All translations in the book are our own unless otherwise indicated.
1. While the term “Black Atlantic” has been in a wide circulation, the terms “Red Atlantic” and “White Atlantic” have appeared only sporadically. After writing our section on the “Red Atlantic,” we discovered that a number of writers have referred in passing to the “Red Atlantic.” Most of these authors use the expression either in the sense of “radical left” or in a historical-ethnographic sense of movements of peoples. We assume that core sense but overlay it with a more conceptual sense of the movement of ideas. The radical “red” remains as an overtone in our writing since we stress the link between indigenous social norms and Western radicalism. Jace Weaver stresses the “hermeneutical possibilities of the Red Atlantic” in an essay in American Indian Quarterly 35, no. 3 (Summer 2011), while Tim Fulford has spoken of a “Red Atlantic” in terms of the crucial role of the figure of the Indian within Romanticism. See his Romantic Indians: Native Americans, British Literature, and Transatlantic Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). Historians have occasionally spoken of a “White Atlantic” but have not linked it, as we do, to the concept of “critical whiteness studies.”
2. On the theory of comparison, see not only R. Radhakrishnan’s essay “Why Compare?” but also the entire New Literary History 40, no. 3 (Summer 2009) issue on the subject, with essays by Rita Felski and Susan Stanford Friedman, Ania Loomba, Bruce Robbins, Gayatri Spivak, Ella Shohat, Robert Stam, and others.
3. See Jack D. Forbes, The American Discovery of Europe (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), chapter 2.
1. Frantz Fanon, Toward the African Revolution (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967), 447.
2. David Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History (London: Verso, 2008), 20.
3. Eugene Jolas, quoted in Emily Apter, The Translation Zone: A New Comparative Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 113.
4. Gilles Deleuze and Claire Parnet, Dialogues, trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 58.
5. Robert J. Miller, Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Manifest Destiny (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 1.
6. Quoted in Matthew Restall, Sete Mitos da Conquista Espanhola (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2006), 158–159.
7. See Walter D. Mignolo, The Idea of Latin America (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2005), 22.
8. The occasional proposals to make Tupi the official language of Brazil are comically extrapolated in Lima Barretto’s novel O Triste Fim de Policarpo Quaresma (1915).
9. Larry Rohter, “A Colonial Language Resurfaces,” New York Times (August 28, 2005).
10. See Donald Grinde, Jr., and Bruce Johansen, Exemplar of Liberty: Native America and the Evolution of Democracy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
11. See John F. Kennedy, Introduction to William Brandon, The American Heritage Book of Indians (New York: Dell, 1961).
12. Felix Cohen, “Americanizing the White Man,” American Scholar 21:2 (1952): 181.
13. Vandana Shiva quotes from Djelal Kadir, Columbus and the Ends of the Earth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 66, in her essay “Biodiversidade, Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual e Globalização,” in Boaventura de Sousa Santos, ed., Semear Outras Soluções: Os Caminhos da Biodiversidade e dos Conhecimentos Rivais (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2005), 321.
14. Ibid. The 2010 film Even the Rain compares the colonialism of Columbus’s time with contemporary globalization. Set in Cochachamba, Bolivia—the site of struggles regarding the privatization of water—this reflexive film stages the story of a film director who has chosen Cochabamba as a cheap location for a film about Columbus. The rebellion of a Taino leader against Columbus in the film comes to resonate with contemporary struggles against transnational corporations.
15. Ibid., 324.
16. More recently, indigenous activists from the Amazon region, identifying with the Navi people of Avatar, have teamed up with James Cameron in opposition to the same hydroelectric dam.
17. Davi Kopenawa Yanomami, “Discovering White People,” in Povos Indigenas 996/2000 (Brasilia: Instituto Socioambiantal, 2000).
18. Ailton Krenak, “The Eternal Return of the Encounter,” in Povos Indigenas, 48.
19. Sandy Grande, Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004).
20. Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, Métaphysiques Cannibales (Paris: PUF, 2009), 5.
21. Charles W. Ephraim, The Pathology of Eurocentrism: The Burden and Responsibilities of Being Black (Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 2003), 3–4.
22. For more on recent archeological research into Palmares, see Ricardo Bonalume Neto, “O Pequeno Brasil de Palmares: Escavações Arquelogical Sugerem que o Quilombo de Zumbi era Multietnico como um Pequeno Brasil,” Folha de São Paulo (June 4, 1995), 5–16. Palmares has great contemporary resonance in Brazil, as black nationalists invoke quilombismo and celebrate “Black Consciousness Day” on the anniversary of the death of the Palmarino leader Zumbi. Indeed, black farmers still cultivate the land that their ancestors settled, and a “quilombo clause” could give land titles to five hundred thousand descendants of the free black communities. Musical groups from Bahia, specifically Olodum and Ilê Aiyê, have organized support for the present-day descendants of the quilombos, composing lyrics such as “Quilombo, here we are / My only debt is to the quilombo / My only debt is to Zumbi.” See James Brooke, “Brazil Seeks to Return Ancestral Lands to Descendants of Runaway Slaves,” New York Times (August 15, 1993), 3.
23. R. K. Kent, “Palmares: An African State in Brazil,” Journal of African History 6, no. 2 (1965): 167–169.
24. Palmares has been celebrated in two Brazilian films by Carlos Diegues, Ganga Zumba (1963) and Quilombo (1983).
25. See José Jorge de Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil: A Questão das Cotas no Ensino Superior (São Paulo: Attar, 2005), 141.
26. See Germán Arciniegas, America in Europe: A History of the New World in Reverse (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 120.
27. Indeed, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., in Figures in Black, points to Jean Toomer’s concerns as as anticipatory of the postmodern and the poststructural. See Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Figures in Black: Words, Signs, and the “Racial” Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 210.
28. See Charles W. Mills, Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), 5.
29. Quoted in Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African-American Ideas about White People, 1839–1925 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 200), 13.
30. Ibid., 25.
31. Quoted in ibid., 17.
32. Quoted in ibid., 16
33. Quoted in ibid., 62.
34. Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Vintage, 2002), 102.
35. For an in-depth discussion of how these issues are reflected in the behavior and decisions of U.S. presidents, see Kenneth O’Reilly, Nixon’s Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washington to Clinton (New York: Free Press, 1995).
36. Mills, Blackness Visible, 87.
37. On the concept of “analogical structures of feeling,” see Shohat/Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1994), 351.
38. Quoted in Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind, 16.
39. Quoted in Howard Zinn, Passionate Declarations: Essays on War and Justice (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 231.
40. Michel Foucault, “What Is Enlightenment?,” in Paul Rabinow, ed., The Foucault Reader (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 45.
41. See Louis Sala-Molins, Le Code Noir, ou Le Calvaire de Canaan (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1987).
42. Ibid.
43. Montesquieu, “Chapter VII: Another Origin of the Right of Slavery,” in The Spirit of the Laws (1748).
44. Sala-Molins, Le Code Noir.
45. Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 13.
46. Aimé Césaire, Toussaint L’Ouverture: La Révolution Française et le Problème Coloniale (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1981), 23.
47. Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon, 1995), 68.
48. Ibid., 70–107.
49. Quoted in Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 290–291.
50. Ept. 27, 1803 letter, in Germaine de Staël, Correspondance Generale 1 (Paris: Hachette, 1982), quoted in Gilles Manceron, Marianne et les Colonies (Paris: La Découverte, 2005), 68.
51. From Victor Schoelcher’s Vie de Toussaint Louverture, cited in Manceron, Marianne et les Colonies, 68.
52. Ibid., 142.
53. See Daniel Rasmussen, American Uprising: The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt (New York: Harper, 2011), 48.
54. Quoted in David. R. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History (London: Verso, 2008), 60.
55. Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 304.
56. Ibid., 305.
57. Quoted in ibid., 173.
58. Quoted in ibid., 242.
59. Ibid., 105.
60. William Wells Brown, St. Domingo, Its Revolutions and Its Patriots (Boston: B. Marsh, 1855), quoted in J. Michael Dash, Haiti and the United States: National Stereotypes and the Literary Imagination (London: Macmillan, 1988), 11.
61. Quoted in Dubois, Avengers of the New World, 305.
62. The Vastey citation is from his Reflections, quoted in J. Michael Dash, The Other America: Caribbean Literature in a New World Context (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 44.
63. Quoted in Gary Wills, “Negro Prresident”: Jefferson and the Slave Power (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 44.
64. For an early discussion of the anticolonialism of Diderot and other Enlightenment figures, see our Unthinking Eurocentrism, chapter 2 (“Formations of Colonialist Discourse”). Two key works which unearthed Diderot’s often hidden contributions to these debates were Yves Bénot, Diderot: De l’Athéisme à l’Anti-colonialisme (Paris: Maspero, 1970), and Michèle Duchet, Diderot et l’Histories des Deux Indes, ou L’écriture Fragmentaire (Paris: A. G. Nizet, 1978).
65. Denis Diderot, Supplément au Voyage de Bougainville, quoted in William B. Cohen, Français et Africains: Les Noirs dans le Regard des Blancs (Paris: Gallimard, 1982), 251.
66. Sankar Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 52.
67. Quoted in Bénot, Diderot, 209.
68. Jean-Paul Sartre, preface to Frantz Fanon, Les Damnés de la Terre (Paris: François Maspero, 1961).
69. See Yves Bénot, La Révolution Française et la Fin des Colonies (Paris: La Découverte, 1987), 26.
70. Sankar Muthu, “La Globalisation au Temps des Lumières: Diderot Observateur du Commerce Global et du Pouvoir Impérial,” in Patrick Weil and Stephane Dufoix, eds., L’Esclavage: La Colonisation, et Après … (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005).
71. Diderot, L’Histoire des Deux Indes, IV, 33, quoted in Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire, 87.
72. Ibid., III, 41, quoted in Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire, 101.
73. Ibid., XVIII, 52, quoted in Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire, 102.
1. Liv Sovik makes a brief reference to the concept of the “White Atlantic” in her essay “We Are Family: Whiteness in the Brazilian Media,” Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 13, no. 3 (December 2004): 315–325.
2. David T. Goldberg has argued that racialization has been constitutive of modern state formation, in that racialized distinctions instituted by the state have produced homogeneity out of heterogeneous populations. Thus, race is “integral to the emergence, development, and transformations (conceptually, philosophically, materially) of the modern nation-state.” David T. Goldberg, The Racial State (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), 4.
3. See Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
4. See James Holston, Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 27.
5. Ibid., 41.
6. See Achille Mbembe, “Figures of Multiplicity: Can France Reinvent Its Identity?,” trans. Jane Marie Todd, in Charles Tshimanga, Didier Gondola, and Peter J. Bloom, eds., Frenchness and the African Diaspora: Identity and Uprising in Contemporary France (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009).
7. Azouz Begag, Ethnicity and Equality: France in the Balance, trans. Alec G. Hargreaves (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2007), xxvi.
8. For a discussion of these issues, see Daniel Gordon, “Democracy and the Deferral of Justice in France and the United States,” in Ralph Sarkonak, ed., France/USA: The Cultural Wars, Yale French Studies 100 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).
9. Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London: Verso, 2006).
10. Paulo Arantes quoted in Giuseppe Cocco, MundoBRaz (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2009), 34.
11. Quoted in Mary del Priore, “Dans le Apaguer des Lumieres: Francophilia e Lusofobia na Capital do Brasil Oitocentista,” in Carlos Lessa, ed., Enciclopédia da Brasilidade: Auto-Estima em Verde e Amarelo (Rio de Janeiro: Casa da Palavra, 2005), 158.
12. Pierre Rivas, Diálogos Interculturais (São Paulo: Hucitec, 2004), 34–35. Although Rivas is addressing Latin America in general, his comments apply very well to Brazil.
13. Victor Hugo “Le Vaste Brésil aux Arbres Semés d’Or,” quoted in Mario Carelli, Hervé Théry, and Alain Zantman, eds., France-Brésil: Bilan pour une Relance (Paris: Entente, 1987), 142 (translation ours).
14. Quoted in George Raeders, O Conde de Gobineau no Brasil (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 1997).
15. Paulo Emílio Salles Gomes, Cinema: Trajetória no Subdesenvolvimento (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 1997), 90.
16. Gobineau quoted in Raeders, O Conde de Gobineau no Brasil, 134
17. Gobineau quoted in ibid., 137.
18. See Thomas Skidmore, Black into White (New York: Oxford, 1974).
19. See Oswald de Andrade, Do Pau-Brasil à Antropofagia e às Utopias (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1972).
20. See Patrick Petitjean, “As Missões Universitárias Francesas na Criação da Universidade de São Paulo (1934–1940),” in Amélia I. Hamburger, Maria Amélia M. Dantes, Michel Paty, and Patrick Petitjean, eds., A Ciência nas Relações Brasil–França (1850–1950) (São Paulo: USP, 1996).
21. Claude Lévi-Strauss and Didier Eribon, Conversations with Claude Lévi-Strauss (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 38.
22. See John Murray Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Lévi-Strauss, and the Jewish Struggle with Modernity (Boston: Beacon, 1974).
23. Roger Bastide, Estudos Afro-Brasileiros (São Paulo: Perspectiva, 1973), 183.
24. For more on the critique of Eurocentric approaches to Afro-diasporic trance religions, see Robert Stam, Tropical Multiculturalism: A Comparative History of Race in Brazilian Cinema and Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), especially chapter 8.
