Notes

Chapter 1

¹ Ultimately there were seventeen.

² Sir Hugh Trenchard. Created Baron in 1930 and Viscount in 1936. Widely acknowledged as ‘The Father of the Royal Air Force’.

³ It was decided in 2005 that this cost could no longer be justified. While there ‘remained the need for UASs to retain links with Universities both to allow the RAF to influence future graduates and to nurture recruitment’, the need to provide flying was discounted. However, all UAS members would ‘on a voluntary basis’ continue ‘to have access to 10 hours flying instruction per year’. Commanders’ briefing Note, 15/05.

⁴ The Central Flying School is actually older than the RAF. It was formed at Upavon in Wiltshire in 1912 and tasked with training the UK’s first military pilots.

Chapter 2

¹ The Link Trainer was the invention of an American, Edwin Link. He patented it in April 1929. He is credited with being the founder of the modern flight simulation industry.

² To achieve maximum range an aircraft must be flown at its best lift/drag ratio. Piston-engined aircraft should also be flown at a height where the power required for the best lift/drag ratio entails the throttle opening fully. For light piston-engined aircraft with normally aspirated engines full throttle height can be as high as 12,000 feet.

Chapter 3

¹ On an aviation medicine course at RAF North Luffenham (in 1968) the course members were subjected to an ‘explosive decompression’ in a similarchamber. We were taken to 37,000 feet, kept there for an hour, and then by means of an instant evacuation of air, we were subjected briefly to the effects of a much greater height. I mentioned this in conversation with an aviation medical specialist several years after the event. He was incredulous that this should have been done saying it was much too risky; however, it happened.

² The curve of the wing on an aircraft flying at a high subsonic speed can cause the air flowing over it to accelerate beyond Mach 1. As this supersonic flow slows to match the subsonic flow conditions at the trailing edge of the wing a shock-wave will form. The sudden increase in pressure across the shock-wave will slow the layer of air closest to the wing’s surface (the boundary layer). If the boundary layer actually reverses direction, and starts to move forward, the main flow will separate from the wing surface, increasing the drag already caused by the shock-wave, and cause increased buffeting and loss of effectiveness of controls at the trailing edge

³ This formal sequence was still being followed, with minor changes, some thirty years later when I was retiring.

Chapter 4

¹ No. 229 OCU moved to Chivenor in March 1950. For the next twenty-four years nothing was done to improve the accommodation on the Station. In fact there seemed to be an extraordinary reluctance to accord the airfield a long-term future. It was finally – and completely – rebuilt in 1979/80.

² No. 43 Squadron, the first to be equipped with the Hunter Mark 1, began to receive the aircraft in January 1955. By June 1955, Nos 222 and 247 Squadrons had also got them.

³ The Avon engine also powered the Comet and, later, the Lightning.

Chapter 5

¹ Deliveries of the Mark 4 began in early 1955. It eventually equipped nine squadrons in the UK and thirteen in Germany,

² Movement of the elevators by the pilot activated the tailplane trim motor to act in conjunction with them.

³ My daily rate of pay as a flying officer was nineteen shillings and sixpence (97.5 pence), supplemented by flying pay of eight shillings (40 pence). Four guineas (£4 and 20 pence) was not quite half my weekly total, but not far off. Happily military rates of pay were greatly improved later that year.

⁴ The Mark 6 was fitted with the 10,150 lbs static thrust Avon 203 or (later) the 207; it carried 3,000 lbs of internal fuel; had an AVPIN (isopropylnitrate) fuelled starter system (replacing the cartridge systems of the earlier Marks); had leading edge extensions added to cure the mild pitch-up tendency from which earlier Marks had suffered; was fitted with a multi-channel UHF radio; was capable of Mach 0.94 at sea-level; could reach 45,000 feet in 7.1 minutes from take-off; and had a maximum practical operating ceiling of 47,500 feet. Nineteen squadrons in the UK and Germany were equipped with the Mark 6; four others were equipped with the Sapphire-engined Mark 5 in much the same time-scale.

⁵ A ‘Tactical Air Force’ was formed within Fighter Command in June 1943 in preparation for the invasion of Europe. It initially comprised two of Fighter Command’s existing Groups, Nos 83 and 84, plus No. 2 Group, which was moved over from Bomber Command. The TAF was renamed 2TAF in November 1943 when it achieved Command status. Its HQ was established in Germany in April 1945. In July 1945 2TAF was renamed BAFO (The British Air Forces of Occupation), becoming 2TAF again in September 1951. Some scope for (more) confusion was created in February 1952 when NATO’s Allied Air Forces Central Europe (variously referred to as AAFCE or AFCENT) subdivided into 2 and 4 Allied Tactical Air Forces; 2TAF became part of 2ATAF. It was renamed RAF Germany on 1 January 1959.

