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Testing a Culture-Based Design Pedagogy: A Case Study
Introduction
Previous authors have discussed the significance of integrating non-Western design forms into design curricula as a means of addressing diversity and global issues (Boyer and Mitgang 1996; Elleh 1997; Fairbrass and Harris 1986; Grant 1991; Guerin and Mason 1993; Guerin and Thompson 2004; Leigh and Tremblay 2002). However, few studies exist that examine instructional approaches that use non-Western design forms. Research findings from a study by Jani and Asojo of interior design educators indicated the need for design discourse and instructional approaches on non-Western cultures that promote diverse multicultural perspectives in education (Jani and Asojo 2007).
To help address this issue, a cultural framework of five constructs was developed and applied in third- and fourth-year interior design studios. Students were assigned the task of design problem-solving for spaces in Nigerian, South African, and Native American settings (Asojo 2011). This essay provides insights into this cultural framework and instructional approach.
A Cultural Framework of Five Constructs
The results of a study conducted by Asojo on design problem-solving in different cultural settings revealed five constructs. These constructs were used to develop a cultural framework for the design of interiors in cultural settings (Asojo 2011). The constructs are: social dynamics; juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture; visual and performance arts; elements and principles of design; and sustainability.
In this study, the constructs of social dynamics and juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture were deemed to be abstract, while visual and performance arts, elements and principles of design, and sustainability were seen as concrete constructs. In other words, the abstract constructs were considered more theoretical, while the concrete constructs were considered more grounded in the physical world. The data revealed strong connections – even overlap – among the five constructs.
Abstract Construct 1: Social Dynamics
Specific components were identified that characterize the social dynamics construct. These are: ethnicity and cultural diversity; philosophy and religion; government and iconic people in the cultures; and community, social interaction, and family (Asojo 2011). In this study it was found that ethnicity and cultural diversity were important considerations in the design of interior spaces for non-Western settings. This is not surprising when one considers the large number of diverse ethnic groups found in non-Western settings. In Africa, for example there are multiple ethnic groups within the various countries, with Nigeria alone representing over 250 different ethnic groups. It stands to reason that the philosophical and religious beliefs, which are closely aligned with the concepts of ethnicity and cultural diversity, also were seen as important considerations that impact the art and architecture of a country.
In order to create meaningful interior spaces in non-Western settings, an understanding of the entire context of the region is needed. Such things as ideas about community, social interaction and family, and the balance among spiritual, cultural, and artistic elements – in conjunction with the government structure and the existence of iconic cultures – are often reflected in the built environment and must be taken into consideration. For example, in Nigeria, Ghana, and some other West African countries, the impluvium-style houses with their multiple courtyards and functions arranged around them were designed to support the coexistence of the extended family.
Abstract Construct 2: Juxtaposition of Traditional and Contemporary Culture
“Juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture” is the second abstract construct that was identified. The notion of juxtaposing traditional with contemporary culture implies a consciousness of the indigenous influences and the importance of their interpretation in a non-literal and non-stereotypical way, as opposed to what is often perceived in the media's depiction of non-Western cultures as impoverished and underdeveloped.
Particularly in Africa, this construct demonstrates aspects of Mazrui and Elleh's “triple heritage” theory regarding the history and architecture of African countries (Elleh 1997; Mazrui 1986). Mazrui suggests that African culture is deeply rooted in a “triple heritage” reflecting indigenous, Western, and Islamic influences. Later, Elleh observed the “triple heritage” phenomenon in the architecture of most Nigerian and South African cities. It can be argued that these factors make African cities different from those in most parts of the world because their built environments have been influenced by three different heritages.
In addition, the availability of real-time global communication has increased cross-cultural exchanges, thereby further impacting the architecture of many non-Western cultures. This makes the “juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture” a very significant construct to be considered in the design of interior spaces in non-Western cultures.
Concrete Construct 1: Visual and Performance Arts
“Visual and performance arts” is the first of three concrete constructs (Asojo 2011). Visual art is a term used to collectively characterize artifacts, arts, and crafts – all of which are important aspects of a culture and influence its built environment. In most non-Western cultures the visual arts have a strong connection with the performance arts (dancing and music), and therefore must also be considered as important influences on the built environment of non-Western cultures.
