33. Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 39, 70–75.
34. Id. at 70–75, 143 (“scientific”); Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 172–73 (“efficient”).
35. Jerome H. Skolnick and James H. Fyfe, Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force (1993), 45–46 (“fixed” charges, “shakedown arrests”); National Comm’n on Law Observance and Enforcement, Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement (1931), 38–52 (“third degree,” “torture”).
36. Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278, 281, 287 (1936). On the Isaac Woodard story, see “Aiken Is Angered at Welles Charge,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 9, 1946; “Federal Help Sought for Blinded Veteran,” N.Y. Times, July 25, 1946.
37. These developments are described in Skolnick and Fyfe, Above the Law, supra note 35, at 175; Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at ix, 55–56.
38. Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 60 (social services); Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform, supra note 26, at 139, 149–60 (going after the bad guys).
39. Bittner, Aspects of Police Work, supra note 32, at 6–7 (the shiny squad car, with its two-way radio); Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 165–67 (call response times and crime rates).
40. Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 195–96 (“long, hot summers”); The Kerner Report: The 1968 Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (1968; repr. 1988), 206, 299.
41. Skolnick and Fyfe, Above the Law, supra note 35, at 82–83, (quoting Daniel Bell, “Columbia and the New Left,” The Public Interest, Fall 1968, at 81).
42. Id. at 75–76, 81 (quoting Daniel Walker, Rights in Conflict: The Violent Confrontation of Demonstrators and Police in the Parks and Streets of Chicago During the Week of the Democratic National Convention of 1968: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (1968), xv); see also Walker, Popular Justice, supra note 23, at 172–74 (discussing the events of the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago).
43. Barry Friedman, The Will of the People: How Public Opinion Has Influenced the Supreme Court and Shaped the Meaning of the Constitution (2009), 276.
44. Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, Foreword to The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: A Report by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967).
45. The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, supra note 44, at 99–100, 102.
46. Id. at 100–101.
47. Lee P. Brown, “Community Policing: A Practical Guide for Police Officials,” Perspectives on Policing, Sept. 1989, at 5, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/118001.pdf.
48. William J. Clinton, “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” Jan. 25, 1994, in Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 30 (1994): 155–56; COPS Office: Mission History, www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=2754; Michael D. Reisig, “Community and Problem-Oriented Policing,” Crime & Just. 39 (2010): 19–20 (disbursements); Matthew J. Hickman and Brian A. Reaves, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report: Community Policing in Local Police Departments, 1997 and 1999 (2001), 1–2. See generally Tracey L. Meares, “Praying for Community Policing,” Calif. L. Rev. 90 (2002): 1596–97.
49. Robert M. Morgenthau, “Does Community Policing Work? Beware of Its Limits,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 30, 1990.
50. Id.
51. John Crank and Robert Langworthy, “Fragmented Centralization and the Organization of the Police,” Policing & Soc’y 6 (1996): 213 (“hodge-podge”); Jerome H. Skolnick and David H. Bayley, “Theme and Variation in Community Policing,” Crime & Just. 10 (1988): 4 (“buzzword”); Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces (2013), 220 (citing Peter B. Kraska and Victor E. Kappeler, “Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units,” Soc. Probs. 44 [1997]: 13) (SWAT).
52. Deborah Spence, “Colorado Springs PD Takes Home 2010 Goldstein Award,” Community Policing Dispatch, Nov. 2010, http://cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/November_2010/index.asp.; Colorado Springs Police Dep’t, Homeless Outreach Team, Center for Problem-Oriented Policing (2010), www.popcenter.org/conference/conferencepapers/2010/Colorado-Homeless-Winner.pdf; Los Angeles County Chief Executive Office, Los Angeles County Regional Gang Violence Reduction Initiative: Semi-Annual Progress Report, April–September 2010 (2010), http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/ivpp/injury_topics/GangAwarenessPrevention/GVRI%20Compiled%20Report%20FINAL.pdf; About Us, National Association of Police Athletic/Activities Leagues, Inc., www.nationalpal.org/Default.aspx?tabid=784239.
53. George L. Kelling and James Q. Wilson, “Broken Windows,” Atlantic Monthly, Mar. 1982, at 29–38, available at www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465/?single_page=true.
