Psalms

Worshiping God

Most people love the book of Psalms, discovering Psalms early in their Christian walk and cherishing these ancient songs throughout their lives. You probably feel the same way, and the reasons are obvious. In the Psalms we find comfort and encouragement when we are discouraged. In the Psalms we find just the right words for praising our Lord and rejoicing over what he has done for us. The psalmist expresses our feelings and our emotions, but somehow he just seems to say it better than we can. So whether we are happy and rejoicing in the Lord, or struggling in despair and doubt, the Psalms enable us to talk to God about it. Usually after meditating on one of the psalms and praying to God with the psalm, we find ourselves encouraged, uplifted, and strengthened. What a wonderful and powerful collection of songs this book is!

What Is the Setting for Psalms?

The title “Psalms” in our English Bibles comes from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament. The word in Greek that we have transliterated as “psalms” implies a song that is sung to accompaniment. In the Hebrew Bible, the title of this book is a word that means “praises.”

The book of Psalms is a collection of 150 individual psalms, grouped into five “books.” This grouping into five probably is intended to parallel the five books of the Pentateuch (Torah). Each of these five books ends with a statement of praise to the Lord. The five books are as follows:

Book	Contents	Ending
Book 1	Psalms 1–41	“Praise be to the Lord. . . . Amen and Amen.” (41:13)
Book 2	Psalms 42–72	“Praise be to his glorious name forever. . . . Amen and Amen.” (72:19)
Book 3	Psalms 73–89	“Praise be to the Lord forever! Amen and Amen.” (89:52)
Book 4	Psalms 90–106	“Praise be to the Lord. . . . Let all the people say, ‘Amen!’ Praise the Lord.” (106:48)
Book 5	Psalms 107–150	“Let everything that has breath praise the Lord. Praise the Lord.” (150:6)
The entire text of Psalm 150 is a praise to the Lord, so that psalm as a whole is the praise that concludes the overall collection of Psalms.

The individual psalms were probably written, collected, and organized into these five books over a long period of time. The order of the five books is probably due to the chronology of the collection process. Also, within the five books are indications of other smaller, earlier collections. Note the comment at the end of Psalm 72, “This concludes the prayers of David son of Jesse” (v. 20). Another apparent collection is associated with the “sons of Korah” (Psalms 42–49 and Psalms 84–88). Likewise Psalms 73–83 (the psalms of Asaph) probably circulated as an early collection. Perhaps Psalms 120–134 (“pilgrim Psalms” or “songs of ascent”) were also collected together as a unit before being placed in book 5.

Twelve different psalms mention praising God on the harp. Shown below is a Mesopotamian harpist.

Psalms 1 and 2 function as an introduction to the entire book, and were perhaps added toward the end of the compilation process. Psalm 1 states that the way to find blessing (and meaning) in life is to meditate on and delight in the Torah (or Law; i.e., the Pentateuch). Some scholars have suggested that Psalm 1 is really directing the audience to meditate on and delight in the psalms that follow. While this is possible, it is not at all clear that this is the case. Psalm 2 is also introductory and directs the audience to look for the coming messianic king, implying that messianic nuances are present in those psalms that discuss the king or the reign of God.

Likewise, the final group of Psalms (146–150) stresses the praise of God and thus provides a fitting conclusion to the collection, with Psalm 150 providing the climactic ending, where the Lord is praised in every verse.

We do not know who actually finalized the Psalms collection into the final form we have today, or exactly when this occurred. Since some of the Psalms clearly refer to the time of exile in Babylonia (“By the waters of Babylon, there we sat down and wept, when we remembered Zion”; 137:1 ESV), we can probably conclude that the finalizing of the collection occurred after the exile, perhaps near or during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (450–400 BC), but this is just an educated guess.

In this Psalms scroll from the Dead Sea Scrolls, the style of Hebrew letters used throughout the scroll is from the first century AD, but the name for the Lord (Yahweh) is always written in the centuries-old ancient paleo-Hebrew script.