Individual elements of the visual and performance arts such as specific motifs and attributes of dress, fabrics, hairstyles, body decoration, metalwork, carving, pottery, basketry, beadwork, and wall decoration can be observed in the built environment of most non-Western cultures. This relationship between visual and performance arts is consistent with the notion that art is an extension of architecture in the African built environment and that the arts cannot be separated from architecture in an African cultural context. Balogun explained this phenomenon in the following way:
African artistic genius was strongly asserted in the decorative embellishment of the built environment. Varying decorative patterns could be found sculpted or painted on walls and wooden doors, which ranged from figurative designs to complex abstract patterns which revealed an exquisite balance of form, color and shading. Painting was carried out as an extension of architecture rather than an independent medium.
Concrete Construct 2: Elements and Principles of Design
“Elements and principles” of design is the second concrete construct. Most design students begin their programs of study with introductory courses in the basic elements of design (i.e., point, line, form, shape, space, texture, and color) and design principles (i.e., balance – symmetrical or non-symmetrical – rhythm, emphasis, proportion, scale, unity/harmony, and movement) (Ching 2007). However, the notion that African and other non-Western cultures demonstrate principles of rational planning has not been widely endorsed in literature. For example in the case of pre-colonial African cultures, Hull observed the following:
Another misconception about pre-colonial Africans is that their settlement patterns were a disorganized, cacophonous, sprawling scramble of random structures, exhibiting little or no regard for the elements of rational planning. Oral and written evidence reveals the importance of human relationships as a major determinant in the placement of buildings. They also suggest that utilization of space was hardly haphazard. Nevertheless, it was not space that mattered so much as the relationship of its occupants. Space was seen as a medium in which to express relationships of a social, religious, ethnic, political, or occupational nature.
More recent studies, however, have shown that indigenous African motifs are based on geometric designs that incorporate basic principles of design through the use of lines, shapes, textures, and rhythms (Asojo 2011). For example, among the Hausa in sub-Saharan Africa motifs can be found that are predominantly geometric patterns which emphasize the intricate volumetric vaulting of the Hausa mosque ceilings, and the Yoruba and Igbo in West Africa routinely incorporate rectangular, circular, and organic shapes in their spatial organization.
In other examples, certain Nigerian cultures create hierarchy among spaces that are dependent upon the religious and social structure of the group (i.e., the king's palace is more elaborate in form, shape and height than others). In South Africa one can see the incorporation of vibrant, warm textures and colors in the built environment. The Zulu culture, a prominent South African culture, is strongly dependent on music and includes the design principle of rhythm to organize the spatial elements of Zulu buildings and interiors.
Given this background, a noteworthy conclusion can be drawn. Contrary to what Western literature seems to imply, design precedents from non-Western cultural settings can be used to inform design discourse and, as such, they can be used pedagogically to discuss elements and principles of design. In so doing, a more inclusive design education can be promoted.
Concrete Construct 3: Sustainability
“Sustainability” is the third concrete construct identified by Asojo in her study. Sustainability manifests itself in the importance of the natural environment; local materials; climatic considerations; and natural lighting among indigenous non-Western cultures. Many of the early practices of non-Western indigenous cultures were synonymous with today's sustainable practices because these cultures were very earth-centered and in tune with the natural environment. Unfortunately, many of these sustainable practices have been abandoned as indigenous societies have become more urbanized. The application of this construct in interior design classes can help bridge the gap between the old and new, thereby reinforcing notions from the past in contemporary practices with strong emphasis on the earth-centered nature of non-Western cultures.
Case Study 1: Nigerian and South African Design Project
The Nigerian and South African project was incorporated into a third-year interior design studio course. The task assigned to the students was to design the interior and lighting for a restaurant in either Nigeria or South Africa within a six-week period. The students were given the option of setting the restaurant in Lagos, Nigeria or Johannesburg, South Africa. (These locations were chosen because each offered an urban setting with a strong influx of tourists and multiple opportunities for the exploration of cultural attributes.) The project was completed in teams of five students each, identified as Groups A, B, C, D, and E.
Student Design Solutions: Groups A, B, C, D, and E
Group A set out to integrate the three predominant ethnic groups in Nigeria (the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa) through the creation of a “melting-pot atmosphere.” Ceiling elements from Hausa vaults and arches and the indigenous materials, fabric, textiles, art, and sculpture derived from Yoruba and Igbo served as inspiration for the design of their restaurant. The architecture, design, furniture, and décor from Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa informed their conceptual sketches that were subsequently translated into their design solution.
Group B derived their solution from the vibrant colors, arts, and traditions of Swazi, South African, and Swaziland culture. This group's solution was mainly influenced by geometric patterns from Swazi baskets. The geometric patterns from Swazi baskets were integrated into the stained patterns on the flooring, columns, room dividers, patio fence, and ceiling. This group emphasized the importance of this abstraction so as to avoid any stereotypes.
