–14.
40. There were several thousand enrolled members at Red Lake and even more at White Earth in Knutson’s district. Most enrolled members were not registered voters, but many of the adults were. Jourdain did not dictate their voting, but he did exert significant influence among tribal voters.
41. Termination persisted as a policy until the middle of the 1960s. Fifty tribes were reinstated after termination in the 1970s. The Chinook and many others never were. See Fixico, Termination and Relocation.
42. Beito, Coya Come Home; Dan Gunderson, “Coya’s Story,” May 3, 2004, Minnesota Public Radio.
43. Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 79; “Hospital at Red Lake Is Reopened,” Bemidji Sentinel, January 23, 1959, 1.
44. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 99.
45. Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 83; Roger Jourdain speech to students at St. Cloud State University in 1990, as cited in Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 82.
46. Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. Earl J. Barlow, 846 F.2d 474.
47. Red Lake Tribal Council, Press Release, May 1, 1967, Red Lake Archives.
48. The Red Lake Tribal Employment Rights Ordinance is posted on the tribe’s website and codified in Tribal Council Resolutions 231–88 (September 22, 1988), 170–12 (August 14, 2012), 44–13 (March 12, 2013)—all Red Lake Archives. The national legislative effort and Roger Jourdain’s role in advocating for it is documented in Title 18, Part 1, Chapter 53, USC § 1151; Smith, Labor and Employment Law; Chavers, “The Last Great Warrior,” 83.
49. To Walk the Red Road, 18.
50. Information on the boycott throughout this section is taken from Sam Newlund, “Indians to Boycott Bemidji Merchants after Broadcast,” Minneapolis Tribune, October 28, 1966, 1, 9; “Tribal Council Votes to Boycott Bemidji,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 28, 1966, 1; Roger Jourdain, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 29, 1966; “Indians Protest Broad Cast, Vow Longer Boycott,” Minneapolis Tribune, October 30, 1966, 1, 18A; “Indians Continue Bemidji Boycott,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 31, 1966, 1–2; Jim Daman, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 1, 1966; “Boycott Continues,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 4, 1966, 1; “Harmful Boycott,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 2, 1966, 2; “Boycott against Bemidji Lifted,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 5, 1966, 1; Chuck Haga, “A Long Year at Red Lake: From Condemnation to Compassion during a Crisis,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 14, 2006; Roger Jourdain, Formal Complaint to Federal Communications Commission, October 25, 1966; FCC to Roger Jourdain, October 28, 1966; James R. Hambacher to Roger Jourdain, October 28, 1966; Roger Jourdain to James Hambacher, October 26, 1966; Roger Jourdain to Eugene McCarthy, October 26, 1966—all Red Lake Archives. Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (2006).
51. Robert Kohl, KBUN Commentary Program, October 25, 1966. The entire text was reproduced and shared in many venues, including a full reprint in the Red Lake News. Copies are archived with the Federal Communications Commission in Washington, DC, and the Red Lake Archives. For Miller quote, see Red Lake Tribal Council Meeting Minutes, October 29, 1966, Red Lake Archives.
52. “Indians Protest Broad Cast.”
53. Roger Jourdain, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 29, 1966.
54. “Kohl Quits, Boycott Ends,” Red Lake News 1.13 (November 4, 1966): 1. Margaret Seelye represented Red Lake’s new Community Action Program (CAP) at the meetings, and her mother, Luella Seelye, deputy assistant director of Community Action Program, was there for Leech Lake.
55. “Harmful Boycott,” Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 2, 1966, 2.
56. Roger Jourdain, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, October 29, 1966; Jim Daman, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 1, 1966; David E. Umhauer, Letter to the Editor, Bemidji Daily Pioneer, November 2, 1966.
57. “LeVander Says Bemidji Station Supports Rolvaag,” Minneapolis Tribune, October 30, 1966. Archived at Red Lake are copies of more than fifty letters of support for the boycott from business and political leaders sent to Roger Jourdain.
58. “Statement by Bob Kohl to Red Lake Tribal Council,” November 3, 1966, Red Lake Archives.
59. Bob Schranck, “Indian Critic Quits Bemidji Radio Post,” Minneapolis Star, November 4, 1966.
60. Joint Resolution by the Beltrami County Board of Supervisors, the Council of the City of Bemidji, and the Tribal Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, November 4, 1966.