54. K. Babe Howell, “Broken Lives from Broken Windows: The Hidden Costs of Aggressive Order-Maintenance Policing,” N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 33 (2009): 274 (“undermine[d] the legitimacy of the criminal justice system”); Broken Windows Policing, Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, http://cebcp.org/evidence-based-policing/what-works-in-policing/research-evidence-review/broken-windows-policing/. On the New York City experience with order-maintenance policing under Mayor Giuliani, see, for example, New York City Police Department, Police Strategy No. 5: Reclaiming the Public Spaces of New York (1994), www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Photocopy/167807NCJRS.pdf; Jeffrey A. Fagan and Garth Davies, “Policing Guns: Order Maintenance and Crime Control in New York,” in Guns, Crime, and Punishment in America, ed. Bernard E. Harcourt (2003), 193–96; Bernard E. Harcourt and Jens Ludwig, “Broken Windows: New Evidence for New York City and a Five-City Social Experiment,” U. Chi. L. Rev. 73 (2006): 286.
55. Wesley G. Skogan, “Why Reform Fails,” Policing & Soc’y 18 (2008): 26. In 1988, Jerome Skolnick, one of the academy’s most admired scholars of policing, conducted a field study of the concept in action. He, along with his co-author, wrote: “[L]eaders talk a good game, but they rarely follow through.” In practice, “[t]he old concept of professionalism is maintained, with the police firmly in charge and the public kept at arm’s length until needed.” Skolnick and Bayley, “Theme and Variation in Community Policing,” supra note 51, at 16–17. That same year, a full generation after the professionalism movement was discredited, George Kelling and Mark Moore noted the “dominant trend” still “guiding today’s police executives,” one that “encourages the pursuit of independent, professional autonomy for police departments.” They urged a pivot toward a broader understanding of the “police function” to include “order maintenance, conflict resolution, problem solving through the organization, and provision of services, as well as other activities.” George L. Kelling and Mark H. Moore, “The Evolving Strategy of Policing,” Perspectives on Policing, Nov. 1988, at 1, 11, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/114213.pdf.
56. Exec. Order No. 13684, 79 Fed. Reg. 76865 (Dec. 18, 2014) (appointing the Task Force); Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (2015), iii, 1, 11, www.cops.usdoj.gov/pdf/taskforce/taskforce_finalreport.pdf.
57. Angel Jennings, Richard Winton, and James Rainey, “L.A. County Sheriff’s Dept. Used Spy Plane to Watch Compton,” L.A. Times, Apr. 23, 2014, www.latimes.com/local/la-me-compton-surveillance-20140424-story.html; Conor Friedersdorf, “Eyes Over Compton: How Police Spied on a Whole City,” The Atlantic, Apr. 21, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/04/sheriffs-deputy-compares-drone-surveillance-of-compton-to-big-brother/360954/ (quoting LASD Sergeant Douglas Iketani).
58. Friedersdorf, “Eyes Over Compton,” supra note 57.
59. Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Procedures of the Police Department, City of New York, Commission Report (1994), 36, 41 (“testilying,” “God’s work,” “most common form of police corruption”); Christopher Slobogin, “Testilying: Police Perjury and What to Do About It,” U. Colo. L. Rev. 67 (1996): 1041–48; Myron W. Orfield, Jr., “The Exclusionary Rule and Deterrence: An Empirical Study of Chicago Narcotics Officers,” U. Chi. L. Rev. 54 (1987): 1050; Myron W. Orfield, Jr., “Deterrence, Perjury, and the Heater Factor: An Exclusionary Rule in the Chicago Criminal Courts,” U. Colo. L. Rev. 63 (1992): 107; Michael Pearson, “Obama: No One is Listening to Your Calls,” CNN, Jun. 9, 2013, 8:26 p.m., www.cnn.com/2013/06/07/politics/nsa-data-mining; Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States: Hearing Before the S. Select Comm. on Intelligence, 113th Cong. 66 (2013) (statement of James R, Clapper, Dir. of Nat’l Intelligence).
60. Bill Berkowitz, “The Blue Wall of Silence Among Police Enables Cop Brutality,” TruthOut, Mar. 5, 2015, 8:43 a.m., www.truth-out.org/buzzflash/commentary/the-blue-wall-of-silence-among-police-enables-cop-brutality/19187-the-blue-wall-of-silence-among-police-enables-cop-brutality (discussing the Seifert case); Bowling v. United States, 740 F. Supp. 2d 1240, 1262 & 1262n75 (D. Kan. 2010); Mark Karlin, “Federal Jury Finds City of Chicago Responsible for ‘Code of Silence’ in Chicago Police Department,” TruthOut, Dec. 24, 2012, 11:43 a.m., www.truth-out.org/news/item/13510-in-significant-precedent-federal-jury-finds-city-of-chicago-responsible-for-code-of-silence-in-chicago-police-department; David Barstow and David Kocieniewski, “Records Show New Jersey Police Withheld Data on Race Profiling,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 12, 2000, at B8.
61. Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, supra note 56, at 21; Oliver Laughland, Jon Swaine, Ciara McCarthy, and Jamiles Lartey, “Justice Department Trials System to Count Killings by US Law Enforcement,” The Guardian, Oct. 5, 2015, www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/oct/05/justice-department-trials-system-count-killings-us-law-enforcement-the-counted; “The Counted,” The Guardian, www.theguardian.com/us-news/series/counted-us-police-killings; “Fatal Force,” Wash. Post, www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/national/police-shootings-2016/; Christine Hauser, “Police Told to Give Street-Stop Data,” N.Y. Times, May 31, 2008, at B5 (“give away information”); ACLU, War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing (2014), 27–28, https://aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/jus14-warcomeshome-report-web-rel1_1.pdf; Joanna C. Schwartz, “Police Indemnification,” N.Y.U. L. Rev. 89 (2014): 903–04.
62. Jeremy Waldron, “Accountability and Insolence,” in Political Political Theory: Essays on Institutions (2016).
63. Kenneth Culp Davis, Police Discretion (1975), 72.
64. Jennifer Valentino-Devries, “Police Snap Up Cheap Cell Phone Trackers,” Wall St. J., Aug. 19, 2015 12:57 PM, www.wsj.com/articles/police-snap-up-cheap-cellphone-trackers-1439933271.
65. This argument is especially prevalent in the context of intelligence gathering, see, e.g., Emily Berman, “Regulating Domestic Intelligence Collection,” Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 71 (2014): 29, 38, but is also frequently made in the context of ordinary policing.
66. See, e.g., Lewis-Bey v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 595 F. Supp. 2d. 120, 137–38 (D.D.C. 2009) (protecting details of electronic surveillance techniques, including “timing of their use, and the specific location where they were employed” [internal quotation marks omitted]); LaRouche v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, No. 90-2753, slip op. at 21 (D.D.C. Nov. 17, 2000) (allowing department to withhold details regarding undercover investigative techniques); 18 U.S.C. § 2516 (2012) (defining categories of offenses for which wiretaps may be obtained).
67. See, e.g., Dell Cameron, “Feds Must Now Get a Warrant to Spy on Your Phone with a Stingray Device,” The Daily Dot, Sept. 3, 2015, www.dailydot.com/politics/doj-stingray-policy/; Fenton, “Maryland Appellate Court: Warrant Required for ‘Stingray’ Phone Tracking,” supra note 18.
68. Martinez Interview, supra note 2; Topic Interview, supra note 6.
69. Letter from Patrick J. Leahy, Chairman, and Charles E. Grassley, Ranking Member, Comm. on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, to Eric H. Holder, Attorney General, and Jeh Johnson, Sec’y of Homeland Security, Dec. 23, 2014, www.grassley.senate.gov/sites/default/files/news/upload/2014-12-23%20PJL%20and%20CEG%20to%20DOJ%20and%20DHS%20%28cell-site%20simulators%29.pdf. Political scorecards offer evidence of Senators Leahy and Grassley’s ideological misalignment. Compare, e.g., Heritage Action Scorecard: Sen. Charles Grassley, www.heritageactionscorecard.com/members/member/G000386, with Heritage Action Scorecard: Sen. Patrick Leahy, www.heritageactionscorecard.com/members/member/L000174.
70. Cyrus Farivar, “FBI Now Claims Its Stingray NDA Means the Opposite of What It Says,” Ars Technica, May 15, 2015, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/05/fbi-now-claims-its-stingray-nda-means-the-opposite-of-what-it-says/; Cyrus Farivar, “Department of Justice Will Review How It Deploys Cell Phone Snooping Tech,” Ars Technica, May 3, 2015, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/05/department-of-justice-will-review-how-it-deploys-cell-phone-snooping-tech/; Cyrus Farivar, “FBI, DEA and Others Will Now Have to Get a Warrant to Use Stingrays,” Ars Technica, Sept. 3, 2015, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2015/09/fbi-dea-and-others-will-now-have-to-get-a-warrant-to-use-stingrays/.