The beadwork and use of color of the Yoruba were the primary inspirations for Group C's solution. Patterns in the space, including the layout of the floor plan, were inspired by a beaded painting by prominent Yoruba artist Jimoh Buraimoh, and resulted in an open-plan solution. A water wall feature was used to reflect light into their space.
Group D started their design process by studying the Yoruba philosophy which emphasizes the significance of the earth and sky's concave shapes. These shapes were used as space defining elements in the design of their restaurant. As a focal point, they created an undulating ceiling with prominent tree branches. The tree was located in a central place inside the restaurant to represent Oduduwa, the founder of the Yoruba, and to symbolize growth and energy through the many branches. Sustainability was another key concept this group integrated in the use of materials (e.g., recycled bottles with LED lights as fixtures). They named their restaurant Omnomnom Restaurant, Bar and Lounge, a name that was an amalgamation of Nigerian words.
Lastly, Group E focused on the Zulu ethnic group of South Africa. Since community is an important aspect of the Zulu culture, it became a major component of the design thinking of this group. The use of large tables with lots of seating reinforced the notion of community, with some of the tables being shaped in the form of a leaf to emphasize the Zulu culture's connection with nature. Other inspiration for the design of the restaurant was drawn from images of Zulu children, warriors, baskets, and dome huts, resulting in a beaded column as a prominent feature in the space. The importance of performance arts and dance to the Zulu culture was reinforced by the inclusion of a stage, and the vibrant color palette of the Zulu culture was exhibited in a variety of circular forms, curved lines, and organic shapes.
An analysis of the student projects revealed that each group relied on elements that fell under the umbrellas of abstract and concrete constructs (see Tables 25.1, 25.2, and 25.3 for a synopsis of how the students used these constructs in their design solutions).
Table 25.1 A synopsis illustrating the abstract constructs
Table 25.2 A synopsis illustrating the concrete constructs (Groups A and B)
Table 25.3 A synopsis illustrating the concrete constructs (Groups C, D and E)
Case Study 2: Native American Community College Library Project
The Native American community college library project was included in a fourth-year interior design studio course. The students were asked to create a design for a library for a Native American community college. A primary goal of the space was that it would reflect the heritage, artistic expression, culture, and colors of a specific Native American culture. The students worked individually and were allowed to choose the Native American culture they were designing for as well as the location of the library.
Student Design Solutions
One student decided to create a library for the Ojibwe tribe in White Earth Community College in Mahnomen, Minnesota. After studying the culture of the Ojibwe tribe, the student's solution incorporated several diverse areas into the plan which included individual, communal, educational, and informal spaces. In keeping with the Ojibwe philosophy and connection to nature, the majority of the public spaces were organized around a window to emphasize the natural landscape and maximize daylight exposure. In terms of artistic expression, a combination of soft curves and rigid geometric characteristics of traditional Ojibwe patterns were integrated into perforated screens to depict the beadwork patterns of the tribe. Photographs emphasizing the tribe's history and the artifacts of the Ojibwe were prominently displayed in a gallery format.
Another student proposed a library for the Pequot tribe in Connecticut. The boldness and confidence of the Pequot tribe were reflected in the bold and angular layout of the design. The community-based philosophy of the Pequot tribe was reinforced by a central communal area, and the ceiling design was inspired by the wigwam shape of the traditional Pequot home. The Pequot love of self-expression through body paint, bold colored clothing, and mohawks was incorporated in the vibrant colors integrated throughout the design. Lastly, the angular shapes and strong lines of Pequot pottery, necklaces, and clothing were prominently displayed and integrated into the final solution.
The Cheyenne tribe was the focus of study for another student. This student found the Cheyenne arrow ceremony to be of particular fascination and used this as inspiration for the design solution. The Cheyenne arrow ceremony, with its half-moon arrangement, served as the catalyst for the curvilinear spatial organization of the space. Group seating areas were provided to accommodate the activity of storytelling, an important component of Cheyenne culture where members of older generations pass down history to younger generations. The colors, materials, and shapes used in this student's design of the library were based on Cheyenne artwork and clothing, utilizing warm yellows, reds, and natural tones derived from Cheyenne traditional wear.
In her research on the Arapahoe tribe, another student found that the tribe was nomadic and roamed throughout the Midwest region of the United States. A reflection of this characteristic of the Araphahoe tribe became the primary focus of her design concept. Synonymous with the characteristics of the Arapahoe as travelers and traders, she used angular walls in the library space to indicate movement. These unusual angles of the walls also served to enhance the flow from one space to another. Other strong focal points were used to evoke a sense of movement using references to legends and other traditional elements of the Arapahoe culture. For example, because the Arapahoe tribe was known as gemstone jewelry traders who told great stories and legends that mystified those they came across, the space was designed to illustrate three elements: the movement of the traveling traders and the river in the creation story, the spider trickster found in children's legends, and the beautiful gemstones and turquoise they traded.