25. Henri Troyat, “Brésil,” Les Oeuvres Libres, quoted in Régis Tettamanzi, Les Écrivains Français et le Brésil (Paris: Harmattan, 2004), 186.
26. Roger Bastide, O Candomblé da Bahia (São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1978), 10–11.
27. Bastide, Estudos Afro-Brasileiros, x–xi.
28. Roger Bastide, “Macunaíma em Paris,” O Estado de São Paulo (February 3, 1946), quoted in Fernanda Áreas Peixoto, Diálogos Brasileiros: Uma Análise da Obra de Roger Bastide (São Paulo: USP, 2000), 16.
29. On Rouch, see Steven Feld, ed., Cine-Ethnography: Jean Rouch (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003).
30. See Jean Rouch, Les Hommes et les Dieux du Fleuve (Paris: Artcom, 1997).
31. For an excellent study of Rouch, Rocha, and their creative deployment of possession religions, see Mateus Araújo Silva, “Jean Rouch e Glauber Rocha, de um Transe a Outro,” Devires 6, no. 1 (January–June 2009).
32. Bastide quoted in Peixoto, Diálogos Brasileiros, 117.
33. Bastide, O Candomblé da Bahia, 226.
34. See Leyla Perrone-Moisés, “Gallophilie et Gallophobie dans la Culture Brésilienne (XIXe et XXe Siècles),” in Katia Queirós Mattoso, Idelette Muzart-Fonseca dos Santos, and Denis Rolland, eds., Modèles Politiques et Culturels au Brésil: Emprunts, Adaptations, Rejets XIXe et XXe Siècles, 23–54 (Paris: Presses de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 2003), 23.
35. Mario Carelli, Culturas Cruzadas (São Paulo: Papirus, 1994), 254.
36. Henry M. Brackenridge, Voyage to South America, Performed by Order of the American Government in the Years 1817 and 1818, in the Frigate Congres s, 2 vols. (London: John Miller, 1820), 1:128–129, quoted in Denis Rolland, ed., Le Brésil et le Monde (Paris: Harmattan, 1998), 25–26.
37. Ibid.
38. See Thomas E. Skidmore, O Brasil Visto de Fora (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 1994), 34.
39. See Stanley M. Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959); and Marvin Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1980).
40. Isabel Lustosa, “Nos, os Americanos e America,” in Lessa, Enciclopédia da Brasilidade, 170.
41. Patricia de Santana Pinho, Mama Africa: Reinventing Blackness in Bahia (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010), 18.
42. A. Oliveira, “Aos Nossos Leitores,” O Alfinete (September 3, 1918), quoted in Micol Seigel, “The Point of Comparison: Transnational Racial Construction: Brazil and the United States, 1918–1933” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, Graduate School of Arts and Science, 2001), 162.
43. José Correia Leite, “O Grande Problema Nacional,” Evolução (May 13, 1933), quoted in Seigel, “The Point of Comparison,” 171.
44. David J. Hellwig, African-American Reflections on Brazil’s Racial Paradise (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992).
45. Quoted in ibid., 49.
46. Quoted in ibid., 95.
47. Quoted in ibid., 96.
48. Ibid., 95.
49. France Winddance Twine, Racism in Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998), 140.
50. Using a different methodology, anthropologist Robin E. Sheriff comes to similar conclusions in her Dreaming Equality: Color, Race, and Racism in Urban Brazil (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001).
51. Kia Lilly Caldwell, Negras in Brazil: Re-envisioning Black Women, Citizenship, and the Politics of Identity (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2006), xviii.
52. Ibid., xxii.
53. Ibid., xix.
54. Ibid., 9.
55. Ibid.
56. See Pinho, Mama Africa, 20. Strangely, the argument seems to be about whether black Brazilians are misrecognizing their own oppression (the Twine view) or whether African Americans are misrecognizing black Brazilians as being oppressed.
57. See ibid.
58. Interview in Revista Rap Internacional (2001), quoted in Patricia de Santana Pinho, Reinvenções da África na Bahia (São Paulo: Annablume, 2004), 48.
59. Frederick Douglass, “Letter from Paris,” in Adam Gopnik, ed., Americans in Paris: A Literary Anthology (New York: Library of America, 2004), 166.
60. Tyler Stovall, Paris Noir: African Americans in the City of Light (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), xii.
61. James Weldon Johnson, “Along This Way,” in Gopnik, Americans in Paris, 199.
62. Stovall, Paris Noir, 132.
63. Pascale Casanova, La République Mondiale des Lettres (Paris: Seuil, 1999), 49.
64. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (1967; repr., New York: Grove, 1994), 112.
65. Ibid., 116.
66. Stovall, Paris Noir, 48. Already in 1923, some white American tourists had persuaded the owner of a Montmartre cabaret to throw the Dahomean Kojo Tavalou out of the club, leading to protests in the French Parliament and government sanctions against any cabaret owners who did “not accept people of color alongside whites.”
67. David Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Life (London: Granta, 2000), 93.
68. Stovall, Paris Noir, 297.
69. Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 243.
70. Léopold Senghor, “To New York,” in The Collected Poetry (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1991), quoted and analyzed in Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Achieving Our Humanity: The Idea of the Postracial Future (New York: Routledge, 2001), 125–127.
71. Stovall, Paris Noir, 90.
72. Much of this work has already been done, but this is not the place for a comprehensive bibliography. See, for example, Christopher L. Miller’s The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), a dense exploration of the French Atlantic slave trade as represented in literature and film.
73. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father (New York: Canongate, 2007), 123.
74. Fernando Jorge, Se Não Fosse Brasil, Jamais Barack Obama Teria Nascido (Rio de Janeiro: Novo Seculo, 2009).
75. Jean-Paul Sartre, “Orphée Noir” (1948), preface to Léopold Sédar Senghor, Anthologie de la Nouvelle Poésie Nègre et Malgache de Langue Française (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1977).
76. Abdias do Nascimento and Elisa Larkin Nascimento, Africans in Brazil: A Pan-African Perspective (Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1992), 46.
77. On Welles, Frank, and Vinicius de Moraes, see Stam, “The Power of Blackness,” in Tropical Multiculturalism.
78. Obama, Dreams from My Father, 124.
79. In what might be called an international competition over race, Jorge also points out that Brazil had a black president before the United States did, in the person of the mulatto Nilo Peçanha—son, like Obama, of a black father and a white mother—who took office on June 14, 1909. Yet it is noteworthy that it took the election of Obama for Brazilians to take notice of its own “first black president.”
80. Hallam cited in Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race (London: Verso, 1954), 29.
81. See Walter D. Mignolo, The Idea of Latin America (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 2005).
82. See Roberto Fernández Retamar, Caliban and Other Essays (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).
83. Darcy Ribeiro, O Povo Brasileiro: A Formação e o Sentido do Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1995), 239.
84. It is also sometimes forgotten that the North/South division also inhabits the Euro-Latin countries themselves. Spain, Italy, and even France all have a south that is a little darker, poorer, more Arabized, and more Africanized than their respective norths. South of the Equator, the situation, like the climate, is reversed: Brazil’s north, unlike the rich, white south, is poorer and darker.
85. Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (New York: Baker & Taylor, 1885), 160–177.
86. William Allen White, editorial, Emporia Gazette (March 20, 1898).
87. Mignolo, The Idea of Latin America, 58–59.
88. Emmanuel Todd, for example, attributes U.S. imperialist tendencies to the Anglo-Saxon family structure, while claiming that “the United States has a major problem with race. France does not.” Emmanuel Todd, Le Destin des Immigrés (Paris: Seuil, 1994).
89. Mignolo, The Idea of Latin America, 63.
90. Richard Morse, El Espejo de Próspero: Un Estudio de la Dialéctica del Nuevo Mundo (Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1982).
91. See Jeffrey Rosen, “Radical Constitutionalism,” New York Times Magazine (November 28, 2010).
92. Mike Davis, Magical Urbanism: Latinos Reinvent the U.S. City (London: Verso, 2001). Census reports show that more Americans claim African than strictly English origin.
93. See Jorge G. Castañeda, ExMex: From Migrants to Immigrants (New York: New Press, 2007), xiii.
94. Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands: La Frontera, 2nd ed. (San Fransciso: Aunt Lute Books, 1999), 25.
95. Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora, 52.
96. Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1993).
97. Senghor quoted in Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora, 32.
98. See Antonio Risério, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros (São Paulo: Editora 34, 2007), 34.
99. See Gerard Noiriel, The French Melting Pot (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
100. For Apter’s richly textured discussion of translational/transnational issues, see The Translation Zone: A New Comparative Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 6. See also Mona Baker’s Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account (New York: Routledge, 2006).
101. See Shohat/Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1994).
102. Édouard Glissant, “Le Divers du Monde Est Imprévisible,” quoted in Walter Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 41.
103. See Édouard Glissant, Poétique de la Relation (Paris: Gallimard, 1990).
1. Anibal Quijano, “Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America,” Nepantla 1, no. 3 (2000): 533–580; Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992). See also Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1994).
2. G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, trans. Leo Rauch (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1988), 92.
3. Vandana Shiva, Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology (London: Zed Books, 1993).
4. See J. Michael Dash, Haiti and the United States: National Stereotypes and the Literary Imagination (London: Macmillan, 1988).
5. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, 81.
6. Hegel, Sämtliche Werke, ed. J. Hoffmeister (Hamburg: F. Meiner, 1955), appendix 2, 243, quoted in Enrique Dussel, The Invention of the Americas (New York: Continuum, 1995), 24.
7. Quoted in Dussel, The Invention of the Americas, 199.
8. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, 93.
9. Ibid., 96.
10. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992).
11. Charles W. Mills, The Racial Contract (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 11.
12. Ibid., 1.
13. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London: Verso, 1993), 27; Charles W. Mills, Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), 113.
14. Marx to Pavel Annenkov, 1846, quoted in Kevin B. Anderson, Marx at the Margins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 83.
15. Quoted in ibid., 187.
16. Jack Goody, The Theft of History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 54.
17. Mandela quoted in Amartya Sen, “Democracy and Its Global Roots,” New Republic (October 6, 2003), 30.
18. Ibid., 31.
19. Edmund Husserl, Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy, trans. Quentin Lauer (New York: Harper, 1965), 157.
20. Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Achieving Our Humanity: The Idea of the Postracial Future (New York: Routledge, 2001), 187.
21. Goody, The Theft of History, 14.
22. Max Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” in Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Garth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Macmillian, 1946), 26–45.
23. Simone Weil, Simone Weil on Colonialism: An Ethic of the Other, ed. and trans. J. P. Little (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), 124.
24. Jean-Paul Sartre, Black Orpheus, trans. S. W. Allen (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1963), 7.
25. Jean-François Lyotard, “The Social Content of the Algerian Struggle” (1959), quoted in Phyllis Taoua’s marvelous Forms of Protest (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002), 189.
26. Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, The Anatomy of Prejudices (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).
27. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex (New York: Penguin, 1972), xxvii.
28. Aimé Césaire, Discours sur le Colonialisme (Paris: Réclame, 1950).
29. We have in mind, to cite a tiny part of the scholarship, the work of Homi Bhabha, Diana Fuss, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Louis Gordon, Neil Lazarus, David Macey, Anne McClintock, Christopher Miller, Benita Parry, Kristin Ross, Edward Said, Françoise Vergès, and Robert Young.
30. Jacques Derrida, “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences,” in Richard Macksey and Eugenio Donato, eds., The Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Man: The Structuralist Controversy, 245–267 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1970).
31. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (1963; repr., New York: Grove, 2004).
32. Octave Mannoni, Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of Colonization (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991). See David Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Biography (New York: Picador, 2000), 323.
33. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth.
34. Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia Univeristy Press, 1983).
35. Frantz Fanon, Toward the African Revolution (1964; repr., New York: Grove, 1988), 17.
36. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (1967; repr., New York: Grove, 1994), 110.
37. Ibid., 211.
38. Ibid., 202.
39. Ibid., 18.
40. Ibid. 19.
41. Jean Genet, Les Nègres (1959), preface, in Théâtre Complet de Jean Genet (Paris: Gallimard, 2002).
42. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 102.
43. Ibid., 37.
44. See Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães, “Recepção de Fanon no Brasil e a Identidade Negra,” Novos Estudos 81 (July 2008).
45. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, ed. Friedrich Engels (New York: International, 1967), 751.
46. See Fernando Henrique Cardoso, “The Consumption of Dependency Theory in the United States,” Latin American Research Review 3, no. 12 (1977): 7–24.
47. See, for example, Immanuel Waller-stein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic, 1974).
48. Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (New York: Schocken Books, 1980).
49. Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992), 1l0.
50. See the collection of interviews in Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, org. Renato Sztutman (Rio de Janeiro: Azougue, 2008), for quotation see p. 79.
51. See Manning Marable, Dispatches from the Ebony Tower: Intellectuals Confront the African American Experience (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 243–264.
52. Noliwe M. Rooks, Black Money/White Power (Boston: Beacon, 2006), 16.
53. Ibid., 22.
54. Warren Dean quoted in José Carlos Sebe Bom Meihy, A Colônia Brasilianista: História Oral de Vida Acadêmica (São Paulo: Nova Stella, 1990).
55. Levine quoted in Rubens Barbosa, O Brasil dos Brasilianistas (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2002), 62.
56. James N. Green, We Cannot Remain Silent: Opposition to the Brazilian Military Dictatorship in the United States (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010).
