1. Thomas Friedman, “Win, Lose, but No Compromise,” New York Times, August 31, 2016.
2. Howard Ross, ReInventing Diversity: Transforming Organizational Community to Strengthen People, Purpose and Performance (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), and Howard Ross, Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014).
1. “LGBTQ” is used to represent lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and “questioning” or “queer.”
2. “Political Polarization in the American Public,” Pew Research Center, June 12, 2014.
3. David Wasserman, “Senate Control Could Come Down to Whole Foods vs. Cracker Barrel,” FiveThirtyEight, October 8, 2014, https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/senate-control-could-come-down-to-whole-foods-vs-cracker-barrel.
4. At the date of this writing, figures for the 2016 election were not available; however the general breakdown between red and blue states supports the pattern.
5. Bill Bishop and Robert G. Cushing, The Big Sort: Why the Clustering of Like-Minded America Is Tearing Us Apart (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2008).
6. Joy Huang, Samuel Jacoby, Michael Strickland, and Rebecca Lai, “Election 2016: Exit Polls,” New York Times, November 8, 2016.
7. Emma Brown, “On the Anniversary of Brown v. Board, New Evidence That U.S. Schools Are Resegregating,” Washington Post, May 17, 2016.
8. “Better Use of Information Could Help Agencies Identify Disparities and Address Racial Discrimination,” U.S. Government Accountability Office, GAO-16-345, May 17, 2016.
9. David Neiwert, “Trump Condemns Attacks on Jews—After Earlier Suggesting They Are Meant to Make Him Look Bad,” Southern Poverty Law Center, March 1, 2017.
10. Wikipedia, s.v. “Public Facilties Privacy & Security Act,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Facilities_Privacy_%26_Security_Act, accessed August 11, 2017.
11. Andrew Cohen, “It’s Time to Investigate Voter Fraud,” Brennan Center for Justice, New York University School of Law, January 24, 2017.
12. Sabrina Tavernise and Katharine Q. Seelye, “Political Divide Splits Relationships—and Thanksgiving, Too,” New York Times, November 15, 2016.
13. Maimuna Majumder, “Election Got You Feeling Down? Good News: It Isn’t Just You,” Wired, November 8, 2016.
14. “Teacher Caught Telling Students Their Parents Would Be Deported,” WorldNetDaily.com, November 12, 2016.
1. The Human Rights Campaign’s Corporate Equality Index is the national benchmarking tool on corporate policies and practices pertinent to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender employees; see https://www.hrc.org/campaigns/corporate-equality-index.
2. Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review 50, no. 4 (1943): 370–396.
3. Ibid., 370.
4. Patrick A. Gambrel and Rebecca Cianci, “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Does It Apply in a Collectivist Culture?,” Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship 8, no. 2 (2003).
5. For the purpose of brevity, I will sometimes use the term “America” in this book to refer to the United States of America, and not the American continents.
6. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America: Historical-Critical Edition of “De la démocratie en Amérique,” vol. 3, ed. Eduardo Nolla, trans. James T. Schleifer (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2010) part 2, ch. 1.
7. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Touchstone Books, 2001).
8. Francis Fukuyama, “Social Capital and Development: The Coming Agenda,” SAIS Review 22, no. 1 (2002): 23–37.
9. Ibid.
10. George N. Appell, “The Social Separation Syndrome,” Survival International Review 5, no. 1 (1980): 13–15.
11. Alan I. Leshner, “Addiction Is a Brain Disease, and It Matters,” Science 278, no. 5335 (1997): 45–47.
12. B. K. Alexander, R. B. Coambs, and P. F. Hadaway, “The Effect of Housing and Gender on Morphine Self-Administration in Rats,” National Center for Biotechnology Information Journal, July 6, 1978, 175–179.
13. D. Morgan, K. A. Grant, H. D. Gage, R. H. Mach, J. R. Kaplan, O. Prioleau, S. H. Nader, N. Buchheimer, R. L. Ehrenkaufer, and M. A. Nader, “Social Dominance in Monkeys: Dopamine D2 Receptors and Cocaine Self-Administration,” National Center for Biotechnology Information Journal, February 5, 2002, 169–174. In this study, macaque monkeys were placed into an environment similar to that of Rat Park and, after they had established a social hierarchy, performed a series of tests. One such test involved giving each macaque an opportunity to self-administer cocaine. Did all macaques administer equivalent amounts of the highly addictive drug? No. It became apparent that the most aggressive users were the monkeys lowest on the social hierarchy. Similarly to Alexander’s study, where the rats confined to a depressing cage were more likely to continue to consume the morphine, monkeys confined to a life on the lower end of the social hierarchy also sought drugs as a means to escape their less-than-ideal conditions.