Many, but not all, of the Psalms have a superscription or heading at the very beginning. Usually our English translations place these headings above and separate from the actual text of the psalm, just prior to verse 1. For example, the superscription of Psalm 110 is “Of David. A psalm.” Yet these superscriptions are part of the inspired text, and in Hebrew Bibles they make up verse 1, so we should not skip over them. These superscriptions provide a variety of information. They can indicate authorship (e.g., “of David,” Psalm 143); historical setting (“When the prophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery with Bathsheba”; Psalm 51); a destination or perhaps a dedication (“For the director of music”; Psalm 31); purpose (“For the dedication of the temple”; Psalm 30); or music-related instructions (“To the tune of ‘The Lily of the Covenant’”; Psalm 60).

Some scholars do not think that the Hebrew phrase usually translated “a psalm of David” indicates authorship, but perhaps a dedication (“a psalm to David”) or a reflection (“a psalm related to David,” or even “like David,” etc.). However, there is strong evidence for understanding this phrase as an indication of authorship, and this has been the traditional understanding of the church throughout history.

David is not the only author mentioned in the superscriptions of the Psalms. The breakdown of authors who are cited in the superscriptions is as follows:

Author	Psalms attributed to him
David	73 psalms, concentrated in books 1 and 2, but also scattered throughout books 3, 4, and 5.
The sons of Korah	Psalms 42–49, 84–88
Asaph	Psalms 50, 73–83
Solomon	Psalms 72 and 127
Heman	Psalm 88
Ethan	Psalm 89
Moses	Psalm 90

How were the Psalms originally used, and what was their purpose? We cannot be 100 percent sure, but probably the Psalms were originally used both in group worship and individual prayer. Some of the Psalms were obviously sung, accompanied by musical instruments. We do not know how they were performed, but probably there was interchange between the leader and the congregation.

Harp from ancient Egypt.

Another important feature of the Psalms is that they are written in Hebrew poetry. Although many books of the Old Testament contain poetry, Psalms is the most thoroughgoing poetic book in the Bible. Thus Psalms is full of colorful figures of speech (see the discussion on figures of speech in Part III), including hyperbole. Also, a central feature of Hebrew poetry is called parallelism, a structural feature in which the author uses two lines of text to say one main point. Most of the verses in Psalms contain two lines of Hebrew text, and these two lines should be taken together. The first line makes the main statement, and the second line adds to that statement.

The Psalms and the Messiah

The Psalms make numerous references to “the king.” Much of the time these references are clearly referring to the current king who is ruling in Jerusalem at the time of the composition of that psalm. Sometimes the king is David. In many cases, however, the description or comments regarding the king seem to move in an idealized direction to foreshadow or perhaps even prophesy the coming messianic king. Both Psalm 2 and Psalm 110 clearly refer to the coming messianic king, and the New Testament verifies this connection (Ps. 2:7 is quoted in Heb. 1:5; Jesus identifies himself as “David’s Lord” of Ps. 110:1 in Matt. 22:41–45; Mark 12:35–37; and Luke 20:41–44).

Another fascinating psalm that is connected to Jesus in the New Testament is Psalm 22, a personal lament. Jesus quotes Psalm 22:1 as he hangs from the cross: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matt. 27:46), indicating for us that Psalm 22 may be describing more than David’s suffering. In fact, Psalm 22:15–18 appears to describe the crucifixion of Christ with remarkable accuracy: dried mouth, pierced hands and feet, garments divided, and lots cast.Apparently in Psalm 22 David is describing his own terrible suffering with figurative language that will also apply to Jesus literally.

The New Testament writers quote from Psalms more than any other Old Testament book. They connect many verses in Psalms with various aspects in the life of Christ. One of the most explicit examples of this is found in Acts 2:25–36, where the apostle Peter quotes Psalm 16:8–11 and Psalm 110:1, connecting both of these psalms to Jesus, particularly to his resurrection and exaltation.

A shofar being played.

What Is at the Heart of Psalms?

While the Psalms do inevitably address doctrine and moral behavior, their primary purpose is not focused on teaching doctrine and moral behavior. Their primary purpose is to give us divinely inspired models or patterns of how to pray to God, how to praise God, and how to meditate on God, in response to all God has done for us. Thus it is important to remember that most of the Psalms are addressed to God, not to us. They enable us to express to God our deepest emotions and needs, especially in the crisis times of life.