61. Tribal Council Resolution 167–66 (November 4, 1966), Red Lake Archives; Thomas Stillday Jr. interview (2006); Haga, “A Long Year at Red Lake.”
62. Brad Swenson, “Remarks at Two Public Meetings Called Racist,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 20, 1992.
63. Tribal Council Resolutions 76–60 (September 14, 1960), 136–66 (September 14, 1966), 25–67 (February 9, 1967); General Council Resolution 3 (February 21, 1943)—all Red Lake Archives.
64. Tribal Council Resolutions 163–66 (November 3, 1966), 98–66 (July 13, 1966)—both Red Lake Archives. One Redby parcel was purchased from the Episcopal mission by the tribe during the Graves administration prior to Jourdain’s effort. See General Council Resolution 6 (December 19, 1948), Red Lake Archives.
65. Robert Treuer’s profile of Roger Jourdain (“Jourdain of Red Lake”) during the housing boom is a great combination of personal observations and historical research. Treuer served as community organizer for the Bemidji Office of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (1963–66), as director of Red Lake’s Community Action Program (1966–68), and as director of personnel for the Office of Economic Opportunity in Washington, DC (1968–78). For details on housing policy, see “Red Lake Nation: A Status Report,” 2.
66. Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 12.
67. Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 13; Robert Treuer, “A Passion to Protect,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 31, 2002, A21.
68. Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 15; “Red Lake Nation: A Status Report,” 2.
69. Treuer, “A Passion to Protect.”
70. “People Are Coming to Walk Taller,” Minneapolis Tribune, November 14, 1967. Roger Jourdain to Hubert H. Humphrey, March 15, 1966; Roger Jourdain to Walter Mondale, March 15, 1966; Red Lake Tribal Council Resolution 187–66 (October 26, 1966); Red Lake Tribal Council, Press Release, November 1, 1967; Roger Jourdain to Myron Hutchinson (University of South Dakota), November 10, 1966—all Red Lake Archives.
71. Information on this and the next three paragraphs is taken from Chuck Haga, “A Champion of His People,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, March 23, 2002, A1, A18; Treuer, “A Passion to Protect”; Wahlberg, The North Land, 24.
72. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Reports, 1905; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 35.
73. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1, 45.
74. Margaret Seelye Treuer interview (April 11, 2015). She is the author’s mother.
75. Margaret Seelye Treuer interview (April 11, 2015).
76. “Jourdain-Perpich Extended Care Facility among Highest Rated in Minnesota,” Red Lake Nation News, August 10, 2006.
77. Chuck Haga, “A Champion of His People”; Treuer, “A Passion to Protect”; Wahlberg, The North Land, 24.
78. Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer; Tim Giago, “Are We Becoming Nations of Sheep,” Lakota Journal, January 9–16, 2004.
79. Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer.
80. Kermit Pattison, “Tribal Leader Left Big Legacy,” St. Paul Pioneer Press, March 23, 2002, 1; Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu interview with Robert Treuer; Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
81. Red Lake Band v. State, 248 NW 2d 722, MSC (1976).
82. Red Lake Tribal Council Passport, Passport No. 1265, Robert Treuer, Issued September 1, 1987, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives; U.S. v. Jackie White, 508 U.S. Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 453; To Walk the Red Road, 20. The White case was a jurisdictional one in which White shot at and missed a live bald eagle and was charged under federal statute, but argued that the federal government lacked jurisdiction at Red Lake, except for crimes under the Major Crimes Act.
83. Roger A. Jourdain to Ted Thorson, May 3, 1985, Red Lake Archives.
84. Roger Jourdain interview with Wilf Cyr.
85. Pattison, “Tribal Leader Left Big Legacy,” 1, 12A; Tribal Council Resolution 110–67 (July 4, 1967), Red Lake Archives.
86. Pattison, “Tribal Leader Left Big Legacy,” 1, 12A.
87. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 154.
88. Public Law 93–638; 28 U.S.C. § 450–8.
89. Full text of Nixon’s policy statement is available at http://www.epa.gov/tribal/pdf/president-nixon70.pdf. It was transmitted to Congress as “Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs,” July 8, 1970. See Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2573.