57. Barbara Weinstein, “Buddy, Can You Spare a Paradigm?,” Americas 4, no. 57 (2001): 453–466.
58. We examine this topic in Shohat/Stam, Flagging Patriotism: Crises of Narcissism and Anti-Americanism (New York: Routledge, 2007).
59. A very partial list of the names associated with this constellation of fields would include Norma Alarcón, M. Jacqui Alexander, Paula Gunn Alien, Sonia Alvarez, Gloria Anzaldúa, Joel Zito Araújo, Talal Assad, Pat Aufderheide, Houston Baker, Derrick Bell, Sophie Bessis, Homi Bhabha, J. M. Blaut, Julianne Burton, Dipesh Chakravarty, Ward Churchill, James Clifford, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Carol Boyce Davies, Angela Davis, Richard Delgado, Vine Deloria, Manthia Diawara, Arif Dirlik, Anne Donadey, Ariel Dorfman, Richard Drinnon, Lisa Duggan, Enrique Dussel, Michael Eric Dyson, Arturo Escobar, Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Ruth Fankenberg, Robert Fisher, Shelley Fishkin, Juan Flores, Rosa Linda Fregoso, Coco Fusco, Diana Fuss, Teshome Gabriel, Paul Gilroy, Faye Ginsburg, Henry Giroux, Louis Gordon, Herman Gray, Inderpal Grewal, Donald Grinde, Ed Guerrero, Lani Guinier, Michael Hanchard, Donna Haraway, Sandra Harding, Paget Henry, bell hooks, Noel Ignatiev, Annette Jaimes, Francis Jennings, Caren Kaplan, Robin Kelley, Elaine Kim, Agostin Laó, Arturo Lindsay, Françoise Lionnet, George Lipschitz, James Loewen, Tommy Lott, Wahneema Lubiano, Oren Lyons, Peter Maclaren, George Marcus, Armand Mattelart, Walter Mignolo, Toby Miller, Trin T. Minh Ha, Nick Mirzoeff, Chandra Mohanty, Cherríe Moraga, Toni Morrison, Fred Motin, José Muñoz, Abdias do Nascimento, Elisa Larkin Nascimento, Vidal-Naquet, Lucius Outlaw, Charles Payne, Gary Peller, Gyan Prakash, Mary Louise Pratt, Laura Pulido, Vincent Raphael, Cedric Robinson, David Roediger, Renato Rosaldo, Andrew Ross, Joef Rufino, Vicki Ruiz, Edward Said, Jenny Sharpe, Edward Soja, Hortense Spillers, Gayatri Spivak, Benjamin Stora, Herbert Schiller, Richard Slotkin, Doris Sommers, Eric Sundquist, Clyde Taylor, Kendal Thomas, Robert Farris Thompson, Alice Walker, Cornel West, Patricia Williams, Sylvia Winter, Robert Young, George Yúdice, and Howard Zinn.
60. See Cynthia A. Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
61. Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981).
62. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).
63. For a thorough overview of the changing meanings of “multiculturalism,” especially in the Anglophone world, see Sneja Gunew, “Postcolonialism and Multiculturalism: Between Race and Ethnicity,” Yearbook of English Studies 27 (1997): 22–39.
64. See United Nations Development Program, Cultural Liberty in Today’s Diverse World, Human Development Report 2004.
65. We cite the report only to call attention to antecedent critiques that painted multiculturalism in opposite ways. Our own reservations about the UN report are that it is (1) overly marked by liberal “recognition” and “cultural rights” discourse; (2) idealist in its neglect of material history (especially in terms of the role of colonialism and imperialism in creating long-lasting (yet morphing) structures of inequality and political economy (the sheer inertia of a racialized division of labor and profit within and between countries, even in the “postcolonial” period); and (3) apolitical in that it proposes ideal solutions that are institutional and psychological—both of which are important but not sufficient—without examining deeper historically sedimented structural relations of power, for example, the role of corporate globalization and the U.S. military-industrial-infotainment complex in rendering progressive change exceedingly hard to achieve.
66. Brett Christophers, “Ships in the Night: Journeys in Cultural Imperialism and Post-colonialism,” International Journal of Cultural Studies 10, no. 3 (September 2007): 285.
67. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979).
68. The coloniality/modernity project is in some ways similar to the one we outlined in Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1994).
69. See Ramón Grosfoguel, preface to “From Postcolonial Studies to Decolonial Studies: Decolonizing Postcolonial Studies,” special issue of Review 29, no. 2 (2006): 141–143.
70. Eduardo Batalha Viveiros de Castro, “Exchanging Perspectives: The Transformation of Objects into Subjects in Amerindian Ontologies,” Common Knowledge 10, no. 3 (Fall 2004): 463–484.
71. Jack D. Forbes argues that native people from the Americas might have traveled to Europe before Columbus. See Jack D. Forbes, The American Discovery of Europe (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007).
72. See Silviano Santiago, “O Entre-Lugar Cal Cultura Latino-America,” in Uma Literatura nos Trópicos (São Paulo: Perspectiva, 1978), 11–28; Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994).
73. Walter Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 11.
74. Arturo Escobar, “World and Knowledges Otherwise: The Latin American Modernity/Coloniality Research Program,” Cuadernos del CEDLA 16 (2004): 31–67.
75. Quoted in Bernard Cassen, Tout a Commencé à Porto Alegre … (Paris: Mille et Une Nuits, 2004).
76. See Boaventura de Sousa Santos, ed., Semear Outras Soluções: Os Caminhos da Biodiversidades e dos Conhecimentos Rivais (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2005).
77. Andrea A. Lunsford, “Toward a Mestiza Rhetoric: Gloria Anzaldúa on Composition, Postcoloniality, and Spirituality” (1996), in A. A. Lunsford and L. Ouzgane, eds., Crossing Borderlands, 33–66 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004), 54.
78. See Encarnación Gutiérrez Rodríguez, Manuela Boatcă, and Sérgio Costa, eds., Decolonizing European Sociology: Transdisciplinary Approaches (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010), 15.
1. Richard Bernstein, Dictatorship of Virtue: How the Battle over Multiculturalism Is Reshaping Our Schools, Our Country, and Our Lives (New York: Vintage, 1995).
2. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (Knoxville, TN: Whittle Direct Books, 1991), 35.
3. William Phillips, “Comment,” Partisan Review 59, no. 1 (1992): 12.
4. See Charles Krauthammer, “An Insidious Rejuvenation of the Old Left,” Los Angeles Times (December 24, 1990), B5.
5. O’Rourke quoted in the Brazilian newsmagazine Isto É (February 1, 1995), 61.
6. This portrayal served as a decoy to distract attention from the deep substratal strains of moralistic puritanism within the right itself, evidenced in its obsession with controlling women’s bodies and adults’ sexual preferences. It was the right, after all, that narrativized HIV/AIDS as divine vengeance against homosexuals, that objected to the orifice-stuffing performance art of Karen Finley, and that censured the homoerotic photographs of Robert Mapplethorpe and the films of Marlon Riggs. Subsequent to the 1990s and the sexualized prosecutions of Bill Clinton, the hypocrisy of the right became more than evident, as many of the figures who berated Clinton were subsequently caught in their own sexual shenanigans.
7. Susan Moller Okin with respondents, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?, ed. Joshua Cohen, Matthew Howard, and Martha C. Nussbaum (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).
8. On Al Jazeera, Žižek actually associated the phrase “clash of civilizations” with the multiculturalists, exactly those who have most combated Huntington’s ideas. Žižek patronizingly told the Al Jazeera audience what they already know—that “Egypt deserves democracy just like everyone else.” One would think that the relevance of multiculturalism to Egypt would be to point to that country’s fantastic multiculturality, to argue for an interfaith Egypt featuring equality between Muslims and Copts, for example, and to teach Egyptian history in Western schools. Žižek also spoke of his discovery in a Qatar museum of a “wonderful plate” inscribed with a phrase from an Iranian philosopher to the effect that “only the foolish man invokes Fate as an excuse,” for Žižek evidence that “even” the Islamic world can be enlightened. We are reminded of the ironic response of a Tunisian friend (Moncef Cheikhrouhou) to a European interlocutor’s “reassuring” assertion that she believed “Arabs are human beings”: “Merci!”
9. Lisa Lowe and David Lloyd, The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital, (Durham: Duke University Press, 199
10. It is symptomatic, however, that the Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was signed by most of the world but not by the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia (which recently changed its mind), i.e., by the Anglo-dominant settler societies. President Obama did endorse statements about Native Americans’ right to the land, however, which brought denunciations from the right about “giving the land back to the Indians.”
11. Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York: Holt, 1995).
12. Gayatri Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (London: Taylor and Francis, 1987).
13. See, for example, Linda Martin Alcoff, Visible Identities: Race, Gender, and the Self (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
14. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Benefit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), vii.
15. Walter Benn Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity (New York: Holt, 2006).
16. Ibid., 7.
17. Ibid., 3.
18. Ibid., 12.
19. Ibid., 17.
20. Ibid., 89.
21. Survey cited in Tim J. Wise, Speaking Treason Fluently: Anti-racist Reflections from an Angry White Male (Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull, 2008), 71.
22. Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity, 72.
23. Meizhu Lui, Bárbara J. Robles, Betsy Leondar-Wright, Rose M. Brewer, and Rebecca Adamson, The Color of Wealth: The Story behind the U.S. Racial Wealth Divide (New York: New Press, 2006), 1.
24. Mel King quoted in ibid., 268.
25. David Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London: Verso, 1994), ix.
26. David Roediger, “The Retreat from Race and Class,” Monthly Review 58, no. 3 (2006), 51.
27. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935; repr., New York: Free Press, 1995), 700–701. (“It must be remembered that the white group of laborers, while they received a low wage, were compensated in part by a sort of public and psychological wage. They were given public deference and titles of courtesy because they were white. They were admitted freely with all classes of white people to public functions, public parks, and the best schools.”)
28. Martin Luther King, Jr., “All Labor Has Dignity” (1968), in “All Labor Has Dignity,” ed. Michael Honey (Boston: Beacon, 2011).
29. Taylor quoted in Charles W. Mills, Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), 135.
30. Ibid., 39.
31. Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity, 82.
32. The problem of “racing Islam” has been addressed by critics such as Rabab Abdulhadi, Evelyn Alsutany, Moustafa Bayoumi, Nadine Naber, and Sherene Razack.
33. Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity, 74.
34. Michaels, The Trouble with Diversity, 60.
35. Ibid., 143.
36. Ibid., 65.
37. Arturo Escobar, “Latin America at a Crossroads: Between Alternative Modernizations, Postliberalism, and Postdevelopment,” lecture at the Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies, New York University, October 29, 2009.
38. During the course of history, culture and economics have gone hand in hand in the United States as well, for example, in the case of conflicts between the U.S. government and Native Americans. The ethos of private property and the imposition of individual “allotments” on Indian tribes, through the Dawes Act, meant nothing less than the social death of indigenous culture as a living mode of praxis.
39. Robert Blauner, Racial Oppression in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 5.
40. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, “La Nouvelle Vulgate Planétaire,” Le Monde Diplomatique (May 2000): 6–7. Subsequent quotations in the text are from this version of the essay.
41. If the multicultural left certainly contributed to the widely noted decline of racism among young Americans and thus to the election of Barack Obama, the multicultural left, and the left generally, have so far been unsuccessful in pushing Obama to the left in terms of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Guantánamo, single-payer health care, and corporate domination of the political system.
42. François Cusset, French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States, trans. Jeff Fort (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 38–39.
43. On these debates, see Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (New York: Knopf, 1997).
44. Weyrich quoted in Jodi Dean, introduction to Dean, ed., Cultural Studies and Political Theory (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), 7.
45. Even some of the “New Democrats” such as Joseph Lieberman (as in the manifesto “Why Our Universities Are Failing and What We Can Do about It”) attempted to censure and stigmatize the “tenured radicals” of the critical university.
46. Quoted in Dean, introduction to Cultural Studies and Political Theory, 7.
47. Frank Ellis, “Multiculturalism and Marxism: An Englishman Looks at the Soviet Origins of Political Correctness,” American Renaissance 10, no. 11 (November 1999).
48. Pierre Bourdieu, Sketch for a Self-Analysis (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2007).
49. Gloria Anzaldúa., Borderlands: La Frontera, 2nd ed. (San Fransciso: Aunt Lute Books, 1999), 60.
50. On the other hand, critical race formulations about U.S. law, as we have seen, are often relevant to the constitutions and legal systems of the other colonial-settler states of the Americas, such as Brazil.
51. Pierre Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market (New York: New Press, 1999), 19.
52. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Odysseys (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 258–259.
53. We are thinking here of such figures as Howard Zinn, Cedric Robinson, Angela Davis, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Howard Winant, Ruth Gilmore, Herman Grey, Wahneema Lubiano, Manning Marable, Robin D. G. Kelly, Lisa Lowe, David Lloyd, Ramón Salvídar, Ramón Grosfoguel, David Roediger, George Lipsitz, Juan Flores, Avery Gordon, and countless others.
54. See Michel Wieviorka, ed., Une Société Fragmentée? Le Multiculturalisme en Débat (Paris: La Découverte, 1996).
55. George Yúdice, “A Globalização e a Difusão da Teoria Pós-Colonial,” in Cânones e Contextos: 5o Congresso ABRALIC–Anais (Rio de Janeiro: Abralic, 1997).
56. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991); and Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
57. Cusset, French Theory, 83.
58. Jodi Dean, Žižek’s Politics (London: Routledge, 2006), xii.
59. Slavoj Žižek, “Multiculturalism, or, The Cultural Logic of Multinational Capitalism,” New Left Review 225 (1997): 42.
60. Matt Taibbi, Griftopia (New York: Spiegel and Grau, 2010), 209.
61. Žižek, “Multiculturalism,” 44.
62. Ibid., 44.
63. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992), 197.
64. See also our discussion of the whiteness of the musical’s utopia. Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism (New York: Routledge, 1994).
65. We ourselves have examined the “imperial gaze” and the normative regard toward the Third World as it operates in TV network news, in Hollywood westerns, and in First World films set in the Third World. See our Unthinking Eurocentrism.
66. Žižek, “Multiculturalism,” 47.
67. Slavoj Žižek and Glyn Daly, Conversations with Žižek (Malden, MA: Polity), 134.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid., 144.
70. See J. Ayerza, “Hidden Prohibitions and the Pleasure Principle” (interview with Žižek, 1992), quoted in Ian Parker, Slavoj Žižek: A Critical Introduction (London: Pluto, 2004).
71. William David Hart, “Slavoj Žižek and the Imperial/Colonial Model of Religion,” Nepantla 3, no. 3 (2002): 568.
72. Hugh Trevor-Roper, The Rise of Christian Europe (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1965), 9–11.
73. Homi Bhabha, “Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse,” in The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 85–92.
74. Chinua Achebe, The Education of a British-Protected Child (New York: Knopf, 2009), 120.
75. Ho Chi Minh quoted in Phyllis Taoua, Forms of Protest (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002), 51.
76. See Slavoj Žižek, The Fragile Absolute, or, Why Is the Christian Legacy Worth Fighting For? (London: Verso, 2000).
77. Slavoj Žižek, “A Leftist Plea for ‘Eurocentrism,’” Critical Inquiry 24, no. 4 (Summer 1998): 988.
78. Ibid., 1008, 1001.
79. Adrienne Rich, On Lies, Secrets, and Silence (New York: Norton, 1979), 306.
80. Žižek, “A Leftist Plea for ‘Eurocentrism,’” 1006.
81. Ibid., 989.
82. Žižek and Daly, Conversations with Žižek, 147.
83. We refer here to Erich Auerbach’s famous comparison of Racine and Shakespeare in Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).
84. Slavoj Žižek, First as Tragedy, Then as Farce (New York: Verso, 2009), 33.
85. Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
86. Slavoj Žižek, First as Tragedy, Then as Farce, 97.
87. Ibid., 102.
88. For work on “the commons,” see Peter Linebaugh, The Magna Carta Manifesto (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 6.
89. Žižek, First as Tragedy, 111.
90. Susan Buck-Morss, “Hegel and Haiti,” Critical Inquiry 26, no. 4 (Summer 2000): 821–865.
91. Žižek, First as Tragedy, 113.
92. Ibid., 114.
93. Ibid., 115.
94. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 36.
1. See Thomas Brisson, Les Intellectuels Arabes en France (Paris: La Dispute, 2008).
2. Anouar Abdel-Malek, “Orientalism in Crisis,” in Alexander Lyon Macfie, ed., Orientalism: A Reader (New York: NYU Press, 2001), 51.
3. See Abdallah Laroui, La Crise des Intellectuels Arabes: Traditionalisme ou Historicisme? (Paris: François Maspero, 1974).
4. Genet quoted in Edmund White, Jean Genet: A Biography (New York: Vintage, 1994), 522.
5. See Richard Wolin, The Wind from the East (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 321.
6. See Kristin Ross, May ’68 and Its Afterlives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 158–169.
7. In the United States, intellectuals spoke of the lap-dissolve, expressed in an inversion of letters, from the demonizations of the CP (the Communist Party, i.e., lefties) to the demonization of PC (political correctness).
8. Pascal Bruckner, Le Sanglot de L’Homme Blanc: Tiers-Monde, Culpabilité, Haine de Soi (Paris: Seuil, 1983).
9. Ibid., 156.
10. Michael Rothberg calls Papon the “material embodiment of the links between the Holocaust and the violence of colonialism.” Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonization (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 235.
11. The issue of Les Temps Modernes containing Sartre’s essay on this “pogrom” was seized by Papon.
12. Bruckner, Le Sanglot de L’Homme Blanc, 12.
13. Ibid., 156. It is not clear how Bruckner could make such sweeping claims about how vast cultural complexes have “seen” each other. Such claims presume not only the essential transhistorical stability of cultures but also an omniscient European capacity to enter into other cultures, then manage to see them through their collective eyes, and then return to one’s own set of collective eyes, only to conclude that one’s own group alone is capable of “seeing themselves through others’ eyes.”
14. Ross, May ’68 and Its Afterlives, 163.
15. A good example of European “good cop” domination is the EU policy (which is similar to U.S. policies) called CAP, or Common Agricultural Policy, whereby subsidies and tariffs richly reward European farmers (i.e., agribusiness) while depressing world food prices and undercutting African exports, thus impoverishing Africa.
16. Azouz Begag, Ethnicity and Equality: France in the Balance, trans. Alec G. Hargreaves (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2007), 88.
17. Slavoj Žižek and Glyn Daly, Conversations with Žižek (Malden, MA: Polity), 129.
18. David Blatt, “Immigrant Politics in a Republican Nation,” in Alec G. Hargreaves and Mark McKinney, eds., Post-colonial Cultures in France (London: Routledge, 1997), 40.
19. Ibid.
20. Begag, Ethnicity and Equality, 17.
21. Jim Cohen, “Postcolonial Colonialism?,” Situations: Project of the Radical Imagination 2, no. 1 (2007).
22. Herman Lebovics, Bringing the Empire Back Home (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 132.
23. Following up on his earlier argument that African Americans had reintroduced “barbarism” into the midst of Western civilization, D’Souza has recently argued that Obama “channels” the anticolonialism of his Kenyan father so that “the U.S. is being ruled according to the dreams of a Luo tribesman of the 1950s.” See Dinesh D’Souza, “Obama’s Problems with Business,” Forbes (September 27, 2010): 94. Reflective of the right’s capacity to place the preternaturally calm Obama within the “angry black man” paradigm, D’Souza titled his forthcoming book The Roots of Obama’s Rage.
24. The American right-wing spoof on PC, The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook, was translated into French in 1992, apparently taken by some French readers not as cynical parody but as a work of Zolaesque naturalism.
25. Tzvetan Todorov, “Du Culte de la Différence à la Sacralisation de la Victime,” Esprit 212 (1995): 98.
26. Todorov cited in Bashir Ebrahim-Khan, “Is Islamophobia in Europe Leading to Another Holocaust?,” Muslim News 201 (January 27, 2006), http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/paper/index.php?article=2274.
27. See Todorov, “Du Culte de la Différence à la Sacralisation de la Victime.”
28. The word “hysteria,” as feminists have long pointed out, traces back etymologically to “womb” in Greek and thus blames women themselves for their medical problem.
29. Françoise Giroud, Le Nouvel Observateur (March 1999).
30. Joan Wallach Scott, Parité! Sexual Equality and the Crisis of French Universalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 71.
31. Michel Wieviorka, introduction to Wieviorka, ed., Une Société Fragmentée? Le Multiculturalisme en Débat (Paris: La Découverte, 1996), 5–6.
32. Clarisse Fabre and Éric Fassin, Liberté, Égalité, Sexualités: Actualité Politique des Questions Sexuelles (Paris: Belfond, 2004).
33. See Jean-Philippe Mathy, Extrême-Occident: French Intellectuals and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 7.
34. Ibid.
35. Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900–1945 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), xiii.
36. Jim Cohen, “Postcolonial Colonialism?”
37. David Blatt, “Immigrant Politics in a Republican Nation,” in Hargreaves and McKinney, Post-colonial Cultures in France, 40.
38. Herrick Chapman and Laura Frader sum up the historical-ideological logics that explain the present-day elision of race: (1) the strength of the founding myth of the republic as unitary and inclusive, with little room for group differences; (2) the tradition of Jacobin hostility to the church as an authority in the public sphere and the consequent relegation of matters of faith to the private sphere; (3) the Dreyfussard legacy of combating anti-Semitism through race-blind and religion-blind universalism. See Herrick Chapman and Laura L. Frader, introduction to Chapman and Frader, eds., Race in France: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Politics of Difference (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004), 4.
39. Ibid.
40. Jean-Philippe Mathy, French Resistance: The French-American Culture Wars (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 15.
41. Ibid., 14.
42. Merzak Allouache’s film Salut Cousin! offers a striking example of this awkward fit when the aspiring rapper Mok, in a case of misfired syncretism, raps a song based on La Fontaine’s fables—ironically the one (“The Country Mouse and the City Mouse”) that reflects his own relation to his country cousin—until he is finally booed off the stage with shouts of “on n’est pas à l’école!” (we’re not in grammar school!).
43. Mehdi Belhaj Kacem, La Psychose Française (Paris: Gallimard, 2006), 15.
44. See Elsa Vigoureux, “Enfants du Hip-Hop et de Derrida: Les Intellos du Rap,” Le Nouvel Observateur (May 18, 2006).
45. Mikhail Bakhtin, “The Prehistory of Novelistic Discourse” (1940), in The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981).
46. We are indebted here to Veronique Helenon’s excellent overview of the French rap scene in her “Africa on Their Mind: Rap, Blackness, and Citizenship in France,” in Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, eds., The Vinyl Ain’t Final: Hip-Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, 151–166 (London: Pluto, 2006).
47. On French rap, see Charles Tshimanga, “Let the Music Play,” in Charles Tshimanga, Didier Gondola, and Peter J. Bloom, eds., Frenchness and the African Diaspora: Identity and Uprising in Contemporary France (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009).
48. Begag, Ethnicity and Equality, 44.
49. See Azouz Begag, “C’est Quand il y en a Beaucoup …” (Paris: Belin, 2011).
50. Ann Coulter, “This Is War: We Should Invade Their Countries,” National Review Online (September 13, 2001), http://old.nationalreview.com/coulter/coulter.shtml.
51. Cited in Jean Michel Blier and Solemn de Royer, Discriminations Raciales, pour en Finir (Paris: Jacob-Duvernet, 2001), 19.
52. Ibid., 82–83.
53. Anti-immigrant and racist sentiments are clearly registered in French polls. A study by the National Human Rights Commission dated March 15, 2000, revealed that 70 percent of French people consider themselves racist. Polls also reveal the extent to which a larger public has absorbed the anti-immigrant discourses of the right. While many French whites might be hostile to Le Pen, 48 percent of them agree with the proposition that “because of immigrants, one no longer feels at home in France,” while 63 percent find that “there are too many immigrants in France.” TNS-Sofres Institute research carried out by Le Monde and RTL, cited in Durpaire, France Blanche, Colère Noire, 23.
54. Durpaire, France Blanche, Colère Noire, 184.
55. See Isabelle Rigoni, ed., Qui a Peur de la Télévision en Couleurs? (Paris: Aux Lieux d’Étre, 2007).
56. Yazid Sabeg and Yacine Sabeg, Discrimination Positive: Pourquoi la France Ne Peut Y Échapper (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 2004), 110.
57. Begag, Ethnicity and Equality, 110.
58. A Michael Moore television sketch showed the “magic” by which an object seen as innocent in white hands (a wallet, a beeper, a cell phone) becomes something threatening in the hands of blacks, at least within the warped vision of police. Michael Moore, “Don’t Shoot, It’s Only a Wallet!,” The Awful Truth, season 2, episode 2, Bravo (May 24, 2000).
59. Alain Badiou, Polemics (London: Verso, 2006), 112–113.
60. Ibid.
61. Jonathan Schorsch traces Jews’ ambiguous relation to whiteness all the way back to the 17th century. See Jews and Blacks in the Early Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 166.
62. James Baldwin, “Negroes Are Anti-Semitic Because They’re Anti-White,” in Paul Berman, ed., Blacks and Jews: Alliances and Arguments (New York: Delacorte, 1967), 41.
63. Hannah Arendt, “Reflections on Little Rock,” Dissent 6, no. 1 (1959).
64. Jews have a very long history in Africa. Apart from Ethiopian Jews and the Jews of North Africa, in the early 1990s geneticists discovered that 9 percent of the men from the Lemba people of South Africa carry a DNA signature characteristic of the cohanim, the hereditary caste descended from the biblical Aaron. See Richard Hull, Jews and Judaism in African History (Princeton, NJ: Marcus Weiner, 2009), 173.
65. See Jan Carew, Fulcrums of Change (Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1988).
66. Barbara Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
67. Anouar Majid, We Are All Moors (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), 10. For an illuminating discussion of the same issue of Andalusia and Moorishness in the Americas, see Hishaam Aidi, “The Interface of al-Andalous: Spain, Islam, and the West,” Social Text 87, vol. 24, no. 2 (summer 2006).
68. See Gilberto Freyre, “Orient and Occident,” chap. 9 in The Mansions and the Shanties (New York: Knopf, 1963).
69. Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties, 297.
70. Ibid.
71. José Martí, “España en Melilla,” in Cuba: Letras, vol. 2 (Havana: Edicion Tropico, 1938); Carlos Fuentes, The Buried Mirror (New York: First Mariner Books, 1999).
72. See Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves, especially the chapter “The Portuguese Colonizer.”
73. See ibid., chap. 9. For more on the notion of the Moorish/Sepahrdic Atlantic and the question of Orientalism, see Ella Shohat, “The Moorish Atlantic,” in Evelyn Alsultany and Ella Shohat, eds., The Cultural Politics of the Middle East in the Americas (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012).