The Psalms can be grouped into two main categories relating to very different contexts of human life. First, there are times when we are doing well, and we simply want to praise God for all of the wonderful blessings he has given us. Or perhaps we simply want to praise God because he is so great and praiseworthy. As we reflect on God or meditate about God, our normal response should be to break out in praise. There are many psalms that lead us in this.

The second main category of Psalms is called “lament.” A lament is a woeful cry of anguish and hurt, an ancient theologically shaped form of the blues. Sometimes life hits us so hard that we feel as if someone has punched us right in the stomach. Tragedy can strike without warning or without any rhyme or reason, devastating us and crippling us so that we can barely breathe or function. Pain and anguish, mixed with fear and doubt, can downright overwhelm even the strongest of God’s people (like David, for example). The psalmists in general, and David in particular, are brutally honest with God in these situations, pouring out their heartfelt anguish, doubt, anger, fear, and pain to him in powerful, poetic laments. Usually the psalmists use their cry in the Psalms to work through their pain, often eventually ending up with resolve to trust, worship, and praise God, in spite of their difficulties. This too is a model for us, but it does not preempt the need to cry out in pain.

So the two central themes of Psalms are praise and lament, with the lament usually eventually ending up as praise.

Music in the Old Testament

W. Dennis Tucker Jr.

Introduction

Music was foundational to all cultures in the ancient Near East, and those cultures that dwelled in Israel/Palestine were no different. Nearly two millennia prior to the Davidic monarchy, music played a central role in the cultures located in the region of Palestine, and it remained an important part of the cultures in that region. Archaeological-iconographic evidence is extensive. Terra-cotta figurines playing a variety of musical instruments have been found, as well as actual clay rattles, cymbals, and flutes. Numerous drawings depict dancing and the playing of instruments. For example, archaeologists have unearthed floor stones in rooms adjacent to an altar in the city of Megiddo (3000 BC). Those stones depict warriors and hunters, but also dancers, a female harpist, and a drummer.

The Old Testament literature itself suggests something of the antiquity of music. The earliest mention of music appears in Genesis 4:21. There Jubal is mentioned as the ancestor of all those who played the lyre and pipe. The occupation of musician is mentioned alongside those of herdsman (4:20) and of metallurgist (4:22), suggesting that music was not considered an ancillary part of life, but rather central to the composition of society itself.

Social Settings

War

The biblical text records the close connection between war and music or musical instruments. For example, Gideon’s military assault on the Midianites included the blasting of horns (sopar) as war began (Judg. 7:19–20). When David and Saul returned from battle, women met them who were singing and dancing as well as playing the tambourine (top) and the sistrum (salis). A similar scene appears in Exodus 15, when Miriam and the other women sing and play the tambourine following the rout of the Egyptian army.

Royal Court

Musicians were part of the royal retinue. Saul lauded David’s ability as a court musician (1 Sam. 16:23). Singing men and women are mentioned in 2 Samuel 19:35. Amos’s social statement of the northern kingdom included a critique of the wealthy rulers who stretched out upon couches and sang songs to the sound of the harp (nebal).

Prophecy

Music was frequently associated with prophecy in the Old Testament. Biblical texts suggest music was used to induce a state of prophetic ecstasy. In 1 Samuel 10:5, Samuel tells Saul that he will encounter a band of prophets playing the harp (nebal), the tambourine (top), the flute (halil), and the lyre (kinnor). Upon hearing the music Saul will fall into a prophetic frenzy, and the spirit of the Lord will be upon him (cf. 2 Kings 3:15).

Temple

Music was central to worship in the temple, and the book of Psalms provides ample evidence for the use of singing and instrumental music in the temple. Numerous instruments are mentioned throughout the Psalter, as is the frequent command for the people to sing or lift up a song (cf. Ps. 81:3–4). The superscriptions contain what many believe are musical expressions such as “According to the Lilies” (Psalms 45 and 69), but the precise meaning of these directives has been lost to history.

Other Occasions

Music, singing, and dancing were a part of everyday life as well (Gen. 31:27; Judg. 21:20–21; Isa. 16:10–11).

What Makes Psalms Interesting and Unique?