90. Treuer, “A Passion to Protect”; Robert Treuer interview (April 2, 2014). Robert Treuer is the author’s father.
91. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 147–48; Tribal Council Resolution 203–90 (September 17, 1990), Red Lake Archives; Bureau of Indian Affairs official website, http://www.indianaffairs.gov/; “Hallett Killed in Auto Accident,” Bemidji Pioneer, February 5, 1992; 543 U.S. 631 (Supreme Court, 2005).
92. Public Law 92–318, Title IV (1972); “The Indian Education Act of 1972,” Journal of American Indian Education 14.2 (January 1975). Public Law 93–380 added teacher training and fellowship opportunities to the IEA in 1974. In 1988, Public Law 100–297 made BIA schools eligible for formula funding and gifted and talented programs. Public Laws 103–382 in 1994 and 107–110 in 2001 reauthorized the program.
93. Daniel K. Inouye to family of Roger Jourdain, March 27, 2002, Red Lake Archives.
94. Public Law 95–341 (August 11, 1978); 92 Stat. 469; 42 U.S.C. § 1996.
95. “Roger Alfred Jourdain, Biographical Sketch,” unpublished biography, 1966, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives. There is a note on the manuscript that reads: “Read to Roger at 3:15 P.M. on December 15, 1966, authorized this a true quote.”
96. All of the statistics on adoption and foster care of native children, including the Minnesota-specific figures, are taken from expert testimony on the bill Public Law 95–608 (Indian Child Welfare Act), 9–10, 336–37. Information on impacts of the act and caseload numbers is taken from Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 227, 238; Child, Holding Our World Together, 151.
97. ICWA advocacy and legislative effort in this and the following paragraph are taken from Public Law 95–608; 92 Stat. 3069 (November 8, 1978); 25 Stat. Codified §1901–63; Esther Wattenberg, “Sovereignty: The Heart of the Matter, Critical Considerations on the Interface between ICWA and ASFA” (unpublished conference proceedings, University of Minnesota, May 17, 2000).
98. John Redhorse in Esther Wattenberg, “Sovereignty.”
99. Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Butterworth, 658 F. 2d 310 (5th Circuit Court of Appeals, 1981); California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians, 480 U.S. 202 (1987); Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, Public Law 100–497; 25 U.S.C. § 2701.
100. Brad Swenson, “Gambling Law Challenged,” Bemidji Pioneer, January 29, 1989, 1; Susan Landon, “N.M. Tribe Leads Challenge against Gambling Law,” Albuquerque Journal, January 28, 1989, 1; “Perpich Signs Pacts Regulating Gambling on State Reservations,” Duluth News-Tribune, October 26, 1989, 3A; Bill Johnson, “Jourdain Urges Other Tribes to Join Lawsuit against Gaming Law,” Associated Press via Bemidji Pioneer, October 6, 1989, 1, 3; Don Jacobson, “Indian Lawsuit Says Gaming Act Unconstitutional,” Duluth News-Tribune, January 28, 1989, 1; Brad Swenson, “Reagan Asked to Veto Indian Gambling Bill,” Bemidji Pioneer, October 2, 1988, 1, 3.
101. The act was originally passed as Public Law 93–638; 28 U.S.C. § 450–8. Reauthorization is Public Law 100–297 (1988).
102. Michael Meuers, Red Lake Political Education Committee, “Reservation Turnout Data Report, 2000–2012,” Red Lake Archives.
103. Information throughout this section is taken from Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. United States, 800 F.2d 1187 (September 6, 1986); Jim Parsons, “Nepotism Charge Is Part of Red Lake Dissension,” Minneapolis Tribune, June 10, 1979, 1, 8A; George White, “Fires, Shootings Destroy Much of Red Lake,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 21, 1979, 1, 4A; George White, “New Reservation Agent Says Federal Funds Were Misused,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 22, 1979, 1, 8A; Jim Parsons, “Red Lake Leader May Be Ousted like Predecessor He Helped Oust,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 22, 1979, 1, 9A; Jim Parsons, “Red Lake Revolt Leader Waives His Rights,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 23, 1979, 1, 4B; Jim Parsons, “Red Lake Buries Victims of Violence; Hiding Chairman Freezes Tribal Funds,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 24, 1979, 2B, 10B; Finlay Lewis, “Red Lake Violence Rekindles Controversy over BIA Role,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 27, 1979, 1, 4A; Joe Kimball, “Jourdain Says He Is Still Red Lake Chairman,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 27, 1979, 1, 4A; George White, “Indians Burn Reservation Jail,” Minneapolis Tribune, May 20, 1979, 1, 8A; Brill, Red Lake Nation, 154–55; Eugene Stillday interview (July 11, 2006).