14. B. O. Hagan, E. A. Wang, J. A. Aminawung, C. E. Albizu-Garcia, N. Zaller, S. Nyamu, S. Shavit, J. Deluca, and A. D. Fox, “History of Solitary Confinement Is Associated with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms among Individuals Recently Released from Prison,” Journal of Urban Health, March 9, 2017, doi: 10.1007/s11524-017-0138-1.
15. Quoted from Ramin Skibba, “Solitary Confinement Screws Up the Brains of Prisoners,” Newsweek, April 18, 2017.
16. Lee N. Robins, “Vietnam Veterans’ Rapid Recovery from Heroin Addiction: A Fluke or Normal Expectation?,” Addiction Journal 88 (1993): 1041–1054.
17. Caitlin Ryan, “Helping Families Support Their Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Children,” National Center for Cultural Competence, Georgetown University Center for Child and Human Development, 2009.
18. Scott E. Page, The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
19. Robert D. Putnam, “E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century,” Johan Skytte Prize Lecture, June 15, 2007, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x/abstract.
20. Brené Brown, Braving the Wilderness: The Quest for True Belonging and the Courage to Stand Alone (New York: Random House, 2017).
21. Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), 401–402.
22. Nelson Mandela, Nelson Mandela by Himself: The Authorised Book of Quotations (Johannesburg: Nelson Mandela Foundation, 2002).
23. L. F. Berkman and S. L. Syme, “Social Networks, Host Resistance, and Mortality: A Nine-Year Follow-Up Study of Alameda County Residents,” National Center for Biotechnology Information Journal, February 1979, 186–204.
24. John Cacioppo and William Patrick, Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009); J. Cacioppo, M. E. Hughes, L. J. Waite, L. C. Hawkley, and R. A. Thisted, “Loneliness as a Specific Risk Factor for Depressive Symptoms: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analyses,” National Center for Biotechnology Information Journal, March 21, 2006, 140–151.
25. James S. House, Karl R. Landis, and Debra Umberson, “Social Relationships and Health,” Science 241, no. 4865 (1988): 540–545.
26. A. Lacey and D. G. Cornell, “Impact of Teasing and Bullying on Schoolwide Academic Performance,” Journal of Applied School Psychology, August 13, 2013, 262–283.
27. R. F. Baumeister, J. M. Twenge, and C. K. Nuss, “Effects of Social Exclusion on Cognitive Processes: Anticipated Aloneness Reduces Intelligent Thought,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, November 2002, 817–827.
28. J. T. Cacioppo, J. M. Ernst, M. H. Burleson, M. K. McClintock, W. B. Malarkey, L. C. Hawkley, R. B. Kowalewski, A. Paulsen, J. A. Hobson, K. Hugdahl, D. Spiegel, and G. G. Berntson, “Lonely Traits and Concomitant Physiological Processes: The MacArthur Social Neuroscience Studies,” National Center for Biotechnology Information Journal, March 2000, 143–154.
29. Louise C. Hawkley and John T. Cacioppo, “Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 40 (October 2010): 218–227.
30. Xiaojing Xu, Xiangyu Zuo, Xiaoying Wang, and Shihui Han, “Do You Feel My Pain? Racial Group Membership Modulates Empathic Neural Responses,” Journal of Neurosciences 29, no. 26 (2009): 8525–8529; M. Cikara, E. G. Bruneau, and R. R. Saxe, “Us and Them: Intergroup Failures of Empathy,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 20, no. 3 (2011): 149–153; S. M. Aglioti, V. Santangelo, A. Avenanti, V. Cazzato, R. T. Azevedo, and E. Macaluso, “Their Pain Is Not Our Pain: Brain and Autonomic Correlates of Empathic Resonance with the Pain of Same and Different Race Individuals.” Human Brain Mapping 34, no. 12 (2013): 3168–3181.
31. H. Tajfel, “Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination,” Scientific American 223, no. 5 (1970): 96–103.
32. “Races Disagree on Impact of Simpson Trial,” CNN-Time Poll, October 6, 1995, http://www.cnn.com/US/OJ/daily/9510/10-06/poll_race/oj_poll_txt.html.
33. G. A. Quattrone and E. E. Jones, “The Perception of Variability within In-Groups and Out-Groups: Implications for the Law of Small Numbers,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38, no. 1 (1980): 141–152.
34. Bernadette Park and Myron Rothbart, “Perception of Out-Group Homogeneity and Level of Social Categorization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, no. 6 (1982): 1051–1068.
35. Howard Ross, Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014).
36. S. E. Asch, “Effects of Group Pressure on the Modification and Distortion of Judgments,” in Readings in Social Psychology, 2nd ed., ed. G. E. Swanson, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley (New York: Holt, 1952), 2–11.
37. Stanley Milgram, “Behavioral Study of Obedience,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67, no. 4 (1963): 371–378; “The Stanford Prison Experiment: Still Powerful after All These Years,” press release, Stanford University News Service, January 8, 1997.