⁶ Supplemented by ten Bloodhound surface-to-air missile squadrons – of which No. 247 Squadron was one.

Chapter 6

¹ The T7 was an unpressurised twin-seat version of the Meteor Mark 4. The Meteor first entered operational service in July 1944 (with No. 616 Squadron RAuxAF) and was employed briefly against the V1 ‘flying bombs’. The Mark 8, later modified for target-towing, was introduced in 1947 and was widely deployed both with RAF and RAuxAF squadrons. A night-fighter version, the NF 11, was in service with the RAF until the late 1950s. The Meteor 8 saw operational service with the Royal Australian Air force during the Korean War: ninety-three ex-RAF Mark 8s were procured by the Australian Government for use in Korea; fifty-two were lost in operations there.

² Writing in the Station monthly log, the Form 540, at the end of March 1959 the Station Commander, Group Captain RAL Morant, recorded his considerable relief that the last Iraqi course had now completed its training at Chivenor. He went on to say: ‘We have heard that their successors are now being trained in Russia and we wish the best of Russian/Iraqi luck to both parties.’

³ The Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO) was initially formed in 1955 as the Middle East Treaty Organisation, also known as the Baghdad Pact. The participating nations were Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Iraq withdrew in 1959 after the monarchy was overthrown. Iran withdrew after the fall of the Shah in 1979 and CENTO was dissolved.

Chapter 7

¹ Ground Control Interception Station. The UK air defence radar system was originally based on separate reporting (or early warning) units and controlling units. Throughout the 1950s the system was subject to a number of projects and plans for change. The ‘Rotor’ plan of 1956, for example, involved the construction and installation of thirty-nine new radar Stations, thirty-four of which were to have underground bunkers. However, this plan perpetuated the old split concept and, in 1958, Fighter Command proposed a modified integrated system, based on eight ‘comprehensive’ or ‘master’ radar Stations plus ten ‘satellites’. However, this plan was invalidated in turn by the development of a new and more powerful radar, the Type 85, and it was back to the drawing board.

² The invention of the carcinotron valve, a new form of microwave oscillator, gave jammers a distinct edge over even quite powerful radars such as the Type 80. It was expected that the Type 85 would produce enough power to restore the balance. A contract for three Type 85s was placed in 1958 (to be sited at Boulmer in Northumberland, Staxton Wold in North Yorkshire, and Neatishead in Norfolk). Under a new plan these, plus five Type 84s, and two Type 80s at the northern extremities, were to provide United Kingdom air defence cover by the early 1960s.

³ The Hunter had a design load factor of 7.5 g; that is, it was to be capable of sustaining this value without suffering permanent distortion. It was also to be capable of sustaining 50% more than this (11.25 g) without structural failure.

Chapter 8

¹ Number 111 Squadron, the ‘Black Arrows’, performed in this role from 1956 to 1960; beginning with four Hunter Mark 4s they graduated to displays with up to sixteen Hunter Mark 6s and, in 1957 delivered a show-stopper at the Farnborough air display by performing a formation loop with twenty-two aircraft. No. 92 Squadron, the ‘Blue Diamonds’, held the commitment in 1961 and 1962, also performing with up to sixteen aircraft. No. 56 Squadron, the ‘Firebirds’, held it in 1963 to 1965 with nine Lightning Mark 1As. It was then passed to Training Command, on the grounds of economy, and the ‘Red Arrows’ team was formed, initially equipped with the Gnat T1, getting the Hawk in 1980.

² The South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was formed in September 1955 mainly to provide for collective defence in South East Asia against communist subversion and possible aggression. It comprised eight member states: Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the UK and the USA. By 1992 it had become ‘inactive’.

Chapter 9

¹ When researching for this book I read No. 20 Squadron’s Form 540. I found that I had recorded for June 1963, writing as acting squadron commander, that: ‘…it is the opinion of this squadron, after two years’ experience, that compo rations are unsuitable for pilots flying intensively in high performance aircraft in tropical conditions’. I can’t have liked them!

² No. 60 Squadron was reinforced for the task from the UK by No. 64 Squadron, another Javelin outfit. In the event, no raids occurred, although there were frequent provocative Indonesian flights to within a few nm of Singapore. The end of conflict came when growing political discontent within Indonesia created a climate that made negotiations possible. Confrontation was formally declared over on 4 August 1966.

Chapter 10

¹ Later Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael.