104. Roger A. Jourdain and Margaret E. Jourdain v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 617 U.S. Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit 507; Commissioner of Taxation v. Brun, 174 NW 2d, MSC 120 (1970).
105. The background for this paragraph is taken from note 98, above, and “Alvin R. Oliver,” Bemidji Pioneer, August 3, 1981, 3. The political action around Hanson’s job censure is taken from Tribal Council Resolutions 1–78 (February 28, 1978), 2–78 (February 28, 1978), 5–79 (May 21, 1979), 4–80 (January 16, 1980)—all Red Lake Archives; Don Allery, “The Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians: May 19, 1979,” Red Lake Archives.
106. Eugene Stillday interview (July 11, 2006).
107. Minneapolis Tribune, July 24, 1979.
108. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 155.
109. Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 6.
110. Tribal Council Resolution 181–71 (December 16, 1971), Red Lake Archives.
111. “A Man Called,” Lakota Times 10.50 (1991); Coleman, Frogner, and Eich, Ojibwa Myths and Legends, 103; Tribal Council Resolutions 115–59 (October 13, 1959), 59–78 (May 4, 1978)—both Red Lake Archives; Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 6.
112. Tribal Council Resolutions 148–60 (July 12, 1960), 135–73 (September 19, 1973), 90–76 (September 24, 1976), 141–77 (September 15, 1977)—all Red Lake Archives.
113. Public Law 97–425; Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, “Policy Statement on Nuclear Waste Disposal Sites,” 1982, Red Lake Archives.
114. Stanich, “Red Lake’s Chief”; Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, 187–88; Pat Doyle, “BIA Urges Red Lake to Open Reservation for Jobs,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, 1, 8B.
115. Treuer, “Jourdain of Red Lake,” 7; Treuer, “A Passion to Protect.”
116. Treuer, “A Passion to Protect,” 8.
117. Brad Swenson, “Jourdain Re-elected by 21 Votes,” Bemidji Pioneer, May 23, 1986, 1; “Jourdain Is Winner in Tribal Election,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, May 23, 1986, 1B.
118. “Judge to Decide Red Lake Reservation Election Issue,” Grand Forks Herald, July 18, 1990, 1.
119. Amended Red Lake Band of Chippewa Constitution, Article 5b (May 24, 1978); Tribal Council Resolution 78–78 (May 24, 1978), Red Lake Archives. Other amendments to the tribe’s 1958 constitution were passed in 1974, lowering the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen and, in 1982, prohibiting felons from running for office. Amended Red Lake Band of Chippewa Constitution, Article 5a (May 22, 1974); Tribal Council Resolution 62–74 (May 22, 1974); Amended Red Lake Band of Chippewa Constitution, Article 5b (May 26, 1982); Tribal Council Resolution 107–82 (May 26, 1982)—all Red Lake Archives.
120. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 155; “Remembering Roger Jourdain,” Bemidji Pioneer, April 1, 2003, 3; Walter Mondale to Robert Treuer, August 31, 1970, and Robert Treuer to Walter Mondale, July 19, 1970—both Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
121. Linda Greer, “Royal Funeral Planned Today: Politicians, Dignitaries Expected to Pay Respects to Jourdain,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 27, 2002, 1; Brad Swenson, “Whitefeather Discusses Legacy of Roger Jourdain,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 27, 2002, 10; Brad Swenson, “Jourdain Recalled as People’s Leader,” The American, March 31, 2002, 1–2; Brenda Child, “Roger Jourdain Passes On,” The Circle, May 2002; Pattison, “Tribal Leader Left Big Legacy,” 1, 12A; “Roger Jourdain,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 24, 2002; Robert Treuer, “Jourdain Saved Red Lake Nation and Changed U.S. Indian Policy,” undated, unpublished manuscript, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
122. “Minnesota Journalist Who Was Tribal Watchdog Dies after Cancer Fight,” Park Rapids Enterprise, March 5, 2010. Jourdain’s conflict with Lawrence ran deep. Lawrence was relentless in his political and personal criticism of Jourdain. Jourdain eventually fought back and even ran background checks on Lawrence’s employment history at Fort Mojave, obtaining statements from political officials and supervisors about alleged misconduct when Lawrence was an employee at Mojave. Jourdain pulled criminal background checks on Gary E. Blair, including a first-degree criminal sexual conduct complaint filed February 12, 1982 (Beltrami County, Ninth Judicial District). Blair sometimes assisted Lawrence in political investigation and reporting on Jourdain. See Elmer Seville to Roger A. Jourdain, March 28, 1986, Anton Treuer Papers, Red Lake Archives.