Lastly, the focus of another student's design of the library was the Algonquin tribe located in Ottawa in Ontario, Canada. Research into the Algonquin people revealed that their culture tended to incorporate large gathering spaces into their living environments. To reflect this, as well as illustrate the equality philosophy of the Algonquin people, a large central gathering space was used as a focal point in the library. Birchwood, the type primarily used by the Algonquin people, was selected for finishes throughout the library, and the children's area of the library was designed to reflect the rivers that the Algonquin people traveled. An analysis of the student projects revealed that each group relied on elements that fell under the umbrellas of abstract and concrete constructs.
As with the previous case study and analysis of student designs set in African countries, the student designs for a Native American library revealed that each student relied on different elements that fell under the umbrellas of abstract and concrete constructs (see Tables 25.4 and 25.5 for a synopsis of how the students used in these constructs in their design solutions).
Table 25.4 A synopsis illustrating the abstract constructs
| Tribe | Abstract construct 1: Social dynamics | Abstract construct 2: Juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture |
|---|---|---|
| Ojibwe | The Ojibwe lived in groups and were community oriented. Most Ojibwe lived a sedentary lifestyle. They mainly lived in wigwams. Their spiritual beliefs were passed down by oral tradition | The notion of spaces organized corresponding to traditional patterns The combination of soft curves and rigid geometry characteristic of traditional Ojibwe patterns Photography used to emphasizes connection to historic culture |
| Pequot | Pequot were bold and confident people. The tribe was very community-based. The Pequot people loved to express themselves through body paint, bold colored clothing, and Mohawks The “red fox” was an animal that they honored and they often called themselves fox people. The tribe lived on the shoreline and spent time fishing | Drawing inspiration from tradition, the ceiling design is inspired by the wigwam shape of the traditional Pequot home |
| Cheyenne | The Cheyenne tribe originally lived in the Great Plains in South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas. Today there are two Cheyenne tribes, one in Oklahoma and the other in Montana. The Cheyenne arrow ceremony was a big part of the culture and belief. The ceremony was set up in a half-moon arrangement, with a main tepee in the middle and two more off to the side. Another part of the culture is the traditional Cheyenne legends and fairy tales. Storytelling is very important to the Cheyenne Indian culture | Inspiration is derived from traditional ceremonies and storytelling of the Cheyenne tribe |
| Arapahoe | The Arapahoe were nomads in the Midwest region of the United States As travelers the Arapahoe were known to be gemstone jewelry traders that told great stories and legends that mystified those they came across | The space evokes movement through strong focal points derived from legends and the traditional culture of the Arapahoe. For example, the children's legend of the spider trickster inspired web-like patterning |
| Algonquin | Algonquin people were located in the northern woodlands spanning Canada and the northern US. The area had abundant wildlife, forests, rivers, and lakes | Drawing inspiration from the lifestyle of the Algonquin people and the notion of equality of people, a concept the Algonquin believed in |
Table 25.5 A synopsis illustrating the concrete constructs
Conclusion
This essay provides educators with a pedagogical model to help students view the world from multiple perspectives. In so doing, they will be better equipped to be actively engaged in solving design problems in a diverse, global society. The cultural framework discussed in this essay can serve as a starting point for design educators who are interested in integrating global concerns, diversity issues, and cultural settings into their design studios. Exercises such as those presented in each case study can be easily integrated into an existing curriculum. However, in order for global and diversity issues to become routinized in design education, such approaches need to be included in a separate required course in a design studio curriculum. An important resource for this type of course is the book Diversity in Design Perspectives from the Non-Western World. This book focuses on the culture, architecture, and philosophies of India, China, Turkey, Egypt, Nigeria, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates and is written to appeal to design students and educators interested in learning about indigenous and contemporary aspects of non-Western cultures.
Another approach that is suggested to increase understanding and appreciation of non-Western cultures is to create a global design history course that recognizes the contributions of many world cultures. This type of lecture course could be taught as a companion course to a design studio course that emphasizes non-Western settings.
The abstract and concrete constructs of social dynamics, juxtaposition of traditional and contemporary culture, visual and performance arts, elements and principles of design, and sustainability discussed in this essay offer one lens through which educators can study and incorporate multicultural and non-Western concepts into their design studios. However, this alone is not enough. Design educators must go beyond one approach, or one course, to make a difference that will better prepare design students for work in global and non-Western settings.
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