1. Edmund H. Kellogg, Chargé d’affaires a.i., AmEmb Phnom Penh Despatch 367 (hereafter D-367) to DOS, Central Decimal File 1955–59 (hereafter CDF55–59) 032/4–659, Record Group 59 (RG 59), National Archives at College Park (hereafter NA). All items in the Central Decimal File are from RG 59.
2. See Jennifer Campbell, “Shaping Solidarity: Music, Diplomacy, and Inter-American Relations, 1936–1946” (PhD diss., University of Connecticut, 2010); Carol Hess, “Copland in Argentina: Pan Americanist Politics, Folklore, and the Crisis in Modern Music,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 66, no. 1 (2013): 191–250; and Justin Hart, Empire of Ideas: The Origins of Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). See also Ruth Emily McMurry and Muna Lee, The Cultural Approach: Another Way in International Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), 208–29; and Charles A. Thomson and Walter H.C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963).
3. Campbell, “Shaping Solidarity,” 240–44.
4. Lee Irwin, interview by the author, 15 November 2013. Incomplete budget figures can be found in boxes 35–46, Series 6 (Budget), Group I (CU Organization and Administration), MC468: Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Library, Fayetteville. See also Appendix 1.1: “Cultural Presentations Budgets, 1961–1974,” http://musicdiplomacy.org.
5. On more recent forms of musical engagement see AMS Planning and Research, “Evaluation of the Jazz Ambassadors Program,” vol. 1, http://eca.state.gov/files/bureau/jazz-amb-program-vol.-i-final-report-march-2006.pdf; Hisham Aidi, Rebel Music: Race, Empire, and the New Muslim Youth Culture (New York: Pantheon, 2014); and Kendra Salois, “The U.S. Department of State’s ‘Hip Hop Diplomacy’ in Morocco,” in Music and Diplomacy from the Early Modern Era to the Present, ed. Rebekah Ahrendt, Mark Ferraguto, and Damien Mahiet (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 231–50.
6. Charles Frankel, The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Affairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1965), 9–34.
7. Departments of State and Justice, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1960: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second Session, 966. On biased reporting of outcomes see Charles Frankel, High on Foggy Bottom (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 80.
8. For a description of how the embassies placed information in local newspapers, see AmEmb Santiago D-291 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Thebom, Blanche/9–1757, NA. The relationship between diplomatic posts and local media is described in Thomas C. Sorensen, The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 66. On the importance of newspaper reports for judging effectiveness see remarks of Robert Thayer in Departments of State and Justice, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1960: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, Eighty-Sixth Congress, Second Session, 965.
9. J. Manuel Espinosa, Inter-American Beginnings of U.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1936–1948, DOS Publication 8854 (1976), viii.
10. “Are the Communists Right in Calling Us Cultural Barbarians?” Rep. Frank Thompson Jr. (D-NJ), 84th Cong., 1st sess., Extension of Remarks, Cong. Rec. 101 (27 June 1955), A4692.
11. IIA: The International Information Administration Program, DOS Publication 4939 (1953), 4, 8.
12. See Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), xii, xv–xvi, 114–19.
13. Kellogg, AmEmb Phnom Penh D-367 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/4–659, NA.
14. Matthew Fraser, Weapons of Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire (New York: St. Martin’s, 2003), 29.
15. Clare Croft, “Funding Footprints: U.S. State Department Sponsorship of International Dance Tours, 1962–2009” (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2010), 16.
16. “Holiday on Ice” appeared in Calcutta and Bombay in 1955, apparently under private sponsorship. Advertisements, Billboard, 5 February 1955, 54; and Billboard, 19 February 1955, 73.
17. AmEmb Karachi D-55 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson, Marian/7–1857; AmEmb Karachi T-649 to DOS, ibid./9–2557; AmEmb Karachi D-466 to DOS, ibid./12–357, NA.
18. “Cultural Presentations: President’s Program: Program Guide,” DOS Instruction CA-265 to all diplomatic and consular posts, CDF55–59 032/7–959, NA.
19. AmEmb Karachi D-293 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra/10–357; AmEmb Karachi T-649 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson, Marian/9–2557; AmEmb Karachi D-327 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Teagarden, Jack Sextet/10–658, NA.
20. Nicholas Cull acknowledges that one role of cultural diplomacy may be “empowering indigenous voices within a target state or states.” Nicholas Cull, “Public Diplomacy: Seven Lessons for Its Future from Its Past,” in Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6, no. 1 (2010): 14. On the role of private impresarios in facilitating U.S.-Soviet cultural exchange see also Harlow Robinson, The Last Impresario: The Life, Times, and Legacy of Sol Hurok (New York: Viking, 1994), 343–442.