• The Psalms connect with us emotionally perhaps more than any other book in the Bible.
• The psalmist is brutally honest about his emotions—his fear, his doubt, his discouragement, and also his joy, his comfort, and his encouragement.
• The book of Psalms is the longest book in the Bible.
• The New Testament quotes from Psalms more than any other Old Testament book.
• The Psalms contain numerous messianic references.
• The Psalms are written in highly structured Hebrew poetry, frequently employing vivid figures of speech.

What Is the Message of Psalms?

The book of Psalms is so vast (150 psalms!) that space does not allow us to comment on each individual psalm. But the Psalms can be grouped into categories based on their theme and their structure, and we can get a good feel for the message of Psalms as a whole by looking at several of the categories. Keep in mind that the psalms are poetic, and poetry, almost by definition, resists categorizing. So the classic features we present below are basic generalizations. Exceptions abound.

As we stressed above, the two central themes in Psalms are lament and praise. The lament psalms can be broken down into two distinctive groups: personal or individual laments and national or community laments. Likewise, the praise psalms can be broken down into several subgroups: individual testimony psalms; descriptive praise psalms; enthronement psalms; royal psalms; and songs of Zion (often called pilgrim psalms). In addition, there are a handful of psalms that are unique and do not fit neatly into any of these specific categories.

A fascinating feature that occurs in several psalms is the use of the Hebrew alphabet to structure the psalm. These are called alphabetic psalms (sometimes called “acrostic psalms”). The alphabetic psalms are categorized by this peculiar alphabetic feature and not by content. Thus an alphabetic psalm can also fall in one of the other categories (e.g., Psalm 9 is both an alphabetic psalm and an individual lament).

In general there is a transition throughout the book of Psalms from lament (many of the psalms in book 1) to praise, which dominates the later books.

Individual Lament Psalms

The individual lament psalms are those psalms where an individual (often David, but not always) cries out to God about his specific personal problem. The individual lament psalms include the following: Psalms 3–5, 7, 9–10, 13–14, 17, 22, 25–28, 31, 35, 39–43, 52–57, 59, 61, 64, 69–71, 77, 86, 88–89, 109, 120, and 139–142. These psalms can be grouped together both by theme (lament) and by form. That is, they all share a similar structure in that the topics they cover follow the same general order.

The general structure of individual lament psalms

Address These psalms begin with an introductory cry for help and/or a statement of turning to God.

Lament In either a brief or extended fashion the psalmist describes his state of suffering. Frequently this section has three subjects—You, O God; I; and my foes.

Ancient musicians in Mesopotamia playing at a temple foundation ceremony (2100 BC).

Confession of trust This section contains a statement of renewed trust or faith in God. Often it is placed in contrast with the lament section and is frequently introduced with “but” or “however.”

Petition In this section the psalmist presents his petition to God; that is, what he is asking God to do. Frequently he presents two actual petitions—for God to be favorable to him and for God to intervene into his troubles.

Vow or declaration of praise The psalmist will go one of two directions here. Either he will make a vow, describing how he will praise God if God answers his petition (prayer), or he will go ahead and praise God in advance for answering his prayer, confident that God will indeed intervene and rescue him from his situation.

Psalm 142: An example of an individual lament psalm

Address (142:1–3a) “I cry aloud to the Lord; I lift up my voice. . . . I pour out my complaint before him.”

Lament (142:3b–4) “Men have hidden a snare for me. . . . No one is concerned for me. . . . No one cares for my life.”

Confession of trust (142:5) “I say, ‘You are my refuge.’”

Petition (142:6–7a) “Rescue me from those who pursue me. . . . Set me free from my prison.”

Vow or declaration of praise (142:7b) “. . . that I may praise your name.”

National or Community Lament Psalms

The national or community lament psalms are those in which an entire community, often the entire nation of Israel, cries out to God and asks him to help them or deliver them. Often these psalms are in response to the terrible destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians and the consequential exile of Israel to Babylon. The national/community lament psalms include Psalms 12, 44, 58, 60, 74, 79–80, 83, 85, 90, 94, 123, 126, 129, and 137. The structure of these psalms is identical to the individual lament psalms (address, lament, confession of trust, petition, vow or declaration of praise) except that the pronouns are plural (“we” instead of “I”), and the point of view is the community or nation.

