After Chapter 9.2, you will be able to:
Self-presentation is the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors. The implication of self-presentation is that people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them. The term self-presentation is often used interchangeably with impression management.
Expressed emotions include both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that communicate internal states. We can express emotions with or without conscious awareness.
The basic model of emotional expression was first established by Charles Darwin. Darwin stated that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes. Darwin claimed that expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures. Darwin also stated that primates and animals exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expressions. Since Darwin, many researchers have found that a number of basic human emotions are universally experienced and that their corresponding facial expressions are universally recognized. The appraisal model is closely related, and accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.
Paul Ekman’s work with universal emotions, as detailed in Chapter 5 of MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review, was a key development in the basic model of emotional expression. Individuals knowledgeable about Ekman’s work are capable of detecting very subtle and transient facial expressions that may indicate that an individual is trying to be deceptive about the emotions being conveyed.
Three of the primary models that describe individual emotion (James–Lange, Cannon–Bard, and Schachter–Singer) were discussed in Chapter 5 of MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review. In this chapter, we will look at how emotions are shaped by social context and culture.
The social construction model assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions. Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. It also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently—and thus play different roles—across cultures. In this model, one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation.
Culture provides the foundation to understand and interpret behaviors. Studies have suggested that cultural differences can lead to very different social consequences when emotions are expressed. Cultural expectations of emotions are often referred to as display rules. For example, in Utkuhikhalik Inuit society, anger is rarely expressed; individuals who demonstrate anger are considered social pariahs. Display rules govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree. They may differ as a function of the culture, gender, or family background of an individual. Emotional expressions can be managed in several different ways: by simulating feelings one does not actually feel; by qualifying, amplifying, or deamplifying feelings; by masking an emotion with another emotion; or by neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever.
A cultural syndrome is a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. Cultural syndromes influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced. For example, happiness is generally considered a positive emotion across cultures. However, in countries with more individualistic cultural syndromes, like the United States, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced. In contrast, in countries with a more collectivist cultural syndrome, such as Japan, happiness is a very rational emotion and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes or experiences. This difference is illustrated in the contrast between the phrases I am happy and I am sharing happiness with others.
Gender also plays an important role in emotional expression. Research on the expression of emotion in the United States has shown that women are expected to express anger in public less often than men, while men are expected to repress the expression of sadness. Research also supports the conclusion that women are better at detecting subtle differences in emotional expression than men.
Impression management refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us. This is done through the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions. Impression management is often used synonymously with self-presentation. When describing impression management, theorists describe three “selves”: the authentic self, the ideal self, and the tactical self. The authentic self describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes. The ideal self, as described in Chapter 6 of MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review, refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances. The tactical self refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others’ expectations of us. This is similar to the ought self described in Chapter 6 of MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review.
People use a number of impression management strategies when in the presence of others. Some common strategies are summarized in Table 9.1, with examples of each.
| Strategy | Definition | Example(s) |
| Self-disclosure | Giving information about oneself to establish an identity | Disclosing that you are a premedical student |
| Managing appearances | Using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image | Wearing a white coat, keeping calm while dealing with a difficult patient, mentioning associations with important researchers during an interview |
| Ingratiation | Using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over | Blindly agreeing to someone else’s opinion, complimenting a friend before asking for a favor |
| Aligning actions | Making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses | Justifications for missing deadlines, blaming a bad grade on too little sleep |
| Alter-casting | Imposing an identity onto another person | Any example in this course that says As a good MCAT student, you should… in which Kaplan is assigning you the role of good MCAT student |
Erving Goffman described impression management through the dramaturgical approach, using the metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations. In this analogy, Goffman likens a person’s status to that person’s part in the performance and role in the script. While Goffman stretched this analogy to its very limits, the MCAT will only expect you to be familiar with the concepts of front stage and back stage self. The front stage is where the actor is in front of the audience and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see. In contrast, the back stage is where the actor is not being observed by an audience and is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance.
Another theory of self that is dependent on social interaction was described by George Mead, who built on previous work by James, outlining the two parts of the self as the "I" and the “me.” "Me" is the part of self that is a response to the environment, whereas "I" is the creative expression of the individual. For example, going to school and studying hard would be a part of "me" since this is a societal expectation, whereas deciding that studying may not be the only path toward
a goal and choosing to find alternative approaches would be a part of "I."