38. Cari Romm, “How We Learn to Exclude People,” New York Magazine, April 13, 2017.
1. John Davis, “Texas Tech Researchers: Caveman Instincts Still Play Role in Choosing Political Leaders,” press release, Texas Tech University, October 19, 2011.
2. Avinash K. Dixit and Barry J. Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically: The Competitive Edge in Business, Politics, and Everyday Life (New York: Norton, 1991).
3. J. T. Toman, “The Papal Conclave: How Do Cardinals Divine the Will of God?,” University of Melbourne, January 5, 2004.
4. Melissa Chan, “Donald Trump More Trustworthy Than Hillary Clinton, Poll Finds,” Time, November 2, 2016.
5. “Comparing Hillary Clinton, Donald Trump on the Truth-O-Meter,” Politifact, http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/lists/people/comparing-hillary-clinton-donald-trump-truth-o-met, accessed May 17, 2017.
6. L. Hasher, D. Goldstein, and T. Toppino, “Frequency and Conference of Referential Validity,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 16 (1977): 107–112.
7. The actual reference comes from Mein Kampf, vol. 1, ch. 6, in which Adolf Hitler writes: “The most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly and with unflagging attention. It must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over. Here, as so often in this world, persistence is the first and most important requirement for success.”
8. Emily Ekins, “The Five Types of Trump Voters: Who They Are and What They Believe,” Democracy Fund Voter Study Group, June 2017.
9. “Poll: ‘Obamacare’ vs. ‘Affordable Care Act,’” CNN, September 27, 2013.
10. “CNN Poll: Nearly Eight in Ten Favor Gays in the Military,” CNN, May 25, 2010.
11. Scott Neuman, “Just How Independent Are Independent Voters?,” National Public Radio, March 27, 2012.
12. Though this quote has been challenged by some, Bill Moyers affirmed in his interview with Jonathan Haidt on Moyers & Company on February 3, 2013, that Lyndon Johnson said this directly to him.
13. Tim Roemer, “Why Do Congressmen Spend Only Half Their Time Serving Us?,” Newsweek, July 29, 2015.
14. 60 Minutes, December 12, 2010.
15. R. Patterson, J. Rothstein, and A. K. Barbey, “Reasoning, Cognitive Control, and Moral Intuition,” Frontiers in Integrative Science, December 18, 2012.
16. Jonathan Haidt and Jesse Graham, “When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions That Liberals May Not Recognize,” Social Justice Research 20, no. 1 (2007): 98–116; Jonathan Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (New York: Vintage, 2012).
17. Definitions synopsized from www.moralfoundations.org.
18. John T. Jost, Dana R. Carney, Samuel D. Gosling, et al., “The Secret Lives of Liberals and Conservatives: Personality Profiles, Interaction Styles, and the Things They Leave Behind,” Political Psychology 29, no. 6 (2008): 807–840.
19. Larry M. Bartels, “Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1953–1996,” American Journal of Political Science 44, no. 1 (2000): 35–50.
20. Marc J. Hetherington, “Resurgent Mass Partisanship: The Role of Elite Polarization,” American Political Science Review 95, no. 3 (2001): 619–631.
21. Charles Murray, Coming Apart: The State of White America (New York: Crown, 2012).
22. Nate Silver, “Does Racism Affect How You Vote?,” TED Talk, February 2009, https://www.ted.com/talks/nate_silver_on_race_and_politics.
23. S. Iyengar, G. Sood, and Y. Lelkes, “Affect, Not Ideology: A Social Identity Perspective on Polarization,” Public Opinion Quarterly 76, no. 3 (2012): 405–431.
24. “The Myth of Voter Fraud,” Brennan Center for Justice, New York University, https://www.brennancenter.org/issues/voter-fraud, accessed June 14, 2017.
25. Jonathan Haidt in an interview with Krista Tippet, On Being, October 19, 2017.
26. Atiba Ellis, personal communication.
27. Howard Ross, Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014).
28. I am not talking here about marches in which protesters carry weapons and have an expressed intent to intimidate, threaten, or verbally abuse others. The First Amendment of the Constitution guarantees us the right to “peaceably assemble.”
29. From his address in the Assembly Hall at the Paulskirche in Frankfurt, Germany, June 25, 1963, https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-199.aspx.
1. Philippa Foot, “The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of the Double Effect,” in Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978).
2. Peter Singer, “Ethics and Intuitions,” Journal of Ethics 9 (2005): 331–352.
3. Philip Slater, The Pursuit of Loneliness: America’s Discontent and the Search for a New Democratic Ideal, 3rd ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 2016).
4. Robin I. M. Dunbar, “The Social Brain Hypothesis,” Evolutionary Anthropology 6, no. 5 (1998): 178–190.
5. Joshua Greene, Moral Tribes: Emotion, Reason, and the Gap between Us and Them (New York: Penguin Books, 2014).
6. A. Laird, “Ringing the Changes on Gyges: Philosophy and the Formation of Fiction in Plato’s Republic,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 121 (2001): 12–29.
7. Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Anchor, 1959).
8. C. B. Zhong, V. K. Bohns, and F. Gino, “Good Lamps Are the Best Police: Darkness Increases Dishonesty and Self-Interested Behavior,” Psychological Science 21, no. 3 (March 2010): 311–314; T. Van Rompay, D. J. Vonk, and M. Fransen, “The Eye of the Camera: Effects of Security Cameras on Prosocial Behavior,” Environment and Behavior 41, no. 1 (2009): 60–74; A. L. Beaman, B. Klentz, E. Diener, and S. Svanum, “Self Awareness and Transgression in Children: Two Field Studies,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37, no. 10 (1979): 1835–1846.
9. Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions (New York: Harper Perennial, 2010).
10. Mary Rigdon, Keiko Ishii, Motoki Watabe, and Shinobu Kitayama, “Minimal Social Cues in the Dictator Game,” Journal of Economic Psychology 30 (2009): 358–367.
11. Ibid.
12. Steven Pinker, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (New York: Penguin Books, 2003).
13. L. J. Eaves and H. J. Eysenck, “Genetics and the Development of Social Attitudes,” Nature 249 (May 17, 1974): 288–289; T. J. Bouchard Jr., David T. Lykken, M. McGue, N. L. Segal, and A. Tellegen, “Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart,” Science 250, no. 4978 (1990).
14. M. Dittmann, “Standing Tall Pays Off, Study Finds,” Monitor on Psychology 35, no. 7 (2004): 14.
15. A reference coined by my dear friend and colleague Michael Schiesser.
16. John Searle, The Construction of Social Reality (New York: Free Press, 1997).
17. C. G. Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, trans. R. C. C. Hull (New York: Meridian Books, 1953), 19.
18. Elaine Hatfield, John T. Cacioppo, and Richard L. Rapson, Emotional Contagion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
19. Sigal G. Barsade, “The Ripple Effect: Emotional Contagion and Its Influence on Group Behavior,” Administrative Science Quarterly 47, no. 4 (2002): 644–675; E. Palagi, V. Nicotra, and G. Cordoni, “Rapid Mimicry and Emotional Contagion in Domestic Dogs,” Royal Society Open Science, December 23, 2015.
20. Nicholas Christakis and James H. Fowler, “The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years,” New England Journal of Medicine, July 26, 2007.
21. Anna Giaritelli, “Man Accused of Assaulting Protestors at Trump Rally Sues President,” Washington Examiner, May 17, 2017.
22. “Man Accused of Assaulting Woman at Trump Rally Says President to Blame,” Fox News, April 17, 2017.
23. I. L. Janis, Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions and Fiascoes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972); Patrick Hughes and Erin White, “The Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster: A Classic Example of Groupthink,” Ethics and Critical Thinking Journal 2010, no. 3 (2010): 63; Dina Badie, “Groupthink, Iraq, and the War on Terror: Explaining US Policy Shift toward Iraq,” Foreign Policy Analysis, October 2010.
24. Jung, “The Structure of the Unconscious,” in The Cambridge Companion to Jung, 2nd ed., ed. Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
25. Rupert Sheldrake, The Presence of the Past: Morphic Resonance and the Habits of Nature (London: Icon Books, 2011).
26. E. O. Wilson, The Social Conquest of Earth (New York: Liveright, 2013).
1. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America: Historical-Critical Edition of “De la démocratie en Amérique,” vol. 3, ed. Eduardo Nolla, trans. James T. Schleifer (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 2010), 544.
2. James Baldwin, “The American Dream and the American Negro,” New York Times, March 7, 1965.
3. Colin Woodward, American Nations: A History of the Eleven Regional Cultures of North America (New York: Penguin, 2011).
4. Katherine L. Milkman, Modupe Akinola, and Dolly Chugh, “What Happens Before? A Field Experiment Exploring How Pay and Representation Differentially Shape Bias on the Pathway into Organizations,” Journal of Applied Psychology, May 22, 2012.
5. Roland G. Fryer Jr., “An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. 22399, July 2016.
6. D. Boatright, D. Ross, P. O’Connor, et al., “Racial Disparities in Medical Student Membership in the Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Society,” Journal of the American Medical Association, May 2017.
7. Cody Ross, “A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014,” PLoS ONE, November 2015.
8. C. Civile and S. S. Obhi, “Students Wearing Police Uniforms Exhibit Biased Attention toward Individuals Wearing Hoodies,” Frontiers in Psychology 8 (2007).
9. Alice Robb, “Sunglasses Make You Less Generous,” New Republic, March 26, 2014.
10. 2013–2014 Civil Rights Data Collection: Key Data Highlights on Equity and Opportunity Gaps in Our Nation’s Public Schools, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, June 2016.
11. Howard Ross, ReInventing Diversity: Transforming Organizational Community to Strengthen People, Purpose and Performance (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 6–8.