Psalm 74: An example of a national lament psalm

Address (74:1–2) “Why have you rejected us forever, O God? . . . Remember the people you purchased of old.”

Lament (74:3–11) A description of the destroyed temple in Jerusalem.

Confession of trust (74:12–17) “But you, O God . . . bring salvation upon the earth.”

Petition (74:18–23) “Do not forget the lives of your afflicted people forever. Have regard for your covenant. . . . Rise up, O God, and defend your cause.”

Vow or declaration of praise Psalm 74 does not contain a vow of praise. This is a reminder that there are variations from the pattern and not all psalms will follow the pattern in every detail (this is poetry, remember). However, some have suggested that Psalm 75 in its entirety functions as the “declaration of praise” for Psalm 74.

Ancient trumpet player from western Anatolia (800–500 BC).

Individual Testimony Psalms

In these psalms, the psalmist praises God by proclaiming publicly what God has done for him. While the lament psalms look forward (“Save me! Rescue me!”), the individual testimony psalms look back at God’s deliverance and proclaim, “He saved me; he rescued me.” These psalms are similar to a modern “testimony” shared with a Christian community in which someone, out of gratitude to God, shares how God answered his or her prayers and worked in his or her life. Individual testimony psalms include Psalms 18, 21, 30, 32, 34, 40–41, 66, 116, and 138.

The general structure of individual testimony psalms

This type of psalm exhibits more variety than some of the other types, but typically it will conform to most of the following pattern:

Proclamation of praise to God These psalms open with a declaration of praise or adoration of God, such as “I will praise the Lord,” “I will exalt you, O Lord,” or “I love you, O Lord.”

Introductory summary statement The psalmist often gives a one- or two-verse summary statement of what he has learned about God (and why he is praising him).

The story of deliverance In these verses the psalmist shares what actually happened. Often he will revisit the initial situation from which he cried out to God for help. Then he will describe how God intervened to deliver him.

Praise and teaching Here the psalmist either vows to praise God or just goes ahead and states his praise. Sometimes this turns into a “teaching” or “instruction” section as the psalmist proclaims to his audience truths about the Lord and his work, often exhorting them to join him in praising God.

Psalm 34: An example of an individual testimony psalm

Proclamation of praise to God (34:1–3) “I will extol the Lord at all times.”

Introductory summary statement Psalm 34 does not have a summary statement, unless 34:4 serves as the summary and the introduction into the story of deliverance.

The story of deliverance (34:4–7) “I sought the Lord, and he answered me; he delivered me from all my fears. . . . This poor man called, and the Lord heard him; he saved him out of all his troubles.”

Praise and teaching (34:8–22) Psalm 34 has mostly teaching in this section. “Taste and see that the Lord is good. . . . Come, my children, listen to me; I will teach you the fear of the Lord.”

Assyrian wall relief showing a soldier and three prisoners, possibly Israelites, playing the lyre (seventh century BC).

Descriptive Praise Psalms

These psalms exhort the audience to join in praising God because of his greatness (especially as seen in creation) or because of his grace (especially as revealed through his great acts in human history). Psalms in this category are perhaps the easiest to identify because they begin with the Hebrew word hallelujah, which means “praise the Lord!” Included in this category are Psalms 33, 106, 111, 113, 117, 135, and 146–150.

The general structure of descriptive praise psalms

Prologue These psalms will start off with Hallelujah (“Praise the Lord!”).

Call to praise The psalmist will usually call on others (servants of the Lord, people in general, the heavens, angels, his own “soul,” etc.) to join him in praising the Lord.

Reason for praising God Often there is a summary statement followed by specific illustrations.

Concluding statement Here the psalmist usually gives an exhortation, petition, or a renewed call to praise as a concluding summary statement.

Epilogue Often the descriptive praise psalms also end with Hallelujah (“Praise the Lord!”), just as they began.

Psalm 113: An example of a descriptive praise psalm

Prologue (113:1a) “Praise the Lord.”

Call to praise (113:1b–3) “Praise, O servants of the Lord. . . . From the rising of the sun to the place where it sets, the name of the Lord is to be praised.”