74. On the hyphen in the “Judeo-Muslim” and the “Arab-Jew,” see Ella Shohat, “Rethinking Jews and Muslims” MERIP 178 (1992): 25–29; and Ella Shohat, “Taboo Memories, Diasporic Visions: Columbus, Palestine and Arab-Jews,” in May Joseph and Jennifer Fink, eds., Performing Hybridity, 131–156 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).
75. See, for example, Allan Harris Cutler and Helen Elmquist Cutler, The Jew as Ally of the Muslim (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986); Ammiel Alcalay, After Jews and Arabs (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); and Majid, We Are All Moors.
76. Gil Anidjar, “Postface: Reflexions sur la Question,” in Esther Benbassa and Jean-Christophe Attias, Juifs et Musulmans: Une Histoire Partagée, un Dialogue à Construire (Paris: La Découverte, 2006), 130.
77. On the splitting of the Jew and the Arab, see Edward Said’s Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979); and on the place of the Arab-Jew as part of the splitting, see Ella Shohat’s Israeli Cinema: East/West and the Politics of Representation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989); and Ella Shohat, “Columbus, Palestine, and Arab Jews: Toward a Relational Approach to Community Identity,” in Keith Ansell-Pearson, Benita Parry, and Judith Squires, eds., Cultural Readings of Imperialism (London: Lawrence & Wishart in association with New Formations, 1997).
78. See Domenico Losurdo, A Linguagem do Império, trans. Jaime A. Clasen (São Paulo: Boitempo, 2010).
79. See Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972), 14–15.
80. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951; repr., New York: Harcourt, 1973).
81. Quoted in Jean-Luc Einaudi, La Bataille de Paris, 17 Octobre 1961 (Paris: Seuil, 1991), 225.
82. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 122.
83. Ibid.
84. Jean-Paul Sartre, Anti-Semite and Jew: An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate (1948; repr., New York: Schocken Books, 1995), 108.
85. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 10.
86. Ibid., 93.
87. Ibid., 165.
88. Ibid., 157.
89. For a complex and subtle mapping of the similarities and differences between various racisms, sexisms, and homophobias, see Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, The Anatomy of Prejudices (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).
90. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 162–163.
91. Michael Rothberg argues strongly against this zero-sum approach, favoring instead what he calls “multidirectional memory,” whereby the oppressive experiences of diverse groups are interarticulated within a “malleable discursive space” where positions “come into being through their interactions with others.” Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory, 5.
92. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 201.
93. See Peter Geismar, Frantz Fanon (New York: Dial, 1971), 139–140.
94. David Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Biography (New York: Picador, 2000), 467–468.
95. Simone de Beauvoir, La Force des Choses, vol. 2 (Paris: Livre de Poche, 1971), 243.
96. Macey, Frantz Fanon, 467–468.
97. See Yair Auron, Les Juifs d’Extrême Gauche en Mai 68 (Paris: Albin Miche, 1998).
98. See Albert Memmi, Decolonization and the Decolonized (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006).
99. Bruckner, Les Sanglots de L’Homme Blanc, 219.
100. David Frum and Richard Perle, An End to Evil (New York: Random House, 2003), 9.
101. Pascal Bruckner, La Tentation de L’Innocence (Paris: Grasset, 1995).
102. In domestic electoral terms, American Jews have remained overwhelmingly liberal, including in their support for Obama. See “2010 Annual Survey of American Jewish Opinion,” commissioned by American Jewish Committee, Consumer Opinion Panel, “Obama Administration” (April 2010).
103. Finkielkraut interviewed by Dror Mishani and Aurélia Samothraiz, “They Are Not Miserable, They Are Muslims,” Haaretz (November 15, 2005). All translations from this interview in Hebrew are ours
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid.
106. Complete transcript available at http://lesogres.org.
107. Alain Finkielkraut and Peter Sloterdijk, Les Battements du Monde (Paris: Pauvert, 2003), 38.
108. For further elaboration, see the following works by Ella Shohat: Le Sionisme du Point de Vue de ses Victimes Juives: Les Juifs Orientaux en Israël (Paris: La Fabrique Editions, 2006) and also the original essay, Ella Shohat, “Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims,” Social Text 19–20 (Fall 1988); Israeli Cinema (1989), and the new edition (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010); “Taboo Memories, Diasporic Visions: Columbus, Palestine and Arab-Jews” (1997) and “Rupture and Return: Zionist Discourse and the Study of Arab-Jews” (2001), both reprinted in Taboo Memories, Diasporic Voices (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
109. Finkielkraut and Sloterdijk, Les Battements du Monde, 47.
110. Jean Daniel, La Prison Juive (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2003).
111. Jean Birnbaum, Les Maoccidents: Un Néoconservatisme à la Française (Paris: Stock, 2009).
112. Ivan Segré, La Réaction Philosémite, ou, La Trahison des Clercs (Paris: Lignes, 2009).
113. See Guillaume Weill-Raynal, Une Haine Imaginaire: Contre-Enquête sur le Nouvel Antisémitisme (Paris: Colin, 2005).
114. See Guillaume Weill-Raynal, Les Nouveaux Désinformateurs (Paris: Colin, 2007).
115. Kacem, La Psychose Française, 52.
116. Christopher Wise, Derrida, Africa, and the Middle East (New York: Palgrave, 2009).
117. Joëlle Marelli, “Usages et Maléfices du Thème de l’Anti-Sémitisme …,” in Nacira Guénif-Souilamas, ed., La République Mise à Nu par son Immigration (Paris: La Fabrique, 2006), 136.
118. As we learn Leila Shahid’s The Slums, the Near East, and Us [Les Banlieues, le Proche-Orient et Nous] (Paris: Éditions de L’Atelier, 2006), Shahid, former spokesperson for the Palestinian Authority in France, Michael Warschawski, French Israeli founder of the Alternative Information Center (Jerusalem), and Dominique Vidal, editor of Le Monde Diplomatique, visited the banlieues in order to advance mutual understanding between Arabs and Jews.
119. Daniel Lindenberg, Destins Marranes: L’identité Juive en Question (Paris: Hachette, 2004).
120. Daniel Lindenberg, Figures d’Israël: L’identité Juive entre Marranisme et Sionisme (1648–1998) (Paris: Hachette, 1997).
121. Esther Benbassa and Jean-Christophe Attias, The Jew and the Other (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).
122. Melanie Kaye/Kantrowitz, The Colors of Jews: Racial Politics and Radical Diasporism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 199.
123. Tony Kushner and Alisa Solomon, eds., Wrestling with Zion (New York: Grove, 2003); Adam Shatz, ed., Prophets Outcast: A Century of Dissident Jewish Writing about Zionism and Israel (New York: Nation Books, 2004); and Kaye/Kantrowitz, The Colors of Jews.
124. Kacem, La Psychose Française, 52.
125. Fred Constant, Le Multiculturalisme (Paris: Flammarion, 2000), 35.
126. Ibid., 37.
127. Paul Thibaut, “Exception Française!,” Géopolitique (January–March 2005).
128. Ibid.
1. Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães, “The Race Issue in Brazilian Politics (the Last Fifteen Years),” paper presented at the conference “Fifteen Years of Democracy in Brazil,” University of London, Institute of Latin American Studies, London, February 15–16, 2001.
2. Quoted in Ricardo Gaspar Müller, “O Teatro Experimental do Negro,” in Müller, ed., Dionysos 28 (1988) (special issue on the Black Experimental Theatre).
3. Abdias do Nascimento, preface to Sortilegio II (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1979), 28.
4. Abdias do Nascimento, editorial, Quilombo (December 1948).
5. Ibid.
6. The overture editorial, and all the essays mentioned here, are assembled in the facsimile edition by Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães. See Quilombo: Vida, Problemas, e Aspirações do Negro (São Paulo: Editora 34, 2003).
7. Abdias do Nascimento and Elisa Larkin Nascimento, “Reflections on the Black Movement in Brazil, 1938–1997,” in Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães and Lynn Huntley, eds., Tirando a Máscara: Ensaios sobre o Racismo no Brasil (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2000), 221–222.
8. Ibid., 228–229.
9. Peter Fry, preface to Yvonne Maggie and Claudia Barcellos Rezende, eds., Raça como Retórica: A Construção da Diferença [Race as Rhetoric: The Construction of Difference] (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2002).
10. Howard Winant, citing the research of Maria Ercilia do Nascimento, lists the groups in The World Is a Ghetto: Race and Democracy since World War II (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 233.
11. On the afoxé groups, see Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest,” Afro-Hispanic Review 11, nos. 1–3 (1992).
12. Freyre quoted in Michael Hanchard, Orpheus and Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 115.
13. Ibid., 142
14. Ibid.
15. S. M. C. Lima, “Multiculturalismo,” in José Teixeira Coelho Netto, ed., Dicionário Crítico de Política Cultural (São Paulo: Iluminuras, 1997), 263–265.
16. The authors’ e-mail correspondence with Italo Moriconi.
17. Leyla Perrone-Moisés, Atlas Literaturas: Escolha e Valor na Obra Crítica de Escritores Modernos (São Paulo: Cia das Letras 1998).
18. In To Wake the Nations: Race and the Making of American Literature (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1993), Sundquist points out the ways that Melville can be usefully seen as a “black writer.”
19. Perrone-Moisés, Atlas Literaturas.
20. The authors’ e-mail correspondence with Italo Moriconi.
21. Caetano Veloso, Verdade Tropical (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1997), 270; Albert Murray, The Omni-Americans: New Perspectives on Black Experiences and American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1970), 22.
22. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (New York: Dover, 1956).
23. Jessé Souza, “O Casamento Secreto entre Identidade Nacional e ‘Teoria Emocional da Ação’ ou por que é Tão Difícil o Debate Aberto e Crítico entre Nós,” in Jessé Souza, ed., A Invisibilidade da Desigualdade Brasileira (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: UFMG, 2006), 100.
24. For a sophisticated critique of comparison as a method and of ethnocentrism in comparative Brazil-U.S. studies, see Micol Siegel, Uneven Encounters: Making Race and Nation in Brazil and the United States (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009).
25. João Capistrano de Abreu, epigraph in Paulo Prado’s Retrato do Brasil (1928; repr., São Paulo: IBDC, 1981).
26. José Guilherme Merquior, Saudades do Carnaval (Rio de Janeiro: Forense, 1972), 117.
27. For a comprehensive comparative analysis of racial formation in the two countries, see G. Reginald Daniel’s Race and Multiraciality in Brazil and the United States: Converging Paths? (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006).
28. Ibid., 115.
29. Ibid., 87.
30. Ibid.
31. See Eugene Robinson, Disintegration (New York: Doubleday, 2010), 10.
32. James Holston, Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 281.
33. Nei Lopes, O Racismo: Explicado aos Meus Filhos (Rio de Janeiro: Agir, 2007), 151.
34. Holston, Insurgent Citizenship, 277.
35. See Alexei Barrionnuevo, “Group Questions Killings by Brazilian Police,” New York Times (December 9, 2009): A12.
36. Edward Telles, in Race in Another America, uses the spatial metaphor of “vertical” and “horizontal” social relations to clarify some of these contradictions. In terms of vertical power relations, Brazil is one of the most unequal countries in the world, with nonwhites at the bottom of a grossly distorted economic pyramid, making the “vertical exclusion of mulattos and, especially, blacks … greater than vertical exclusion for blacks in the United States.” For Telles, three factors—hyperinequality, a discriminatory glass ceiling, and a racist culture—are responsible for this vertical inequality. Edward Ellis Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 220–224.
37. Antonio Guimarães, quoting Sérgio Costa, “A Construção Sociológica da Raça no Brasil” (Estudos Afro-Asiáticos 1 [2002]), in Guimarães and Huntley, Tirando a Máscara, 28.
38. Antonio Risério, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros (São Paulo: Editora 34, 2007), 15.
39. Ibid., 381.
40. African American discourse, meanwhile, might be said to be Asante-centric, given the key role of Ghana in pan-Africanism.
41. Risério, A Utopia Brasileira, 148.
42. On “cultural capital,” see Pierre Bourdieu, “Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction,” in R. Brown, ed., Knowledge, Education, and Social Change: Papers in the Sociology of Education, 71–112 (London: Tavistock, 1973).
43. Risério, A Utopia Brasileira, 212.
44. Hermano Vianna, “Mestiçagem Fora de Lugar,” Folha de São Paulo (June 27, 2004).
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Sérgio Costa, Dois Atlânticos: Teoria Social, Anti-racismo, Cosmopolitanismo (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: UFMG, 2006), 216.
48. Brazilian musicians and musicologists have commented on this shared feature of the two traditions. Composer and literary scholar Zé Miguel Wisnik notes that European intellectuals are sometimes surprised that “popular music in Brazil can dialogue with erudite traditions and thus produce something new.” See Santuza Cambraia Naves, Frederico Oliveira Coelho, and Tatiana Bacal, eds., A MPB em Discussão: Entrevistas (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: UFMG, 2006). Even Chico Buarque, an anti-American in political terms, recognizes this commonality with the United States: “[Whereas in Europe] popular music is relegated, with few exceptions, to an artistic subworld, considered as basically an industrial and commercial product and nothing more, … in Brazil there is more malleability…. In this sense [the Americans] are closer to us.” Ibid., 166–167.