Many of the sociological theories tested on the MCAT are far more extensive than the knowledge base the AAMC expects of test takers. The dramaturgical approach, for example, describes over twenty sociological concepts in theatrical terms; however, the MCAT only expects you to know front stage vs. back stage self. Likewise, the "I" and the "me" would be tested conceptually.
Communication is the ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals, or behavior. It is the foundation of social interaction and is often used to elicit changes, generate action, create understanding, share a point of view, or inform. Effective communication occurs when the desired message is received by the recipient.
Strong communication skills are tested everywhere on the MCAT, but are particularly important in the Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills section. See Chapter 2 of MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review for a discussion of analyzing rhetoric.
Verbal communication is the transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written, or signed. It is tied to nonverbal communication and is often dependent on nonverbal cues for the receiver to understand the sender’s full meaning. While face-to-face conversations are rich with nonverbal communication, even phone conversations include nonverbal means of communication, such as pauses and changes in tone.
Nonverbal communication refers to how people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words. Some examples of nonverbal communication are facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, touches, and eye positioning. Nonverbal cues serve a number of functions in communication, including expression of emotions, as shown in Figure 9.2, conveyance of attitudes and personality traits, and facilitation of verbal communication. Nonverbal communication is often dictated by culture. For example, in US culture, people can be suspicious of someone who does not make eye contact, as this is widely considered to be a sign of lying. However, in many Asian cultures, direct eye contact is used far less often than in the United States. For example, children in Thailand are taught not to make eye contact with teachers and adults in order to show respect. Some types of verbal and nonverbal communication are listed in Table 9.2.
| Verbal | Nonverbal |
| Spoken language | Facial expressions |
| Written language (print and electronic) | Body language (posture) |
| Sign languages (American Sign Language) | Gestures |
| Tactile languages (Braille alphabet) | Tone of voice (prosody) |
| Eye contact | |
| Amount of personal space |
We not only communicate with other people, but also with other living creatures. Animal communication is defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another.
Nonhuman animals communicate with one another in order to convey information such as emotions, intent, status, health, and the location of resources. They communicate with one another through a variety of nonverbal means, including body language, rudimentary facial expressions, visual displays, scents, and vocalizations.
The use of body language is common across a number of species. Body language can indicate that an animal is frightened, as shown in Figure 9.3, aggressive, relaxed, or even embarrassed; dogs often tuck their tails between their legs when scolded or fearful. Body language can also have significance for reproduction, as many animals will get into certain positions to signify readiness to mate.
While humans possess far finer motor control of the muscles of facial expression, many animals (especially mammals) use facial expressions to indicate similar emotions to body language. It is noteworthy, however, that facial expressions appear to be more highly conserved between species than body language. For example, baring teeth and lunging forward, as shown in Figure 9.4, are perceived almost universally as signs of aggression or readiness to attack.
Animals may also use visual displays for communication. This is common for sex discrimination in birds; females are often less colorful than males because it permits them a greater degree of camouflage and protection when caring for their young. However, this also serves as communication between birds, as sex is readily apparent from the bird’s appearance. Other visual displays include bioluminescence (the production of light), colorful plumage (as in peacocks), and dancing. Bees are well-known for communicating through dancing, as shown in Figure 9.5.
Many animals use scents to communicate both intraspecifically (between members of the same specifies) and interspecifically (between members of different species). Pheromones are a common example and are given off by members of a species to attract a mate. Scents can be used to mark an animal’s territory or as a method of defense, such as in skunks.
It is debatable if pheromones actually have an effect on humans because we lack many of the genes necessary for function of the vomeronasal organ, an accessory olfactory organ seen in other animals. Olfaction and scent detection is discussed in Chapter 2 of MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review.
Finally, animals also communicate through vocalizations with various levels of sophistication. For example, research has shown that prairie dogs have different “words” for specific predators, and can even create new words for novel objects. Bird calls are species specific and are used to attract a mate or warn of a threat.
In addition to interacting in the wild, humans use both verbal and nonverbal communication when interacting with domesticated animals, as is often seen between owners and their pets. Dog owners may use vocal commands to tell their pets to come, stay, or sit. Additionally, just as tone of voice can express joy or anger to a person, it can communicate the same information to a pet. Pets can be scolded with a look or a gesture. Communication works in the opposite direction as well, as a pet’s body language and expressions convey information to its owner.
Communication between humans and animals is not confined strictly to pets. One of the most famous examples of animal communication is Koko, a gorilla who is able to communicate with humans through the use of American Sign Language. Koko’s vocabulary includes more than one thousand words.