1. Opening quote, Anna C. Gibbs interview (May 13, 2015). Gibbs’s account of the bombing throughout this section is taken from Anna C. Gibbs interview (May 13, 2015). For corroborating documentation of the bombings and tribal politics around them, see Frell M. Owl to Don C. Foster, April 18, 1952; Frell M. Owl to Brigadier General J. E. Nelson, April 17, 1952; General Council Resolution 5 (April 6, 1952); Tribal Council Resolution 115–59 (October 13, 1959)—all Red Lake Archives. The bombings annually killed thousands of fish on Upper Red Lake; they floated up in the ordnance-testing zone every spring when the ice melted.
2. This section is based on Anna Gibbs interviews (1992–2015), and a biography of her by the author reworked and published here with permission, originally published in Oshkaabewis Native Journal 7.2 (Spring 2010).
3. Nenabozho, or Wenabozho in other dialects of Ojibwe, is a figure from traditional legends—half human, half spirit, and a positive spiritual force. He is also famous for his tricks on animals, birds, and Ojibwe people.
4. Biographical information on Thomas Stillday Jr. is taken from Thomas Stillday Jr. interviews (1992–2006), and a biography of him by the author reworked and published here with permission, originally published in Oshkaabewis Native Journal 7.1 (Fall 2009).
5. This story is a firsthand account experienced by the author and his brother, David Treuer.
6. Molly Miron, “Red Lake Spiritual Leader Stillday Dies,” Bemidji Pioneer, October 15, 2008, 1; Ben Cohen, “Thomas Stillday, Jr., Spiritual Leader of Red Lake Ojibwe,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, October 15, 2008, 1.
7. Mike Mosedale, “Same Country, Different Nation: The Real Red Lake,” City Pages, May 4, 2005; John Enger, “A Day They Can’t Forget: Legacy of Red Lake Shootings Complex, Difficult to Grasp,” Minnesota Public Radio, reprinted in Bemidji Pioneer, March 22, 2015, 1, 6–7.
8. “Language Policy for the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians,” General Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians, 5–6, emphasis in the original; Proposed Resolution 14 (January 7, 2014)—both Red Lake Archives.
9. The Sela G. Wright Papers are housed at Oberlin College and a copy of the Josselin De Jong Papers is available at the Minnesota Historical Society.
10. Curriculum included, for example, Tom Cain’s Chippewa Language Series, published by the Bemidji State College Press in the 1970s.
11. Why the Bear Has a Short Tail.
12. Title translations are The Little Animals, Helping, Making Friends, and How It Is Said.
13. Waadookodaading means “where we help one another.”
14. Molly Miron, “Red Lake Nation College: College President Appreciates His Humble Beginnings,” Bemidji Pioneer, December 22, 2012, 1.
15. Michael Barrett, “Seki Sworn in as 6th Chairman of the Red Lake Nation,” Red Lake Nation News, July 7, 2014.
16. Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. United States, 25 U.S.C. §70; 25 U.S.C. §§1401; Tom Robertson, “Red Lake Band to Reforest 50,000 Acres,” Minnesota Public Radio, August 25, 2011; Michael Meuers, “Red Lake to Restore Great Pine Forests,” The Circle, September 10, 2011.
17. William M. Blair, “Changes in U.S. Agency Stir Anger among Indians,” New York Times, August 16, 1971.
18. Rob Capriccioso, “Indian Affairs Experts Jockeying to be President Hillary’s Native Guru,” Indian Country Today, August 14, 2013.
19. Brill, Red Lake Nation, 147–48; Tribal Council Resolution 203–90 (September 17, 1990), Red Lake Archives; Bureau of Indian Affairs official website, http://www.indianaffairs.gov/; “Hallett Killed in Auto Accident,” Bemidji Pioneer, February 5, 1992.