49. See Rita Amaral and Vagner Gonçalves da Silva, “Foi Conta para Todo Canto: As Religiões Afro-Brasileiras nas Letras do Repertório Musical Popular Brasileiro,” Afro-Ásia 34 (2006): 189–235. See also Zeca Ligeiro’s NYU Ph.D. dissertation in performance studies: “Carmen Miranda: An Afro-Brazilian Paradox.”
50. Five hundred years of coexistence among indigenous peoples, Africans, Europeans, and Asians in the Americas have also generated an infinite variety of forms of cultural syncretism and transformation. This mixedness characterizes both hemispheres and has found manifold expressions in art, whether in European/indigene romances such as that of Diogo Álvares and Paraguaçu in 16th-century Brazil or Cortés and Malinche in 16th-century Mexico, or Pocahantas and John Smith (later John Rolfe) in 17th-century North America. Brazilian films such as Caramuru: The Invention of Brazil or How Tasty Was My Little Frenchman, Venezuelan films such as Jericó, and American films such as Little Big Man and A Man Called Horse tell stories of “white Indians” who assimilated to native ways. The narrative arts of the Americas proliferate in “mutational fictions” that point to the instability of racial identity and identification. In such fictions, characters undergo racial metamorphoses, “exceeding” the rigidities of racial classification. The chameleonic characters of films such as Macunaima in Brazil or Zelig in the United States literally change color and culture. Such racial metamorphoses render visible and palpable a process that usually remains invisible—the process of synchresis when ethnicities brush up against and “rub off” on one another in the context of centuries of asymmetrical cultural contact between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans. The theme of racial transformation comes up in manifold ways in U.S. popular culture, most obvious, perhaps, in the theme of “passing,” whether in such classical race melodramas as Imitation of Life or in contemporary novels such as Philip Roth’s The Human Stain, the story of a New Yorker writer (Anatole Broyard) who passed as white. In Palindromes, performers of different colors play the same character, while in I’m Not There, various performers, including a black teenager and a woman, incarnate the role of Bob Dylan. In Soul Man, a white student blackens up to take advantage of Affirmative Action. Patrick Swayze inhabits Whoopi Goldberg’s body in Ghost. In the cable-television show Quantum Leap, white protagonists leap into other people’s bodies. In Coming Down to Earth, Chris Rock dies and comes back in the form of an old white man. The African American performance artist Anna Deveare Smith incarnates a wide gallery of ethnicities in her one-woman performances such as Fires in the Mirror and Twilight. The humorous aspect of these various ethnic encounters is the basis of much of the sketch comedy of Richard Pryor, Whoopi Goldberg, Chris Rock, Wanda Sykes, and Dave Chappelle.
51. George Yúdice, The Expediency of Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 154.
52. Over recent decades, the Tropicalists gained more public notoriety not only through their music but also because of Gil’s appointment as minister of culture in the Lula government, the publication in English of Caetano’s memoir Tropical Truth, and various Grammys and film appearances. Gil became embroiled in the debates about digital copyright law and the fight, through Creative Commons, against laws that privatize creativity through notions of “intellectual property rights.” Just as Gil had earlier said in a song that he wrote music “to be heard on the radio,” in “Pela Internet” (On the Internet), Gil “multiculturalizes” the discussion of the Net by linking it to the Afro-Brazilian culture of oriki and orixas, which were also concerned with “media” and communication.
53. Caetano Veloso, Verdade Tropical (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1997), 105.
54. Ned Sublette, “Principles of Postmamboism,” BoingBoing (blog), December 15, 2009, http://boingboing.net/2009/12/15/principles-of-postma.html.
55. Liv Sovik develops the lied association in Aqui Ninguém é Branco (Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano, 2010), along with a probing analysis of the cultural politics of Brazilian popular music.
56. Stuart Hall, Chas Critcher, Tony Jefferson, John N. Clarke, and Brian Roberts, Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order (London: Macmillan, 1978), 394.
57. In Brazil, blackface was not common, but in one instance the black community did protest the casting of a white actor in blackface in a Brazilian television version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin. See Joel Zito Araújo’s film A Negação do Brasil (2000).
58. Caetano Veloso, Tropial Truth: A Story of Music and Revolution in Brazil (New York: Random House, 2002), 7. For an illuminating analysis of Caetano’s work, including of “Um Índio,” see Guilherme Wisnik, Caetano Veloso (São Paulo: PubliFolha, 2005).
59. Fry, preface to Raça como Retórica, 8.
60. Olívia Maria Gomes da Cunha, “Bonde do Mal: Notas sobre Territórios, Cor, Violência, e Juventude numa Favela do Subúrbio Carioca,” in Maggie and Rezende, Raça como Retórica, 86.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
1. See Raymond A. Winbush, introduction to Winbush, ed., Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), xii.
2. Nabuco quoted in Liv Sovik, Aqui Ninguém é Branco (Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano, 2010), 146.
3. Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, “Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law,” Harvard Law Review 101 (May 1988): 1331.
4. For a comparative study of remedial measures, consult Charles V. Hamilton, Lynn Huntley, Neville Alexander, Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães, and Wilmot James, eds., Beyond Racism: Race and Inequality in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001)
5. Dinesh D’Souza, The End of Racism: Principles for a Multiracial Society (New York: Free Press, 1995), 537.
6. Frantz Fanon, “Racism and Culture,” Présence Africaine 8–10 (1956).
7. Gary Peller, “Race against Integration,” Tikkun 6, no. 1 (January–February 1991): 54–66.
8. See U. S. Mehta, “Liberal Strategies of Exclusion,” Politics and Society 18, no. 4 (1990): 429–430.
9. De Tocqueville quoted in William B. Cohen, Français et Africains: Les Noirs dans le Regard des Blancs (Paris: Gallimard, 1982), 273.
10. This skewed approach harmed not only black individuals but also black nations. Newly independent Haiti in 1804 was forced to pay crippling indemnities for the “crime” of defeating the French and creating a republic modeled, ironically, on the French republic itself. It was these indemnities, and subsequent hostile actions by the United States, that left Haiti in its present shell-shocked and famished state. (In 2003, President Jean-Bertrand Aristide asked France to reimburse Haiti to the tune of $21 billion, for the “Independence Debt.”)
11. See Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Norton, 2005).
12. William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: Norton, 2009), 28–29.
13. See Rosana Heringer, “Mapeamento das Ações e Discursos de Combate às Desigualdades Raciais no Brasil,” Estudos Afro-Asiáticos 23, no. 2 (2001): 1–43.
14. See Joaquim B. Barbosa Gomes, “Ações Afirmativas, Aspectos Jurídicos,” in Giralda Seyferth et al., Racismo no Brasil (São Paulo: Editora Fundação Petrópolis, 2000), 140.
15. José Jorge de Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil: A Questão das Cotas no Ensino Superior (São Paulo: Attar, 2005), 60.
16. Ibid., 61.
17. Kimberlé Crenshaw, National Public Radio’s Intelligence Squared U.S. Debate, “It’s Time to End Affirmative Action,” moderated by John Donovan, presented by Rosenkranz Foundation, November 13, 2007.
18. James Holston, Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 286.
19. This situation is shown in the 2007 PBS documentary Brazil in Black and White.
20. See Denise Ferreira da Silva, Toward a Global Idea of Race (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007).
21. Ali Kamel, Não Somos Racistas: Uma Reação aos que Querem nos Transformar numa Nação Bicolor (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2006).
22. See Peter Fry, “Politics, Nationality, and the Meaning of ‘Race’ in Brazil,” Daedalus 129, no. 2 (2000): 91.
23. Nei Lopes, O Racismo Explicado aos Meus Filhos (Rio de Janeiro: Agir, 2007).
24. See Peter Fry, A Persistência da Raça: Ensaios Antropológicos sobre o Brasil e a África Austral (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2005).
25. See João Feres, Jr., “Ação Afirmativa no Brasil,” Economica 6, no. 2 (December 2004): 291–312.
26. Antonio Negri and Giuseppe Cocco, GlobAL: Bipoder e Luta em Uma América Latina Globalizada (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2005), 149.
27. Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil, 96.
28. Ibid., 61.
29. Carvalho, perhaps in an attempt to distance the Brazilian model from the negative image of the U.S. Civil Rights model, argues that Affirmative Action in the United States is co-optive and individualist, rooted in a competitive ethos of winners and losers, while the Brazilian model is rooted in a societal choice for change, an equality of results rather than equal opportunity per se. At the same time, he makes untenable generalizations such as the claim that “racial and ethnic minorities—blacks, Indians, Hispanics, Asians—never created a politicized common front based on solidarity.” Ibid., 125.
30. Ribeiro quoted in Larry Rohter, Brazil on the Rise: The Story of a Country Transformed (New York: Palgrave, 2010), 76.
31. Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil, 68.
32. Kamel, Não Somos Racistas.
33. Ibid., 18.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. See George M. Fredrickson, “Race and Racism in Historical Perspective,” in Hamilton et al., Beyond Racism, 14.
37. In metaphorical terms, one might suggest that white U.S. racism is like that of a snake that hisses and kills with bites and venom, while Brazilian racism is like that of an anaconda that slowly strangles with its suffocating embrace.
38. Ania Loomba points out that this American foil and a kind of Indian exceptionalism was even invoked by intellectuals from India when the Dalit, a group of roughly 180 million people who are debarred by the caste system from eating or studying with upper-caste individuals, from marrying outside their caste, from dressing above their station, and from drawing water from the wrong well and who regularly meet with hostility and even lynching, went to the Durban Conference on Racism and Xenophobia to protest racism in India. To discuss caste as race, some left intellectuals argued, was to follow an American imperialist agenda. In terms reminiscent of the Bourdieu argument against Michael Hanchard (discussed in chapter 8), it was argued that “race, then, as a central category for the struggle, may be self-evident in the US context, but not as useful in other settings.” Vijay Prashad, “Cataracts of Silence,” quoted in Ania Loomba, “Race and the Possibilities of Comparative Critique,” New Literary History 40, no. 3 (Summer 2009): 510.
39. Kamel, Não Somos Racistas, 20.
40. Ibid., 101.
41. Ibid. On the idea of “neo-Freyrean,” see Christopher Dunn’s “A Retomada Freyreana,” in Joshua Lund and Malcolm McNee, eds., Gilberto Freyre e os Estudos Latino-americanos (Pittsburgh: Instituto de Literatura Iberoamericana, 2006).
42. See Negri and Cocco, GlobAL, 76.
43. While the United States would indeed do well to abandon all vestiges of the bicolor model in favor of a nonassimilationist spectrum model, Kamel’s warnings about a new apartheid seem to imply that the mere introduction of some Affirmative Action measures will put Brazil on a reverse historical path toward legal segregation, even though these measures were meant to combat segregation. The reasoning here seems rather opaque.
44. David R. Roediger, introduction to Roediger, ed., Black on White: Black Writers on What It Means to Be White (New York: Schocken Books, 1998), 3.
45. Charles Mills, The Racial Contract (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 109.
46. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Souls of White Folk,” originally published as an article in Independent (August 18, 1910) and republished in Du Bois, Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil (1920; repr., New York: Dover, 1999), 17.
47. Du Bois, Darkwater, 18.
48. Ibid.
49. Frazier quoted in Stephen Steinberg, Race Relations: A Critique (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 64.
50. Ibid., 64.
51. James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 171–177.
52. Victor Hugo quoted in ibid., 179
53. David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist (New York: Knopf, 2005), 106.
54. Douglass quoted in ibid., 104.
55. Malcolm X quoted in ibid., 498.
56. Lerone Bennett, Jr., quoted in ibid., 504.
57. See David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991) and Towards the Abolition of Whiteness (London: Verso, 1994).
58. Don Jordan and Michael Walsh, White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain’s White Slaves in America (New York: NYU Press, 2007), 12.
59. Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race: The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America (New York: Verso, 1994); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).
60. Caren Kaplan, “‘Beyond the Pale’: Rearticulating U.S. Jewish Whiteness,” in Ella Shohat, ed., Talking Visions: Multicultural Feminism in a Transnational Age, 451–458 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998).
61. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
62. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Benefit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), vii.
63. Ibid.
64. In “What Is This ‘Black’ in Black Popular Culture?,’” Stuart Hall speaks of the “end of the innocence of the black subject, or the end of the innocent notion of an essential black subject.” Stuart Hall, “What Is This ‘Black’ in Black Popular Culture?,” Social Justice 20, nos. 1–2 (Spring–Summer 1993): 112.
65. See Jeffrey D. Needell, “History, Race, and the State in the Thought of Oliveira Vianna,” Hispanic American Historical Review 75, no. 1 (1995): 15.
66. Alberto Guerreiro Ramos, Introdução Crítica à Sociologia Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, 1995), 220.
67. Ramos quoted in Iray Carone and Maria Aparecida Silva Bento, introduction to Carone and Bento, eds., Psicologia Social do Racism: Estudos sobre Branquitude e Branqueamento no Brasil [The Social Psychology of Racism: Studies on Whiteness and Whitening in Brazil] (Petrópolis, Brazil: Vozes, 2003), 47.
68. See Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil, 91–93.
69. Carone and Bento, introduction to Psicologia Social do Racism.
70. Edith Piza, “Branco no Brasil? Ninguém Sabe, Ninguém Viu,” in Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Guimarães and Lynn Huntley, eds., Tirando a Máscara: Ensaios sobre o Racismo no Brasil, 97–126 (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2000).