Reason for praising God (113:4–9a) “The Lord is exalted over all the nations, . . . sits enthroned on high, . . . raises the poor from the dust[,] . . . settles the barren woman in her home as a happy mother of children.”

Concluding statement Psalm 113 does not have a concluding statement.

Epilogue (113:9b) “Praise the Lord.”

Enthronement Psalms

These psalms are classified by content and not by structure like those above. The enthronement psalms are indicated by the phrase “The Lord reigns” or a similar phrase. These psalms describe God as the King over all the earth. Often they have messianic implications. Included in the enthronement psalms are Psalms 47, 93, and 96–99.

Royal Psalms

The royal psalms usually deal with some event or aspect in the life of a current reigning king. In contrast to the enthronement psalms (which proclaim the Lord as King), these psalms seem to focus on the human king. Yet like the enthronement psalms, the royal psalms often have messianic nuances (see especially Psalm 110). The royal psalms include Psalms 2, 18, 20–21, 45, 72, 101, and 110.

Songs of Zion (Pilgrim Psalms and Songs of Ascent)

Technically Mount Zion was the bluff or ridge that the temple was built on. Eventually the term Zion was used to refer poetically to the entire city of Jerusalem, while still retaining a focus on the temple. These psalms were probably sung by pilgrims as they went up to Jerusalem to worship at the temple for one of Israel’s festivals, thus they are sometimes called “pilgrim psalms” or “songs of ascent.” Psalms that can be placed in this category include Psalms 84 and 120–134.

Alphabetic Psalms

Alphabetic psalms have a peculiar and fascinating structure that is noticeable only in the original Hebrew, for these psalms will follow the Hebrew alphabet in some manner. For example, consider Psalm 34. The first Hebrew letter of the first verse (“I will extol the Lord”) is the letter aleph, which is the first letter in the Hebrew alphabet. The next verse (34:2) starts with bet, the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and so forth all the way through the alphabet.

There are other variations on how the psalms use the alphabet. Psalm 119 is a good example. The verses in this long psalm are organized into groups of eight. Each line of the first eight verses (119:1–8) starts with the Hebrew letter aleph, the first letter in the alphabet. Then the first lines of the next eight verses (119:9–16) all start with bet, the second letter of the alphabet, and so forth until 119:169–176, in which each line starts with tav, the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet.

The purpose of this alphabetic organization is not clear. Perhaps it aided in memorization. Perhaps it was merely written this way for aesthetic purposes (i.e., an artistic touch). Most likely it symbolized the completeness of the topic. For example, in English we can say “that’s the truth from A to Z” meaning the complete truth. Thus the psalmist in 119 would be extolling and praising God’s law “from A to Z” (Hebrew, aleph to tav).

So What? Applying Psalms to Our Lives Today

Most of you are probably already quite adept at applying the Psalms in your lives. You have used them to lead you in worshiping and praising God. You have used them to draw comfort and strength during trying times. You may have also used them to meditate on during your personal devotional time. These are valid applications of the Psalms. Keep using them that way.

But there is also another powerful application of the Psalms in our lives that is perhaps not quite as commonly appreciated. The Psalms tell us (indeed provide us with inspired models) that it is okay to cry out in pain and frustration to God. Sometimes in the church we convey to people that it is spiritually immature to express anything other than bright, upbeat optimism. This implies (incorrectly) that mature Christians always have it all together. The psalmist contradicts this, crying out, “How long, O Lord? Will you forget me forever? How long will you hide your face from me?” (13:1). Again in Psalm 22:2 we find the psalmist pouring out his heart in anguish because God won’t answer his prayers: “O my God, I cry out by day, but you do not answer.” If we prayed like this in church, no one would ever call on us to pray again. Yet these psalms (especially the laments) are very important because they give us divinely inspired models of how to cry out to God honestly when we are hurting. Psalms teaches us it is okay to hurt and to express that pain to God, even publicly (or especially publicly). Sometimes an entire church congregation can be devastated by a tragedy, and the entire church can suffer and hurt. The Psalms give us a way to publicly and corporately cry out in pain to God, a critical step on the way to healing.

Our Favorite Verse in Psalms

The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not be in want. (23:1)