20. John Hageman, “Opening New Restaurant in Bemidji a Perfect Fit for Marv Hanson,” Bemidji Pioneer, April 27, 2013; Zach Kayser, “Marv Hanson Dies at Age 60,” Bemidji Pioneer, December 30, 2013, 1.
21. Anna C. Gibbs interview (May 13, 2015).
22. Aloysius Thunder interview (2006); Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, 187; Pat Doyle, “BIA Urges Red Lake to Open Reservation for Jobs,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, June 19, 1986, 1, 8B.
23. M. L. Burns deposition (August 22, 1930), Court of Claims Doc. H-76, 102, Peter Graves Papers, Red Lake Archives; Wahlberg, The North Land, 1–59; “KaKayGeesick,” Warroad Pioneer, January 27, 1999, 1; Ryan Bakken, “High-Stakes Game,” Grand Forks Herald, November 20, 2000, 1, 7A; Tom Robertson, “Warroad Ojibwe Want Federal Recognition,” Minnesota Public Radio, October 24, 2005. Tribal Council Resolution 54–73 (April 26, 1973); McPherson to M. R. Baldwin, March 25, 1896; Daniel M. Browning to Hoke Smith, March 12, 1895; Daniel M. Browning to W. F. Campbell, February 8, 1895; Charles H. Burke to Hubert Work, January 19, 1925; Raymond Bitney to George F. Sullivan, January 2, 1936; J. H. Brott to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 19, 1941; Raymond Bitney to Victor E. Anderson, August 26, 1938; Raymond Bitney to Max Jones, March 16, 1939—-all Red Lake Archives.
24. Tribal Council Resolution 54–73 (April 26, 1973), Red Lake Archives; Floyd Jourdain interview (June 8, 2015).
25. “Indians Seek Home on Reserve in Canada,” Bemidji Pioneer, December 12, 1990; Tribal Council Resolution 89–08 (May 28, 2008), Red Lake Archives; Tom Robertson, “Ojibwe Family Fights Land Sale for Tribal Casino,” Minnesota Public Radio, November 4, 2010.
26. Wilhelm Murg, “Tito Ybarra’s Medicine Is His Comedy,” Indian Country Today, September 27, 2012; Wilhelm Murg, “On the Cutting Edge of Native Comedy with the 1491s,” Indian Country Today, September 2, 2012.
27. Wub-e-ke-niew [Francis Blake], We Have the Right, xlv, xlvii, 1.
28. John Gilbert, “Warroad’s Boucha Wins Election to U.S. Hockey Hall of Fame,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, August 12, 1995, 10C.
29. Floyd Jourdain interview (June 8, 2015).
30. Andy Nelson, “Saving the Lost Arts of the Chippewa Indians,” Northern Collector, April 1985, 24–29.
31. DesJarlait and Williams, Patrick DesJarlait.
32. DesJarlait and Williams, Patrick DesJarlait, back cover quote.
33. Floyd Jourdain interview (June 9, 2015).
34. “KaKayGeesick’s Seeking Recognition,” Warroad Pioneer, October 4, 2000, 1; Anne Louise Meyerding, “Traditional Art as Fresh as the Artist’s Vision,” Bemidji Pioneer, March 7, 1986, 4; English and Dallman, Sam English; Jamie Keith, “Sam English’s Big Dream,” The Circle, July 30, 2012.
35. Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks.
36. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, “Statewide Baseline Study,” 1996, http://www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/water/water-types-and-programs/groundwater/groundwater-monitoring-and-assessment/statewide-baseline-study.html.
1. Opening quote, Diedrich, Ojibway Oratory, 15. Bear Heart (Le Cœur d’Ours in French) was chief at La Pointe. Turney and Brown, “Catastrophic Early Holocene Sea Level Rise”; Sansome, Minnesota Underfoot, 174–79.
2. Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 7. The Mandan likely visited Red Lake but did not live there. There were Mandan villages at the mouth of the Minnesota River observed by Perrot in 1689 and Le Sueur in 1701.
3. When the Ojibwe attacked the Dakota at Mille Lacs in 1745, they encountered many of them still living in the A’aninin earthen lodges there. The Ojibwe drove them out by storming the village, dropping gunpowder wrapped in cloth through the smoke holes of the earthen lodges, and clubbing the survivors when they emerged from the explosions. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 157–62, 178–82, 261.