12. Sharon LaFraniere and Andrew Lehren, “The Disproportionate Risks of Driving while Black,” New York Times, October 24, 2015.
13. Peter DiCaprio, “Why Some White People Don’t See White Privilege,” Huffington Post, July 20, 2017. The studies referred to in this passage are Housing Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2012; D. B. Matthews, E. Rodrigue, and R. Reeves, “Time for Justice: Tackling Race Inequalities in Health and Housing,” Brookings Institution, October 19, 2016.
14. Robin DiAngelo, “White Fragility,” International Journal of Critical Pedagogy 3, no. 3 (2011): 54.
15. Adam Howard, “New ‘Star Wars: The Force Awakens’ Trailer Sparks Racial Backlash,” MSNBC, October 20, 2015.
16. Carla Herreria, “Fox News Host Cries Because Conversation on Race Makes Her ‘Uncomfortable,’” Huffington Post, August 16, 2017.
17. I know that many people are now using the term micro-aggressions to identify these behaviors. I prefer to use the term micro-inequities, which was originally coined by Mary Rowe at MIT in 1973. Most of these behaviors are unconscious and we almost never think of “aggression” as an unconscious act, so I find that often people are confused and unnecessarily defensive when micro-aggression is used.
18. Renee Stepler, “5 Key Takeaways about Views of Race and Inequality in America,” Pew Research Center, June 27, 2016.
19. Tanvi Misra, “Immigrants Aren’t Stealing American Jobs,” Atlantic, October 21, 2015; Julia Preston, “Immigrants Aren’t Taking Americans’ Jobs, New Study Finds,” New York Times, September 21, 2016.
20. Alexander Stephens, “The Cornerstone Speech,” Savannah, GA, March 21, 1861, http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~ras2777/amgov/stephens.html.
21. Zack Beauchamp, “What Trump Gets Wrong about Confederate Statues, in One Chart,” Vox, August 15, 2017.
22. John Pierce, “The Reasons for Secession: A Documentary Study,” Civil War Trust, https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/reasons-secession, accessed July 23, 2017.
23. Noor Wazwaz, “It’s Official: The U.S. Is Becoming a Minority-Majority Nation,” U.S. News and World Report, July 6, 2015.
24. E. P. Apfelbaum, M. I. Norton, and S. R. Sommers, “Racial Colorblindness: Emergence, Practice, and Implications,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 21, no. 3 (2012): 205–209.
25. Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from the Birmingham Jail,” April 16, 1963, https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html.
1. S. J. Suomi and H. A. Leroy, “In Memoriam: Harry F. Harlow (1905–1981),” American Journal of Primatology 2 (1982): 319–342.
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11. Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013).
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17. Traci Pederson, “Theory of Mind,” Psych Central, https://psychcentral.com/encyclopedia/theory-of-mind, last updated July 17, 2016.
18. “Autism Linked to Mirror Neuron Dysfunction,” Science Daily, April 18, 2005.
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20. Naomi I. Eisenberger, “The Pain of Social Disconnection: Examining the Shared Neural Underpinnings of Physical and Social Pain,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13 (June 2012): 421–434.
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1. Emo Philips, “The Best God Joke Ever—and It’s Mine!,” Guardian, September 29, 2005.
2. Thomas Jefferson, “Jefferson’s Letter to the Danbury Baptists: The Final Letter, as Sent,” Library of Congress Information Bulletin, June 1998.
3. Thomas Jefferson to Peter Carr, August 10, 1787, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson 12:15, cited in “Jefferson’s Religious Beliefs,” The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, at Monticello.org.
4. Thomas Jefferson to Alexander von Humboldt, December 6, 1813, Founders Online, National Archives.
5. Amar Ali, “Why Do Religions Exist and What Is Their Purpose to Society?,” Quora, October 8, 2011.
6. “Islam at Mount Vernon,” George Washington Digital Encyclopedia, http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/islam-at-mount-vernon.
7. Craig Walenta, “Treaty between the United States and Tripoli,” https://usconstitution.net/tripoli.html, last modified January 24, 2010.
8. Andrea Stone, “Most Think Founders Wanted Christian USA,” USA Today, September 13, 2007.
9. Heidi Glenn, “Losing Our Religion: The Growth of the ‘Nones,’” Morning Edition, National Public Radio, January 13, 2013.
10. “America’s Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center for Religion in Public Life, May 12, 2015.
11. From an interview with John Danforth by Krista Tippett, On Being, September 14, 2006.
12. Michael Lipka, “Muslims Expected to Surpass Jews as Second-Largest U.S. Religious Group,” Pew Research Center, April 14, 2015.
13. U.S. Religious Landscape Study, 2014, Pew Research Center.
14. “America’s Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center for Religion in Public Life, May 12, 2015.
15. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (London: Allen & Unwin, 1912).