71. Rita Segato, “The Color-Blind Subject of Myth, or, Where to Find Africa in the Nation,” Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998): 147.
72. Marco Frenette, Preto e Branco: A Importância da Cor da Pele (São Paolo: Editora Brasil, 2001), 21.
73. Ibid., 22.
74. Ibid., 29.
75. Ibid., 31.
76. Ibid., 54.
77. Ibid., 65–66.
78. Carvalho, Inclusão Étnica e Racial no Brasil, 102.
79. Ibid.
80. John M. Novell, “Uncomfortable Whiteness of the Brazilian Middle Class,” in Yvonne Maggie and Claudia Barcellos Rezende, eds., Raça como Retórica: A Construção da Diferença [Race as Rhetoric: The Construction of Difference] (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2002).
81. See Angela Gilliam, “Women’s Equality and National Liberation,” in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres, eds., Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 60.
82. Novell, “Uncomfortable Whiteness.”
83. Darcy Ribeiro, O Povo Brasileiro: A Formação e o Sentido do Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1995), 239.
84. Novell, “Uncomfortable Whiteness,” 257.
85. Elisa Larkin Nascimento, O Sortilégio da Cor: Identidade, Raça e Gênero no Brasil (São Paulo: Summus, 2003).
86. Sovik, Aqui Ninguém é Branco.
87. Patricia Pinho, meanwhile, points to the process by which many Brazilian immigrants to the United States become “unwhitened.” Patricia de Santana Pinho, Reinvenções da África na Bahia (São Paulo: Annablume, 2004), 219.
88. Kia Lilly Caldwell, Negras in Brazil: Re-envisioning Black Women, Citizenship, and the Politics of Identity (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2006).
89. Sovik, Aqui Ninguém é Branco, 69.
90. Caetano Veloso quoted in ibid., 71.
91. Caetano Veloso, Verdade Tropical (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1997), 505.
92. Sovik, Aqui Ninguém é Branco, 147.
93. Alexandra Poli, “Faire Face au Racisme en France et au Brésil: De la Condamnation Morale à l’Aide aux Victimes,” Cultures and Conflicts 59 (2005): 15.
94. Azouz Begag, Ethnicity and Equality: France in the Balance, trans. Alec G. Hargreaves (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2007), 116.
95. See Robert C. Lieberman, “A Tale of Two Countries: The Politics of Color-Blindness in France and the United States,” in Herrick Chapman and Laura L. Frader, eds., Race in France: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Politics of Difference, 189–216 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004).
96. Erik Bleich, “Anti-racism without Races: Politics and Policy in a ‘Color-Blind’ State,” in Chapman and Frader, Race in France, 166.
97. Gwénaële Calvès, “Color-Blindness at a Crossroads in Contemporary France,” in Chapman and Frader, Race in France, 221.
98. Yazid Sabeg and Yacine Sabeg, Discrimination Positive: Pourquoi la France Ne Peut Y Échapper (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 2004).
99. See Léon-François Hoffman, Le Nègre Romantique: Personnage Littéraire et Obsession Collective (Paris: Payot, 1973), 47.
100. Ibid.
101. De Gaulle quoted in Pascal Blanchard, Éric Deroo, and Gilles Manceron, Le Paris Noir (Paris: Hazan, 2001), 154.
102. Ibid.
103. De Gaulle quoted in Jean-Baptiste Onana, Sois Nègre et Tais-Toi! (Paris: Éditions du Temps, 2007), 61.
104. See Didier Gondola, “Transient Citizens: The Othering and Indigenization of Blacks and Beurs within the French Republic,” in Charles Tshimanga, Didier Gondola, and Peter J. Bloom, eds., Frenchness and the African Diaspora: Identity and Uprising in Contemporary France (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 162.
105. Ibid., 160.
106. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks (1967; repr., New York: Grove, 1994), 29.
107. Onana, Sois Nègre et Tais-Toi!.
108. Pap Ndiaye, La Condition Noire: Essai sur une Minorité Française (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 2008), 89.
109. Ibid., 107
110. Pierre Tévanian, La Mécanique Raciste (Paris: Dilecta, 2008), 8.
111. Ibid., 74.
112. François Durpaire, France Blanche, Colère Noire (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2006), 13.
113. Ibid., 43.
114. Quoted in ibid., 26.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid., 33.
117. Durpaire, France Blanche, Colère Noire, 85.
118. Ibid.
119. Françoise Vergès, La Mémoire Enchaînée: Questions sur l’Esclavage (Paris: Albin Michel, 2006), 48.
120. Frédérique Mouzer and Charles Onana, Un Racisme Français (Nantes: Duboiris, 2007).
1. One can distinguish between “post-colonial” as chronological marker and “postcolonial,” sans hyphen, as referring to the theory.
2. See Georges Balandier, Sociologie Actuelle de l’Afrique Noire: Dynamique Sociale en Afrique Centrale (Paris: PUF, 1971).
3. Dino Costantini, Mission Civilisatrice: Le Rôle de l’Histoire Coloniale dans la Construction de l’Identité Politique Française (Paris: La Découverte, 2008), 13.
4. In the case of Achille Mbembe’s De la Postcolonie, for example, the book was first written and published in French yet had more impact through its English translation.
5. For a brilliant and comprehensive analysis of these exchanges, see François Cusset’s French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States, trans. Jeff Fort (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008).
6. Nicolas Sarkozy, address at the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal (July 26, 2007).
7. Makhily Gassama, ed., L’Afrique Répond à Sarkozy: Contre le Discours de Dakar (Paris: Philippe Rey, 2008); Adame Ba Konaré, ed., Petit Précis de Remise à Niveau sur L’Histoire Africaine à l’Usage du Président Sarkozy (Paris: Le Découverte, 2008).
8. Nicolas Sarkozy, address to Union for a Popular Movement, Paris (April 22, 2006).
9. See Alain Badiou, De Quoi Sarkozy Estil le Nom? (Paris: Lignes, 2007).
10. Seloua Luste Boulbina, “Ce Que Postcolonie Veut Dire: Une Pensée de la Dissidence,” Rue Descartes 58 (2006): 13.
11. Daniel Lefeuvre, Pour en Finir avec la Repentance Coloniale [To Put an End to Colonial Repentance] (Paris: Flammarion, 2008), 13, 229.
12. Finkielkraut quoted in Costantini, Mission Civilisatrice, 15. Such comments, originally made in an interview with Haaretz and subsequently reproduced in Le Monde (November 24, 2005), provoked an enormous polemic in France. In the United States, meanwhile, Newt Gingrich, whose 1971 Ph.D. thesis was a “white man’s burden”–style defense of Belgian colonial policy in the Congo, now “accuses” Barack Obama of being a Kenyan anticolonialist, a strange accusation from a supporter of the Tea Party, since the original Tea Party in Boston Harbor was nothing if not anticolonialist.
13. Sarkozy quoted in Catherine Coquio, introduction to Coquio, ed., Retours du Colonial? Disculpation et Réhabilitation de l’Histoire Coloniale Française (Paris: L’Atalante, 2008), 14–15.
14. Jacqueline Bardolph, Études Postcoloniales et Littérature (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2002), 17–18.
15. Friedrich Nietzsche, “On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life” [Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie für das Leben] (1874), 187.
16. Anne Berger, “Traversées de Frontières: Postcolonialité et Études de Genre en Amérique,” Labyrinthe 24 (2006): 11–37.
17. Rada Iveković, “Langue Coloniale, Langue Globale, Langue Locale,” Rue Descartes 58 (2007): 28–29.
18. “Aimé Césaire Refuse de Recevoir Nicolas Sarkozy,” Le Monde (December 7, 2005).
19. For the full text of the appeal, see Mouvement des Indigènes de la République, “L’Appel des Indigènes de la République,” June 12, 2006, http://www.indigenes-republique.org/spip.php?article1.
20. Jean Daniel, “Les Damnés de la Républiques,” Nouvel Observateur (March 9, 2005).
21. See Forence Bernault, “Colonial Syndrome,” in Charles Tshimanga, Didier Gondola, and Peter J. Bloom, eds., Frenchness and the African Diaspora: Identity and Uprising in Contemporary France (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009).
22. Pascal Blanchard, Nicolas Bancel, and Sandrine Lemaire, introduction to Blanchard, Bancel, and Lemaire, eds., La Fracture Coloniale: La Société Française au Prisme de l’Héritage Colonial (Paris: La Découverte, 2005), 11–12.
23. On this last point, see Alexis Spire, Étrangers à la Carte: L’administration de l’Immigration en France (1945–1975) (Paris: Grasset, 2005), 268–272.
24. Didier Lapeyronnie, “La Banlieue comme Théâtre Colonial, ou la Fracture Coloniale dans les Quartiers,” in Blanchard, Bancel, and Lemaire, La Fracture Coloniale, 214.
25. Pap Ndiaye, La Condition Noire: Essai sur une Minorité Française (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 2008), 346–347.
26. Marie-Claude Smouts, ed., La Situation Postcoloniale: Les Postcolonial Studies dans le Débat Français (Paris: Sciences Po, 2008), 24–25.
27. Iveković, “Langue Coloniale, Langue Globale, Langue Locale.”
28. It is also important to note the continuing capacity for mass mobilization of the French left, whether in the 2005 resistance to the referendum on the European Constitution, the 2006 student mobilization against the CPE attack on employee rights, or the 2010 mass mobilization against the conservative changes to social security laws.
29. Many French writers have explored the neocolonial underside of contemporary French policy in Africa, for example. In La Françafrique: Le Plus Long Scandale de la République, François-Xavier Verschave explores the mechanisms of French neocolonialism in Africa, where the French political elite, both from the right and from the left, has entertained very close links with a series of African kleptocrats and dictators, whose interests it favors.
30. See, for example, Bernard Mouralis, Littérature et Développement (Paris: Silex, 1999) or Jean-Marie Grassin, Littératures Émergentes (Bern: Peter Lang, 1996).
31. Nacira Guénif-Souilamas, introduction to Guénif-Souilamas, ed., La République Mise à Nu par Son Immigration [The Republic Exposed by Its Immigration] (Paris: La Fabrique, 2006).
32. Ibid., 24–26.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., 8.
35. Ibid., 17.
36. Guénif-Souilamas spoke of “patriarchal feminists” in a talk given at La Maison Française, New York University, in November 2009. In the United States, meanwhile, the term has often been used in the context of critiquing white or Eurocentric feminist discourse of white women rescuing brown women from brown men (Shohat). See Ella Shohat, ed., Talking Visions: Multicultural Feminism in a Transnational Age (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998). The formulation “white men are saving brown women from brown men” is from Gayatri Spivak’s “Can the Subaltern Speak?,” in Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, eds., Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (London: Macmillan, 1988).
37. Public statement to the French National Assembly, www.assemblee-nationale.fr, quoted in Achille Mbembe, “Provincializing France?,” Public Culture 23, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 94–95.
38. Pascale Casanova, La République Mondiale des Lettres (Paris: Seuil, 1999), 218.
39. L’Institut du Tout-Monde, created at the initiative of Édouard Glissant, was founded as an attempt to “advance the understanding of the processes of creolization and to disseminate the extraordinary diversity of the imaginaries of peoples, expressed in a multiplicity of languages and in a plurality of artistic expressions and in unexpected modes of life.” The goal is to construct an “international network of studies and research, a space of invention and formation, a place of encounters and memories.” The ultimate goal of the institute is to “live the world differently.” Fondation Euro-Méditerranéene Anna Lindh pour le Dialogue entre les Cultures, “Institut du Tout-Monde,” http://www.euromedalex.org/node/5966.
40. Tyler Stovall and Georges Van Den Abbeele, introduction to Stovall and Van Den Abbeele, eds., French Civilization and Its Discontents: Nationalism, Colonialism, Race, 1–16 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003), 3.
41. Ibid., 10.
42. One collateral effect of this influx of African academics on U.S. campuses has been occasional tensions with African American academics in black studies, who complain that African and Afro-Caribbean academics are being favored, along with tensions around the proper emphasis between those who emphasize specifically African American questions and those who emphasize diasporic questions. For an example of an African American evaluation, see Cecil Brown, Dude, Where’s My Black Studies Department? The Disappearance of Black Americans from Our Universities (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2007).
43. Reported conversation with an African scholar, in Jean-Philippe Dedieu, “Des États-Unis Sortent des Voix Africaines, et Fidélité Francophone,” Black Renaissance Noire 5, no. 2 (Summer 2003).
44. Recent trends show that it is impossible to isolate French-speaking from English-speaking spaces in terms of the dissemination of scholarship around questions of race and coloniality. Indeed, African scholars such as the late Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (Bucknell), Kwame Gyeke (University of Ghana, Temple University, and University of Pennsylvania), Jean-Marie Makang (University of Maryland), D. A. Masoli (Antioch College and University of Nairobi), Ngugi wa Thing’o (University of California, Irvine), Tsenay Serequberhan (Simmons College, Boston), Valentin Mudimbe (Duke University), and Kwasi Wiredu (University of South Florida) have been key figures in the critique of the Eurocentrism and racism of some major figures from the European Enlightenment, notably Hobbes, Hume, Locke, Kant, and Hegel.
45. Alec G. Hargreaves, “Chemins de Traverse,” Mouvements des Idées et des Lutte 51 (September–October 2007): 24–31.
46. Our thanks to Jim Cohen for pointing this out.
47. Guiart quoted in Benoît de L’Estoile, Le Goût des Autres: De L’Exposition Coloniale aux Arts Premiers (Paris: Flammarion, 2007), 198.