4. The Tuscarora joined the Iroquois Confederacy in 1717. For details on the Iroquois Wars and their impact on Ojibwe–Dakota relations prior to 1679, see Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 5:290, 55:97; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 41; Kellogg, French Regime, 95, 99, 153–54; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 193; Archie Mosay interview, 1994; Earl Otchingwanigan interview, 1993; Mason, Schoolcraft’s Expedition, 115; Parker, Carver Journals, 189; Adams, Radisson Explorations, 94; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 28; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:80; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 31–32; Sharrock and Sharrock, “History of the Cree,” 205–6.
5. Kellogg, French Regime, 163; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 50:279, 54:167, 205, 217, 55:133, 56:115, 117, 57:203, 58:257–63; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 41–42, 49; Dunn, The St. Croix, 10; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 30; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 31; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:43; Edmunds, The Potawatomis, 8.
6. Tanner, Atlas, 65–66; Upham, “Groseilliers and Radisson,” 504.
7. Blair, Indian Tribes, 1:160–63, 277. See also Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 133; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 27, 33; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 36; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 58; Upham, “Groseilliers and Radisson,” 501; Hill, “Geography of Perrot,” 2:207. Most people do not think of buffalo and caribou inhabiting the lands south of Lake Superior. They were there, however, and in great numbers. The buffalo were primarily along the St. Croix Valley region and the caribou mainly in northern Minnesota. There was a state license to hunt woodland caribou in Minnesota as late as 1906.
8. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 117, 134–35; White, The Middle Ground, 77; Hickerson, “Chippewa in Central Minnesota,” 41, 57, 59; Sharrock and Sharrock, “History of the Cree,” 66; Edmunds, The Potawatomis, 13; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 59–60; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:39; Blair, Indian Tribes, 2:112; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 29; Blegen, Minnesota, 53.
9. Adams, Radisson Explorations, 91; Bishop, “Northern Chippewa,” 317.
10. Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux, 10; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:39, 42–43; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 68:329; Baerreis, Wheeler-Voeglin, and Wycoco-Moore, “Anthropological Report,” 24; Kellogg, French Regime, 282, 323, 331–33; Kellogg, Early Narratives, 81; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 76–78, 82–84; Zapffe, Indian Days, 40; White, The Middle Ground, 82, 168; Blegen, Minnesota, 54; “The Fox and Ojibwa War,” 1:283; Edmunds, The Potawatomis, 26.
11. The evolution of French trade and exploration policy is easily accessed in the records of early explorers and the documents of New France, including information on the expeditions of Brule and Grenoble (Isle Royale, 1620), Fathers Isaac Jogues and Charles Raymbault (Sault Ste. Marie, 1641), Radisson and Groseilliers (1659), Nicolas Perrot (Lake Superior, 1665 and 1699), Louis Joliet (Lake Superior, 1673), Tonti and La Salle (1678–83 and 1684–87), Du Lhut (Lake Superior, 1678–80), Hennepin (1680), De Noyon (Lake of the Woods, 1687–89), De la Noue (Rainy Lake, 1717); Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 9:313, 55:320; Kellogg, Early Narratives, 17–27; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:28–29, 73.
12. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 136–37, 179; Kavanagh, La Vérendrye, 92, 95–97; Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities, 15–16. Fort St. Charles is marked on most maps, but the precise location was uncertain from 1800 to 1908, when a major excavation of the site successfully located most of the buildings.
13. Lund, Lake of the Woods II, 42; Blegen, Minnesota, 58; Burpee, Journals and Letters, 25; Dickason, Canada’s First Nations, 148; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 142.
14. For details on the construction of the fort, see Kellogg, French Regime, 337.
15. Crouse, La Vérendrye, 88–90; Lund, Lake of the Woods II, 35–36.
16. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 175–76, 211; Kavanagh, La Vérendrye, 105.
17. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 211.
18. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 238; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 42.
19. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 211–12, 238, 264–65; Laut, Pathfinders, 213–14. See also Crouse, La Vérendrye, 107–9; Kavanagh, La Vérendrye, 127; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 9; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 42; Zapffe, Indian Days, 45. After the 1736 Dakota attack at Lake of the Woods, large numbers of Dakota returned to the Lake Pepin area boasting of the deed and even sporting a medallion taken from a Frenchman they had killed. This is probably the most solid evidence there is that the Dakota were the largest contingent. The report of La Vérendrye from June 2, 1736, states that the French encountered an Ojibwe at Lake Vermilion, Minnesota, who claimed to have been present at the incident. Several Ojibwe from Chequamegon were also reported to have been present. René Bourassa’s report of the incident says that the war party was composed of Prairie Sioux, Lake Sioux, and Chequamegon Ojibwe.
20. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 213–66; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 36; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 37; Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities, 17.
21. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 219.
22. Zapffe, Indian Days, 45.
23. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 228–29, 231.
24. Zapffe, Indian Days, 36; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 37.
25. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 212–13, 221, 224, 259–60, 266; Blegen, Minnesota, 56; Lund, Lake of the Woods II, 39.
26. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 258; Hickerson, Chippewa and Their Neighbors, 71; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 38; Vennum, Wild Rice and the Ojibway People, 9.
27. Hickerson, “Chippewa in Central Minnesota,” 62; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 36.
28. Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 133; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 158, 159–60.
29. Tanner, Atlas, 42; Dunn, The St. Croix, 11; Woolworth, “Ethnohistorical Report,” 30; Hurt, “Dakota Sioux Indians,” 101; Robinson, History of the Dakota, 28; Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux, 13; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 37; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 157. As the fur trade put pressure on animal populations on the eastern fringes of the Dakota territory, the Dakota began to move westward. Big game animals such as buffalo were in great abundance on the prairies. According to Mdewakantonwan Dakota oral history, this was the primary causal factor for Dakota westward migrations in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century. Adaptation to plains hunting practices was greatly augmented by the introduction of the horse to the Dakota around 1700. The primary motive for relocation was the pull of better resources, not the push of enemy warfare. In fact, some scholars believe that the Dakota had begun to shift westward as early as 1650.
30. Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 45; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 27, 36; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 38; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 92.
31. Lund, Lake of the Woods II, 73; Burpee, Journals and Letters, 256–57; Zapffe, Indian Days, 128; Ewers, “Ethnological Report,” 20.
32. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 234, 238; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 163; Bishop, “Northern Chippewa,” 319; Tanner, Atlas, 43; Gilman, Grand Portage Story, 38, 43.
33. Burpee, Journals and Letters, 274; Hickerson, “Mdewakanton Band,” 91; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 9.
34. Kegg, “Nookomis Gaa-inaajimotawid,” 29–35, 41–43, 49–51, 65, 69; Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 106–7, 127–29, 158–62, 170–78, 219–20, 248; Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 51:53, 69:39; Hickerson, “Chippewa of Lake Superior,” 45–47; McKenney, Sketches, 291; Tanner, Atlas, 43; Kellogg, French Regime, 356–57; Danziger, Chippewas of Lake Superior, 33, 37; Zapffe, Indian Days, 128; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 9–10; Diedrich, The Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, 1; Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux, 13–14; Folwell, History of Minnesota, 1:80; Hurt, “Dakota Sioux Indians,” 104; Dunn, The St. Croix, 11; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 133; Howard, Plains-Ojibwa, 7:99.
1. U.S. Postal Service, Postmasters by City, Redlake Post Office, Redby Post Office, and Ponemah Post Office (Beltrami County, Minnesota); U.S. Postal Service, Department of Records, Appointment of Postmasters, microfilm 16, roll 63, number 841, Minnesota Historical Society; “First Postoffice [sic] Established at Red Lake in 1875,” Northland Times, March 26, 1954, 1; Mittelholtz, Historical Review, 1, 24–55. The formal name of the post office at Red Lake has the words conflated as “Redlake.” The last name Gurno is a common one at Red Lake, and usually is spelled Gurneau, although the postal service records and those at the Minnesota Historical Society spell it as Gurno. Seline Arnold held the postmaster position at Redby in 1944 on a temporary basis while her husband, Datus M. Arnold, was in active military service during World War II. He resumed his former position and she stepped down when he returned.
1. Kathryn “Jody” Beaulieu, “Hereditary Chiefs,” August 3, 1994, Red Lake Archives; Harlan Beaulieu interview (August 1, 2015); Floyd Jourdain interview (August 2, 2105); James Loud interview (August 15, 2015).