16. Lera Boroditsky, “How Language Shapes Thought,” Scientific American, February 2011.
17. Lera Boroditsky, “How Does Our Language Shape the Way We Think?,” Edge, October 31, 2017.
18. Reza Aslan, “Bill Maher Isn’t the Only One Who Misunderstands Religion,” New York Times, October 8, 2014.
19. Albert Einstein, letter to Carl Seelig, March 11, 1952, https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein.
20. Karen Armstrong, The Case for God (New York: Anchor Books, 2010).
21. Tim Folger, “Why Did Greenland’s Vikings Vanish?,” Smithsonian Magazine, March 2017.
22. Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (Boston: Mariner, 2008).
1. J. K. Hamlin, N. Mahajan, Z. Liberman, and K. Wynn, “Not Like Me = Bad: Infants Prefer Those Who Harm Dissimilar Others,” Psychological Science 24, no. 4 (2013): 589–594.
2. D. Lloyd, G. Di Pellegrino, and N. Roberts, “Vicarious Responses to Pain in Anterior Cingulate Cortex: Is Empathy a Multisensory Issue?,” Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience 4, no. 2 (2004): 270–278; M. Cikara, E. G. Bruneau, and R. R. Saxe, “Us and Them: Intergroup Failures of Empathy,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 20, no. 3 (2011): 149–153.
3. J. Decety and P. L. Jackson, “The Functional Architecture of Human Empathy,” Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews 3, no. 2 (2004): 71–100.
4. F. B. de Waal, “Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 279–300.
5. M. Levine, A. Prosser, D. Evans, and S. Reicher, “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 4 (2005): 443–453.
6. Zach Sommers, “Missing White Women Syndrome: An Empirical Analysis of Race and Gender Disparities in Online News Coverage of Missing Persons,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 6, no. 2 (2016): 275–314.
7. Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ (New York: Bantam Books, 1996), 11.
8. Roper Center, “Job Performance Ratings for President Bush,” March 9, 2009.
9. Bobby Caina Calvan, “Montana Governor Rejects Bill Banning Sharia Law in Courts,” Associated Press, April 6, 2017.
10. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); S. C. Wright, “Cross-Group Contact Effects,” in Intergroup Relations: The Role of Emotion and Motivation, ed. S. Otten, T. Kessler, and K. Sassenberg (New York: Psychology Press, 2009), 262–283.
11. Howard Ross, Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives (Landham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011).
12. Kevin Schulman et al., “The Effect of Race and Sex on Physician’s Recommendations for Cardiac Catheterization,” New England Journal of Medicine, February 25, 1999; Urban Institute, Margery Austin Turner, Diane K. Levy, Doug Wissoker, Claudia L. Aranda, Rob Pittingolo, and Rob Santos, Housing Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, 2013). While I could easily include dozens of examples of racial bias toward people of other races, or identities beyond race, I have chosen to focus on race bias toward African Americans in this particular case to provide a more substantive set of examples. For broader examples, please check out my Everyday Bias.
13. Daniel M. Butler and David E. Broockman, “Do Politicians Racially Discriminate against Constituents? A Field Experiment on State Legislators,” American Journal of Political Science, April 27, 2011.
14. Katherine L. Milkman, Modupe Akinola, and Dolly Chugh, “What Happens Before? A Field Experiment Exploring How Pay and Representation Differentially Shape Bias on the Pathway into Organizations,” Journal of Applied Psychology, May 22, 2012.
15. Jennifer L. Doleac and Luke C. D. Stein, “The Visible Hand: Race and Online Market Outcomes,” Economic Journal, November 21, 2013.
16. B. G. Link and J. C. Phelan, “Stigma and Its Public Health Implications,” Lancet 367, no. 9509 (2006): 528.
17. Victoria K. Lee and Lasana T. Harris, “Dehumanized Perception: Psychological and Neural Mechanisms Underlying Everyday Dehumanization,” in Humanness and Dehumanization, ed. Paul G. Bain, Jeroen Vaes, and Jacques-Philippe Leyens (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2014), 68–85.
18. Melvin J. Lerner, The Belief in a Just World (New York: Plenum Press, 1980), 9–30.
19. Rodney Coates, “The Myth of the Happy Slave and the Reality of Its Endurance,” University of Miami, April 11, 2016.
20. Lasana T. Harris and Susan T. Fiske, “Dehumanizing the Lowest of the Low: Neuroimaging Responses to Extreme Out-Groups,” Psychological Science 17, no. 10 (2006): 847–853.
21. Lasana T. Harris and Susan T. Fiske, “Social Neuroscience Evidence for Dehumanised Perception,” European Review of Social Psychology 20, no. 1 (2009): 192–231.
22. J. Bruce Overmier and Martin E. P. Seligman, “Effects of Inescapable Shock upon Subsequent Escape and Avoidance Responding,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 63, no. 1 (1967): 28.