Chapter 11

¹ The Air Ministry had become the Air Force Department of the Ministry of Defence when that enterprise in ‘jointery’ was formed in April 1964.

² Steamer Point lost its appeal as a shopping area as 1966 wore on and the risk from terrorist incidents there grew. An example of the sort of thing that was happening was provided by a member of the staff of the High Commission, Susan de Heveningham Boekeland. Walking to her office from the Crescent Hotel one morning she noticed an Arab coming out of the Steamer Point Tourist Office and saw that he was starting to pull the pin from a grenade. Rather more robust than most strollers – and armed – she shot at him and the grenade exploded, killing him.

³ In fact, the last recorded downpour in Aden had occurred in 1943.

⁴ The township was so named as it was actually within the confines of an extinct volcanic crater. It was relatively easy to isolate.

⁵ The fleet included the carriers Eagle, Hermes and Bulwark (with an embarked Commando). Its size suggests that the possibility of a fighting withdrawal had been taken seriously in Whitehall.

Chapter 12

¹ The Lightning was introduced into RAF service in June 1960 as the F Mark 1. No. 74 Squadron was the first and only outfit to be equipped with them. The Mark 1A (essentially a Mark 1 with an air-to-air refuelling capability) followed in November 1960, the first ones going to No. 56 Squadron. The dual-seat version of the Mark 1A, the T4, followed in 1962. A Mark 2 version was developed but few were procured. The Mark 1As were replaced by the Mark 3, No. 74 Squadron getting the first of these in April 1964.

² Before the development of a British supersonic fighter there was a lot of speculation about the difficulties that might be involved in flying it, and the qualities that its pilots might be required to possess. Not everyone made the right guess. Sir Ben Lockspeiser, Controller of Research and Development, announcing the cancellation of the supersonic research project, M.52, in 1952 said: ‘…We have not the heart to ask pilots to fly the high-speed models, so we will make them radio-controlled…’

³ The scope was a tiny cathode-ray tube, four inches square. Its face was etched vertically to depict azimuth angles at 10-degree intervals from its centre out to 40 degrees either side. Horizontally etched lines depicted range at 10 nm intervals out to 40 nm. A ‘steering dot’ was generated on the scope when ‘lock’ mode was selected.

⁴ Having achieved 40 degrees of azimuth at 12 nm the intercepting pilot then aimed for 22 degrees at 9 nm, 8 degrees at 6.25, and on the nose at 4 nm.

⁵ The Lightning was capable of exceeding, but was restricted to, Mach 2. The T5’s Release to Service ceiling was 60,000 feet; the Mark 6’s was 65,000 feet. Brian Carroll, one of my fellow course members at Coltishall, reported taking a Royal Saudi Arabian Air Force Lightning (the Mark 53) to Mach 2.18 and to 85,750 feet while serving in Saudi in 1979.

⁶ The Mark 6 was limited to a maximum of 6 g – provided that its speed was below Mach 1.8 and there was less than 1,000 lbs of fuel in the ventral tank. With 1,000 to 3,000 lbs in the ventral tank the maximum was 5.5 g. With more than 3,500 lbs in the ventral tank the maximum was 5 g. Above Mach 1.8 the maximum was 4 g.

Chapter 13

¹ The command of Lightning squadrons began to be upgraded from squadron leader to wing commander in July 1965.

² The RAF had ordered an air-to-air refuelling system in 1944 for a force of Lancasters preparing to deploy to the Far East (cancelled when Japan surrendered). It was cumbersome (a grappling-hook was fired by the tanker at a line trailed by the receiving aircraft and, contact hopefully made, a hose would be hauled across between the two aircraft). The RAF was very slow to recognise new developments in air-to-air equipment. Sir Alan Cobham had produced a hose and drogue (or basket) system in the late 1940s, which the Americans bought and used extensively during the Korean War. The RAF, awakening late to its merits, decided in 1954 to give the new V-force an air-to-air refuelling capability. In 1956 a Valiant squadron (No. 214, commanded by Wing Commander Michael Beetham) worked closely with Cobham on the RAF trials of the system and the Valiant, with one under-belly hose, became the RAF’s first tanker. After the Valiant was grounded by fatigue failure in 1964 the Victor K2 took over the role. In addition to the belly hose (which had been developed on the Valiant to allow the large V-bombers to refuel) the Victor was fitted with a refuelling pod under each wing thus allowing two fighter-sized aircraft to refuel simultaneously.

³ Ironically, not long after this incident, the rubber boots were replaced by waterproof fabric socks vulcanised to the bottom of the immersion-suit thus allowing leather flying-boots to be worn.

