Answers to Concept Checks

• 1.1
  1. • Franz Gall: phrenology; associated development of a trait with growth of its relevant part of the brain.
     • Pierre Flourens: extirpation/ablation; concluded that different brain regions have specific functions.
     • William James: “father of American psychology”; pushed for importance of studying adaptations of the individual to his or her environment.
     • John Dewey: credited with the landmark article on functionalism; argued for studying the entire organism as a whole.
     • Paul Broca: correlated pathology with specific brain regions, such as speech production from Broca’s area.
     • Hermann von Helmholtz: measured speed of a nerve impulse.
     • Sir Charles Sherrington: inferred the existence of synapses.
• 1.2
  1. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system includes most of the cranial and spinal nerves and sensors.
  2. Afferent (sensory) neurons bring signals from a sensor to the central nervous system. Efferent (motor) neurons bring signals from the central nervous system to an effector.
  3. The somatic nervous system is responsible for voluntary actions; most notably, moving muscles. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary actions, like heart rate, bronchial dilation, dilation of the eyes, exocrine gland function, and peristalsis.
  4. The sympathetic nervous system promotes a fight-or-flight response, with increased heart rate and bronchial dilation, redistribution of blood to locomotor muscles, dilation of the eyes, and slowing of digestive and urinary functions. The parasympathetic nervous system promotes rest-and-digest functions, slowing heart rate and constricting the bronchi, redistributing blood to the gut, promoting exocrine secretions, constricting the pupils, and promoting peristalsis and urinary function.
• 1.3

  1. Subdivision	Functions
     Hindbrain	Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, general arousal processes (sleeping and waking); “vital functioning”
     Midbrain	Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body; reflexes to auditory and visual stimuli
     Forebrain	Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes; emotion and memory

  2. Methods used for mapping the brain include studying humans with brain lesions, extirpation, stimulation or recording with electrodes (cortical mapping, single-cell electrode recordings, electroencephalogram [EEG]), and regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF).
  3. From most deep to most superficial, the structures surrounding the brain are the meninges, bone, periosteum, and skin.
• 1.4
  1. 1–A, 2–H, 3–F, 4–E, 5–C, 6–I, 7–G, 8–D, 9–B
     
     

  2. Lobe	Function
     Frontal	Executive function, impulse control, long-term planning (prefrontal cortex), motor function (primary motor cortex), speech production (Broca’s area)
     Parietal	Sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain (somatosensory cortex); spatial processing, orientation, and manipulation
     Occipital	Visual processing
     Temporal	Sound processing (auditory cortex), speech perception (Wernicke’s area), memory, and emotion (limbic system)

     
     
  3. Ipsilateral communication occurs when cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body. Contralateral communication occurs when cerebral hemispheres communicate with the opposite side of the body.
  4. The dominant hemisphere is typically defined as the one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production.
• 1.5
  1. 1–F, 2–E, 3–D, 4–A, 5–B, 6–G, 7–C
  2. The hypothalamus controls release of pituitary hormones; the pituitary is the “master gland” that triggers hormone secretion in many other endocrine glands. The adrenal medulla produces adrenaline (epinephrine), which causes sympathetic nervous system effects throughout the body. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol, a stress hormone. The adrenal cortex and testes produce testosterone, which is associated with libido.
  3. Nature is defined as heredity, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior. Nurture refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior. It has long been debated whether nature or nurture has the larger influence; it is a complicated situation, but for most traits, both exert some influence.
     
     

  4. Study	Sample Group	Control Group
     Family study	Family of genetically related individuals	Unrelated individuals (general population)
     Twin study	Monozygotic (MZ, identical) twins	Dizygotic (DZ, fraternal) twins
     Adoption study	Adoptive family (relative to adopted child)	Biological family (relative to adopted child)

• 1.6
  1. Neurulation occurs when a furrow is produced from ectoderm overlying the notochord and consists of the neural groove and two neural folds. As the neural folds grow, the cells at their leading edge are called neural crest cells. When the neural folds fuse, this creates the neural tube, which will form the CNS.
     
     

  2. Primitive Reflex	Behavior
     Rooting	Turns head toward direction of any object touching the cheek
     Moro	In response to sudden head movement, arms extend and slowly retract; baby usually cries
     Babinski	Extension of big toe and fanning of other toes in response to brushing the sole of the foot
     Grasping	Holding onto any object placed in the hand

  3. Gross motor development proceeds from head to toe, and from the core to the periphery.