23. Joy DeGruy, Post Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America’s Legacy of Enduring Injury and Healing (Milwaukee, OR: Uptone Press, 2005).
24. Karen Dion, Ellen Berscheid, and Elaine Walster, “What Is Beautiful Is Good,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24, no. 3 (1972): 285.
25. Alexander Totorov, Anesu N. Mandisodza, Amir Goren, and Crystal C. Hall, “Influences of Competence from Faces Predict Election Outcomes,” Science, June 10, 2005.
26. Walter S. Gilliam, Angela N. Maupin, Chin R. Reyes, Maria Accavitti, and Frederick Shic, “Do Early Educators’ Implicit Biases Regarding Sex and Race Relate to Behavior Expectations and Recommendations of Preschool Expulsions and Suspensions?,” Yale Child Study Center, September 2016.
27. Michael Edison Hayden, “What We Know about the Terence Crutcher Police Shooting in Tulsa, Oklahoma,” ABC News, September 20, 2016.
28. H. Mercier and D. Sperber, “Why Do Humans Reason? Arguments for an Argumentative Theory,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34, no. 2 (2011): 57–74.
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30. A. H. Hastorf and H. Cantril, “They Saw a Game: A Case Study,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 49, no. 1 (1954): 129.
31. R. P. Vallone, L. Ross, and M. R. Lepper, “The Hostile Media Phenomenon: Biased Perception and Perceptions of Media Bias in Coverage of the Beirut Massacre,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 3 (1985): 577.
32. C. G. Lord, L. Ross, and M. R. Lepper, “Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37, no. 11 (1979): 2098.
33. B. Nyhan and J. Reifler, “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions,” Political Behavior 32, no. 2 (2010): 303–330.
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36. D. Kipnis, “Does Power Corrupt?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 24, no. 1 (1972): 33.
37. Susan T. Fiske, “Controlling Other People: The Impact of Power on Stereotyping,” American Psychologist 48, no. 6 (1993): 621.
38. Carl Ratner, Cooperation, Community, and Co-ops in a Global Era (New York: Springer, 2013), 51.
39. K. D. Vohs, N. L. Mead, and M. R. Goode, “The Psychological Consequences of Money,” Science 314, no. 5802 (2006): 1154–1156.
40. X. Zhou, K. D. Vohs, and R. F. Baumeister, “The Symbolic Power of Money: Reminders of Money Alter Social Distress and Physical Pain,” Psychological Science 20, no. 6 (2009): 700–706.
1. Kevin Schaul and Samuel Granados, “How Cable News Networks Reacted to Comey’s Hearing,” Washington Post, June 8, 2017.
2. T. Norretranders, The User Illusion, trans. J. Sydenham (New York: Viking, 1998), cited in Timothy Wilson, Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002), 24.
3. From Dictionary.com.
4. Howard Ross, ReInventing Diversity: Transforming Organizational Community to Strengthen People, Purpose, and Performance (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 45.
5. I have seen this quote attributed to the German philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe but have been unable to confirm that he actually said it.
6. S. M. McClure, J. Li, D. Tomlin, K. S. Cypert, L. M. Montague, and P. R. Montague, “Neural Correlates of Behavioral Preference for Culturally Familiar Drinks,” Neuron 44, no. 2 (2004): 379–387.
7. R. Rosenthal and L. F. Jacobson, “Teacher Expectations for the Disadvantaged,” Scientific American 218, no. 4 (1968): 19–23.
8. American Press Institute, “How Americans Get Their News,” March 17, 2014.
9. American Press Institute, “The Relationship between General News Habits and Trust in the News,” April 17, 2016.
10. Jeffrey Gottfried and Elisa Shearer, “Americans’ Online News Use Is Closing in on TV News Use,” Pew Research Center, September 7, 2017.
11. Amy Mitchell, Jeffrey Gottfried, Jocelyn Kiley, and Katerina Eva Matsa, “Political Polarization and Media Habits,” Pew Research Center, October 21, 2014.
12. Special thanks to Gleb Tsipursky, professor of history and decision sciences at the Ohio State University, for his in-depth interview, which contributed significantly to this section.
13. Jeffrey Gottfried and Elisa Shearer, “News Use Across Social Media Platforms 2017,” Pew Research Center, September 7, 2017.
14. Andrew Soergel, “Is Social Media to Blame for Political Polarization in America?,” U.S. News and World Report, March 20, 2017.
15. From an interview with Gleb Tsipursky, June 27, 2017.
16. Ibid.
17. Amit Chowdhry, “Research Links Heavy Facebook and Social Media Usage to Depression,” Forbes, April 30, 2016.
18. Melanie Eversley, “Study: ‘Hate’ Groups Explode on Social Media,” USA Today, updated March 10, 2017.
19. E. Bakshy, S. Messing, and L. A. Adamic, “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion on Facebook,” Science 348, no. 6239 (2015): 1130–1132.