⁴ Before the Sandys cuts fighter squadrons had been larger. The 16 aircraft we had on Number 247 squadron was the norm, and our pilot strength averaged 21.

⁵ The GCA display consists of two airfield radar-produced pictures. Each shows the position of an aircraft on the approach path, one giving horizontal displacement of the aircraft and one vertical displacement above or below the glide-slope. The GCA controller keeps up a patter telling the pilot where he is in relation to the horizontal and vertical ideal. The pilot adjusts accordingly. With experience and practice it is possible to fly a GCA approach very accurately. The other system, the ILS, transmits approach path information automatically and this activates the installation in the aircraft. In the Lightning two needles on the main compass/navigation display showed horizontal and vertical displacement; the pilot had to fly to centre these in a small ring. It was possible to select ‘Automatic ILS’ in the Lightning, something rarely found in a fighter-sized aircraft; this facility enabled the autopilot to fly the approach while precisely maintaining the speed set by the pilot at the beginning of the procedure Oddly, the minimum approach height for an ILS in the Lightning was 100 feet higher than that for a GCA.

⁶ Invariably referred to by our ground crews as ‘Piss-taker’.

⁷ The 1957 Defence White paper (Mr Sandys again) imposed restrictions on the design of the Lightning decreeing, among other things, that the aircraft would have no use outside the UK.

⁸ The Form 1369.

Chapter 14

¹ On Stations where squadrons were commanded by squadron leaders the Wing Commander Flying was very much the wing Boss. Where the squadrons were commanded by wing commanders this was not the case. The title was then ‘Officer Commanding Operations Wing’ and the incumbent’s authority was diminished by the reluctance of some squadron commanders to accept him as primus inter pares.

Chapter 15

¹ For a period, Air Secretaries were appointed at this rank level. The idea was that such senior officers would be immune to any importuning or pressure to afford privileges of any kind to protégées.

² Sadly David Blucke was killed a few months later when the Phantom he was piloting, and a crop-spraying aircraft, collided in mid air.

³ As Captain Layard, Senior Naval Officer aboard the Atlantic Conveyor during the Falkland conflict, he had to swim for his life when that ship was sunk by an Exocet missile. He retired as Admiral Sir Michael.

⁴ The RN version was designated the FG1; the RAF version was designated the FG2. Both were based on the US Navy F4-J and were designated by McDonnell Douglas, the manufacturers, as the F4-K and F4-M respectively.

⁵ The Lightning over-wing drop tanks could add 4,160 lbs. However, they had been designed for ferry use only and severely restricted the aircraft’s manoeuvrability. With fuel in them, for example, the aircraft was limited to 3.5 g.

⁶ Rocket-propelled seats, such as those fitted to the Phantom, were now so efficient, and so largely avoided damage to the spine, that few felt inhibited about using them, even at ground-level!

Chapter 16

¹ The Board bought the idea and the concept was trialled though the 1980s. Two types of mobile radars were purchased, designated the Type 91 and the Type 92. The Type 84s were decommissioned in 1989, the Type 85s in 1991. The end of the Cold War and the concomitant political desire to achieve a ‘Peace Dividend’ led to a reduction in the number of mobiles in service.

² HQ Allied C-in-C Channel, HQ C-in-C Eastern Atlantic Area, and HQ Allied Maritime Air Force Channel and Eastern Atlantic Area.

³ The Vulcan force had not used air-to-air refuelling for about twenty years. To restore it now required some serious engineering work and a lot of crew practice.

⁴ Well told by Rowland White (no relation) in his book Vulcan 607.

Chapter 17

¹ Gutersloh’s Station Commander also had the role of Force Commander of deployed Harrier squadrons in war. Dick Johns went on to become CAS.

² The BRIXMIS team found their most productive source of information to be from papers and documents carelessly discarded in Russian waste dumps.

³ See Chris J Bain’s account on pages 3 and 4 of his book Cold War: Hot Wings.

Chapter 18

¹ In 1984 there were over 4,000 squadron leaders in the RAF. Around 400 officers were promoted to the rank annually.

² In Pakistan, among other things, I was invited to lay a wreath at the grave of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, revered there as the founder of the country. I was also generously given a comprehensive tour starting from Karachi and going as far north as Peshawar (where I found, in the Officers’ Mess of the Pakistan Air Force base, framed photographs of No. 20 Squadron, RAF, still hanging on the ante-room wall).

³ The English Army faced apparently hopeless odds before the Battle of Crecy in 1346. In drawing up his men for the battle King Edward III gave his eldest son, the Black Prince, ‘the place of honour and greatest danger, commanding the vanguard on the right of the line’.