48. Berger, “Traversées de Frontières.”
49. See, for example, Balibar’s essay “Y-a-t-il un Neo-racisme?” in the coauthored (with Immanuel Wallerstein) Race, Nation, Classe: Les Identités Ambiguës (Paris: La Découverte, 1988); and “Racism as Universalism,” in Masses, Classes, Ideas (New York: Routledge, 1994).
50. See Ann Laura Stoller, “Colonial Aphasia: Race and Disabled Histories in France,” Public Culture 23, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 121–156.
51. Ibid., 141.
52. Ibid., 131.
53. Paul A. Silverstein and Jane E. Goodman, introduction to Goodman and Silverstein, eds., Bourdieu in Algeria (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 1–2.
54. See Phyllis Taoua, Forms of Protest (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002), 257–258.
55. Originally published as “Les Études Postcoloniales: Une Invention Politique de la Tradition?,” in Sociétés Politiques Comparées: Revue Européenne d’Analyse des Sociétiés Politiques 14 (April 2009); published in English as “Postcolonial Studies: A Political Invention of Tradition?,” Public Culture 23, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 55–84.
56. Bayart, “Postcolonial Studies,” 59.
57. Ibid., 60.
58. Frantz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (New York: Grove, 1965), 175.
59. Bayart, “Postcolonial Studies,” 63.
60. Ibid., 65.
61. Bayart, “La Novlangue d’un Archipel Universitaire,” in Smouts, La Situation Postcoloniale.
62. Jim Cohen, “Postcolonial Immigrants in France and Their Descendants: The Meanings of France’s ‘Postcolonial Moment’” (unpublished manuscript, provided to us by the author), based on a presentation in Amsterdam in 2009: “Postcolonial Immigration and Identity Formation in Europe since 1945: Towards a Comparative Perspective,” IISG/KITLV Amsterdam.
63. See Alec G. Hargreaves, “Half-Measures: Anti-discrimination Policy in France,” in Herrick Chapman and Laura L. Frader, eds., Race in France: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Politics of Difference, 227–245 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004).
64. Ndiaye gives credit to American historian William Cohen, who published his book The French Encounter with Africans in 1980, subsequently translated into French as Français et Africains: Les Noirs dans le Regard des Blancs (Paris: Gallimard, 1982), for opening up the field of black history in France. The book was denounced at the time by Emmanuel Todd as propagating an illegitimate subject and a case of “flagrant historical delirium.” See Ndiaye, La Condition Noire, 111.
65. Ibid., 360.
66. Ibid., 362.
67. Ibid., 353.
68. Didier Fassin and Éric Fassin, “Éloge de la Complexité,” in Fassin and Fassin, eds., De la Question Social à la Question Raciale? Représenter la Société Française (Paris: La Découverte, 2006), 253.
69. Ibid., 130.
70. “Who Is Afraid of the Postcolonial?,” special issue of Mouvements: Des Idées et des Luttes 51 (September–October 2007): 12.
1. See Edward A. Riedinger, “Comparative Development of the Study of Brazil in the United States and France,” in Marshall C. Eakin and Paulo Roberto de Almeida, eds., Envisioning Brazil: A Guide to Brazilian Studies in the United States, 375–395 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005).
2. We found one trilateral study in our sense of exploring the relationalities of France, Brazil, and the United States: Georgette Medleg Rodrigues’s 1998 study “French Attitudes toward US Influence in Brazil (1944–1960),” which explores, on the basis of diplomatic archives and published writing and memoirs, the official French efforts to exert its influence in the face of U.S. competition in a situation in which France itself was also feeling the pressure of American influence, challenged to present itself to Brazil as modern like the United States and as the incarnation of a traditional universality.
3. See Sergio Miceli, A Desilusão Americana: Relações Acadêmicas entre Brasil e os Estados Unidos (São Paulo: Sumaré, 1973), 40.
4. See Piers Armstrong, “Evolução de uma Dinâmica Relacional: A Hermêutica do Pensar a Cultura Brasileira a Partir dos EUA,” in Cristina Stevens, ed., Quando o Tio Sam Pegar no Tamborim: Uma Perspectiva Transcultural do Brasil (Brasilia: Plano, 2000), 57.
5. Although the term “Brazilianist” came in the wake of similar expressions such as “Latinist” or “Germanist,” it also has behind it an implied cultural hierarchy, internalized by many Brazilians. For historical reasons, many Brazilians find it surprising that non-Brazilians should choose to study Brazil. “Brazilianists” are invariably asked by journalists (and sometimes by academics), “How did you become interested in Brazil?” Those Americans and Brazilians who write about France, or French and Brazilians who write about the United States, in contrast, are rarely asked the same question. The assumption is that these “major” cultures are inherently interesting, while only some special experience or epiphany—a trip to Brazil, a love affair, a surprise fellowship, a stint in the Peace Corps—could possibly explain one’s becoming “interested in Brazil.”
6. A more transnational and less Franco-centric narrative of the genealogy of “cultural studies,” we argue, would include not only the French figures noted by Perrone-Moisés but also the Francophone writers such as Fanon and Césaire, along with C. L. R James from the Caribbean, James Baldwin and Leslie Fiedler from the United States, alongside the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci, British Marxists such as E. P. Thompson and Raymond Williams, and post-Marxist Stuart Hall.
7. Leyla Perrone-Moisés, “Pós-estruturalismo e Desconstrução nas Américas,” in Perrone-Moisés, ed., Do Positivismo à Desconstrução: Idéias Francesas na América, 213–237 (São Paulo: USP, 2003).
8. Herman Melville, Redburn (1849; repr., New York: Penguin Books, 1986), 239.
9. Perrone-Moisés, “Pós-estruturalismo e Desconstrução nas Américas,” 226.
10. Ibid., 230.
11. Ibid., 232.
12. François Cusset, French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States, trans. Jeff Fort (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 2.
13. Ibid., xviii.
14. Ibid., 10.
15. Ibid., 8.
16. Ibid., 10
17. Ibid., 99.
18. Michael George Hanchard, Orpheus and Power: The “Movimento Negro” of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, Brazil, 1945–1988 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
19. Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” Theory, Culture, and Society 16, no. 1 (1999): 51
20. Ibid., 48.
21. See Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010), 183–185.
22. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” 45–46.
23. Ibid., 46.
24. Robert Stam in conversation with Brazilian journalist Sérgio Augusto in September 1995.
25. See Thomas E. Skidmore, “Race and Class in Brazil: Historical Perspectives,” in Pierre-Michel Fontain, ed., Race, Class, and Power in Brazil (Los Angeles: UCLA Center for Afro-American Studies, 1985).
26. John French, “The Missteps of Anti-imperialist Reason.” The essay was published first as a Duke University Working Paper (no. 27) and was subsequently published in Theory, Culture and Society 17, no. 1 (2000): 121, a special issue devoted to responses to the Bourdieu/Wacquant essay.
27. Ibid., 122.
28. Ibid.
29. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperialist Reason,” 44, 53, quoted in French, “The Missteps of Anti-imperialist Reason,” 122.
30. French, “The Missteps of Anti-imperialist Reason,” 122.
31. For Freyre’s boldest statement affirming Luso-Tropical exceptionalism, see Gilberto Freyre, O Luso e o Trópico (Lisbon: Comissão Executiva do Quinto Centenário da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1961).
32. The experience of Brazilian Carnival, for example, involves a transracial gregariousness that is not available in the same way in the United States (or France). Both black and white Americans visiting Brazil frequently express a sense of relief at the lack of the racial tension that often pervades and poisons social life in the United States.
33. James Holston, Insurgent Citizenship: Disjunctions of Democracy and Modernity in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 284.
34. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” 44.
35. Immanuel Wallerstein argues that racism is disseminated throughout the world system, so that no part of the planet, in terms of local, national, and international policy, is free of it. See Immanuel Wallerstein, O Declínio do Poder Americano (Rio de Janeiro: Contraponto, 2004), 267.
36. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” 46. Bourdieu/Wacquant seem to imply, absurdly, that some American foundations demand that Brazilian research teams conform to the rules of Affirmative Action, which, if true, would mean that they would have to engage Native Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders.
37. Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine (New York: Holt, 2007), 123.
38. See Sérgio Costa, Dois Atlânticos: Teoria Social, Anti-racismo, Cosmopolitanismo (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: UFMG, 2006), 198.
39. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” 54.
40. Ibid., 47.
41. Loïc Wacquant, “Bourdieu in America: Notes on the Transatlantic Importation of Social Theory,” in Craig Calhoun, Edward LiPuma, and Moishe Postone, eds., Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 241.
42. See Marie-Pierre Le Hir, “The Popular in Cultural Studies,” in Marie-Pierre Le Hir and Dana Strand, eds., French Cultural Studies: Criticism at the Crossroads (Albany: SUNY Press, 2000).
43. Bourdieu and Wacquant, “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason,” 47.
44. Cusset, French Theory, 232.
45. Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, Métaphysiques Cannibales (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2009), 66–67.
46. Despite the hostility of intellectuals such as Bourdieu/Wacquant, some academics, many of them French or French-speaking academics in the United States or in the United Kingdom, have begun to do cultural studies–style work on French popular culture itself, generating studies of the portrayals of French colonialism in the films of Brigitte Roüan and Claire Denis, for example, or the representation of diasporic minorities on French television or the role of hip-hop culture in the banlieue or “métissage in postcolonial comics.” Catherine Liu sees MC Solaar’s rap lyrics as the hybrid heir of both Public Enemy and Baudelaire and as the contemporary equivalent of Walter Benjamin’s “ragpicker.” French postcolonial studies has focused on exoticism in mainstream French writing, on Francophone theories of language and identity, and on the relevance of Anglo-Indian postcolonial theory to French culture. And some cinema studies scholars have detected a submerged colonial and racial presence in the French New Wave: the black man excluded from the fascist student party in Chabrol’s Les Cousins (The Cousins), the anticolonialist Africans in Rouch’s Chronique d’un Été and Marker’s Le Joli Mai, the Black Panthers in Godard’s Weekend, the allusions to colonial carnage in Chabrol’s Le Boucher, and the coded references to the war in Algeria in Varda’s Cléo de 5 à 7, Rozier’s Adieu Philippine, and Demy’s Les Parapluies de Cherbourg. See, for example, Dina Sherzer, ed., Cinema, Colonialism, Postcolonialism: Perspectives from the French and Francophone World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996). See also Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995).
47. See Éric Maigret, “Pierre Bourdieu, la Culture Populaire et le Long Remords de la Sociologie de la Distinction Culturelle,” Esprit (March–April 2002): 170–178.
48. Pierre Bourdieu, On Television (New York: New Press, 1999).
49. See Arlindo Machado, A Televisão Levada a Sério (São Paulo: SENAC, 2000), 127.
50. Maigret, “Pierre Bourdieu,” 175.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. Tom Moylan, Demand the Impossible: Science Fiction and the Utopian Imagination (New York: Methuen, 1986), 213.
54. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), 34.
55. Ibid., 491.
56. Ernst Bloch, Atheism in Christianity (New York: Herder and Herder, 1971).
57. Special issue on “On the Cunning of Imperial Reason” essay, Estudos Afro-Asiáticos (January–April 2002). Bourdieu/Wacquant mention the journal, not in terms of the work published there but only as an example of foundation funding for race-related research in Brazil. Wacquant himself, we would add, has also received research funding from American foundations.
58. Jocélio Teles dos Santos, “De Armadilhas, Convicções e Dissensões: As Relações Raciais como Efeito Orloff,” Estudos Afro-Asiáticos 24, no. 1 (2002): 183.
59. Osmundo de Araújo Pinho and Ângela Figueiredo, “Idéias Fora do Lugar e o Lugar do Negro nas Ciências Sociais Brasileiras,” Estudos Afro-Asiáticos 24, no. 1 (2002): 189–210.
60. Ibid.
61. Alberto Guerreiro Ramos, Introdução Crítica à Sociologia Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, 1995), 165.
62. Pinho and Figueiredo, “Idéias Fora do Lugar,” 193.
63. Costa, Dois Atlânticos, 54.
64. Antônio Cândido, A Formação da Literatura Brasileira: Momentos Decisivos (São Paulo: Martins, 1959).
65. Mário de Andrade, Poesias Completas (São Paulo: Martins, 1972), 32–33.
66. Wacquant, “Bourdieu in America.”
67. Haroldo de Campos, “Da Razão Antropofágica: A Europa sob o Signo da Devoração,” Revista Colôquio: Letras 62 (July 1981): 10–25.
68. Eneida Maria de Souza, Crítica Cult (Belo Horizonte, Brazil: UFMG, 2002), 101.
69. Roberto Schwarz, Misplaced Ideas (London: Verso, 1997), 219.
70. Pierre Bourdieu, Acts of Resistance: Against the Tyranny of the Market (New York: New Press, 1998), 61.
71. Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Knopf, 1972).
72. Pierre Bourdieu, Esquisse pour une Auto-Analyse (Paris: Raisons d’Agir, 2004), 13.
73. Ibid., 126.
74. Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 18.
75. See Tyler Stovall, “‘No Green Pastures’: The African Americanization of France,” in Elisabeth Mudimbe-Boyi, ed., Empire Lost: France and Its Other Worlds (New York: Lexington Books, 2009).