20. Lee Rainie, “The New Landscape of Facts and Trust,” Pew Research Center, April 21, 2017.
21. Craig Silverman and Jeremy Singer-Vine, “Most Americans Who See Fake News Believe It, New Survey Says,” BuzzFeed News, December 6, 2016.
22. Jeffrey Gottfried and Elisa Shearer, “News Use across Social Media Platforms 2016,” Pew Research Center, May 26, 2016.
23. Max Read, “Donald Trump Won Because of Facebook,” New York Magazine, November 9, 2016.
24. “Conspiracy Theories Prosper: 25% of Americans Are ‘Truthers,’” press release, Public Mind Poll, Fairleigh Dickinson University, January 17, 2013.
25. Jörg L. Spenkuch and David Toniatti, “Political Advertising and Election Outcomes,” Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, April 2016.
26. Sam Sanders, “Did Social Media Ruin Election 2016?,” National Public Radio, November 8, 2016.
27. Wikipedia, s.v. “Pizzagate Conspiracy Theory,” accessed August 14, 2017, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizzagate_conspiracy_theory; Ishmael N. Dao, “No, Trump Never Told People Magazine That Republicans Are ‘the Dumbest’ Voters,” BuzzFeed News, July 21, 2016.
28. Peter C. Newman, “The Lost Marshall McLuhan Tapes,” MacLean’s, July 16, 2013.
29. “Big Data, for Better or Worse: 90% of World’s Data Generated over Last Two Years,” Science News, May 22, 2013.
30. Barry Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice (New York: Harper Perennial, 2005).
31. Ilan Dar-Nimrod, Catherine D. Rawn, Darrin R. Lehman, and Barry Schwartz, “The Maximization Paradox: The Costs of Seeking Alternatives,” Personality and Individual Differences 46, nos. 5–6 (2009): 631–635.
1. Interview with Jamil Mahuad, August 22, 2017.
2. “Peru and Ecuador Sign Treaty to End Longstanding Conflict,” New York Times, October 27, 1998.
3. “Peru and Ecuador Sign Border Treaty,” BBC News, October 27, 1998, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/201442.stm.
4. Elliot Aronson, The Jigsaw Classroom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1978).
5. Elliot Aronson and Joshua Aronson, eds., Readings about the Social Animal, 11th ed. (New York: Worth, 2011).
6. Gregory M. Walton, “A Brief Social-Belonging Intervention Improves Academic and Health Outcomes of Minority Students,” Science 331, no. 6023 (2011): 1447–1451.
7. Excerpt from a talk originally delivered at the Modern Language Association’s panel “Lesbians and Literature,” Chicago, December 28, 1977, first published in Sinister Wisdom 6 (1978).
8. Gregory Bateson, Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (New York: Macmillan, 1991).
9. Stephen Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 2004), 30–31.
10. Timothy D. Wilson, Redirect: Changing the Stories We Live By (Boston: Back Bay Books, 2015).
11. Roger Fisher and William Ury, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 1991).
12. Edward de Bono, Six Thinking Hats: An Essential Approach to Business Management (Boston: Little, Brown, 1985).
1. From Google Dictionary.
2. M. Scott Peck, The Different Drum: Community Making and Peace (New York: Touchstone Books, 1987), 59.
3. Bartie Scott, “Why Meditation and Mindfulness Training Is One of the Best Industries for Starting a Business in 2017,” Inc., March 1, 2017.
4. Chimanda Ngozi Adichie, “The Danger of a Single Story,” TED Talk, June 7, 2013, https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.
5. Jeff Stone and Gordon B. Moskowitz, “Non-Conscious Bias in Medical Decision Making: What Can Be Done to Reduce It?,” Medical Education, July 14, 2011.
6. See our thought papers at www.cookross.com for more specifics on these interventions.
7. Carmen Nobel, “The Case against Racial Colorblindness in the Workplace,” Forbes, January 20, 2013.
8. From an interview with George Halvorson, June 13, 2017.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. From an interview with Jonathan Haidt by Bill Moyers, Moyers & Company, February 3, 2013.
12. Voltaire, “La Bégueule,” in Contes (London, 1772).
13. Tony Schwartz, “Companies That Practice ‘Conscious Capitalism’ Perform 10X Better,” Harvard Business Review, April 4, 2013.
1. From an interview with Pádraig Ó Tuama by Krista Tippett, On Being, March 2, 2017.
2. Ibid.
3. Caitlin O’Connell, “Who Is Nelson Mandela? A Reader’s Digest Exclusive Interview,” Reader’s Digest, 2005, https://www.rd.com/true-stories/inspiring/who-is-nelson-mandela-a-readers-digest-exclusive-interview.
4. Jelani Cobb, “Mandela and the Politics of Forgiveness,” New Yorker, December 6, 2013.
5. Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995).
6. Adapted from Loren Eiseley, “The Star Thrower,” in The Unexpected Universe (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969).