21. Guerrero-Nakpil and Soliongco quoted in AmEmb Manila D-819 to DOS and USIA, CDF55–59 032 Steber, Eleanor/4–1257, NA. See also Raul Rodrigo, The Power and the Glory: The Story of the Manila Chronicle (Pasig City: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 2007), 57–65.
22. AmEmb Rio de Janeiro D-542 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/11–2559; AmConGen Nairobi D-616 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/5–1559, NA.
23. AmEmb Cairo D-908 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/5–2659; AmEmb Monrovia D-271 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/3–259, NA (emphasis in original).
24. Fosler-Lussier, “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization: The University of Michigan Jazz Band in Latin America,” Journal of the Society for American Music 4, no. 1 (2010): 79; and Rhea B. Williamson, Tour Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour 1956–57, entries for Nov. 1, Nov. 21, Nov. 28, Jan. 15, and Jan. 21, John Finley Williamson Collection cabinet 1, drawer B, folder 12, Talbott Library, Rider University.
25. “The International Cultural Exchange Service of the American National Theatre and Academy (ANTA) and Its Relationship to the President’s Special International Program for Cultural Presentations of the Bureau of International Education and Cultural Affairs, Department of State,” folder “Material Sent to Art Committee,” CU/ACS: Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
26. Transcript of Proceedings, First Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 16 January 1958, B-19, CU/ACS: Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA. For a list of agencies involved in U.S. propaganda efforts see Kenneth Osgood, “Hearts and Minds: The Unconventional Cold War,” Journal of Cold War Studies 4, no. 2 (2002): 87.
27. Paul C. Domke to IES-Mr. Riley, “Establishment of the Committee on Arts,” memorandum, 11 February 1954, folder “Committee on Arts, Appointment of Members, 1951–54,” CU/ACS: Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
28. Thomas Huff, who served the Cultural Presentations program as escort officer and later director, attributed the posts’ recommendations to the CAOs’ personal musical tastes. See Interview with Thomas Huff, 3 May 1974, tape 6, transcript, p. 166, MC 468: Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection, Group XIX (Audiovisual Materials), box 351, folder 2, Special Collections, University of Arkansas Libraries, Fayetteville. This collection cited hereafter in the form ARK XIX b351 f2.
29. On the respective roles of State Department personnel and the ANTA panels see Remarks of Andrew H. Berding, Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs, minutes, First Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 15–16 January 1958, Attachment 3, p. 3, folder ACA Document 1, CU/ACS: Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA; and Martin Ackerman to Anderson and Sorensen of IOP [Office of Policy and Plans], “Cultural Presentations Advisory Committee Meeting March 7 and 8, 1963, Transcript of Proceedings,” memo, 23 April 1963, ARK II (Cultural Presentations program) b94 f21.
30. For further background on music in U.S. government programs see Emily Abrams Ansari, “‘Masters of the President’s Music’: Cold War Composers and the United States Government” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2009), 22–80.
31. “Outline of Tentative Program for the Division of Cultural Relations, Department of State, June 1, 1939,” folder Cultural Cooperation Program, 1938–1953, Subject Files 1953–2000, USIA Historical Collection, RG 306, NA.
32. President John F. Kennedy, speech to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, 20 April 1961, cited in Walter Joyce, The Propaganda Gap (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 5.
33. Ben M. Cherrington, “Cultural Ties That Bind in the Relations of the American Nations,” Hispania 22 (October 1939): 246–47, cited in Espinosa, Inter-American Beginnings, 140. Erving Goffman noted that joint attention to a conversation or game is a powerful form of engagement; this premise holds true for musical diplomacy. See Erving Goffman, Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction (1961; New York: Macmillan, 1985).
34. Frankel, High on Foggy Bottom, 23.
35. Remarks of James Magdanz, Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 24 April 1957, 2, ARK II b100 f2.
36. DOS Instruction CA-9512 to New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, CDF55–59 032 Steber, Eleanor/5–2956, NA.
37. AmEmb Moscow T-552 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Boston Symphony Orchestra/9–1056, NA.
38. AmEmb Prague T-113 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Boston Symphony Orchestra/9–1256, NA.
39. Remarks of James Magdanz, Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 24 April 1957, 2, ARK II b100 f2.
40. Roy E. Larsen and Glenn G. Wolfe, Report of Survey, Cultural Presentations Program, for the U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, summary in International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts: A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1963–June 30, 1964, DOS Publication 7819 (1965), 78–79. For the complete Larsen-Wolfe report see enclosure in Larsen and Wolfe to John W. Gardner, Chairman, U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, 17 December 1962, CDF60–63 032/1–1463, NA. For a contemporaneous argument in favor of competitive propaganda see Joyce, The Propaganda Gap.
41. Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 342–43; Charles Frankel, High on Foggy Bottom, 20–22, 31. The United States Information Agency (USIA), known outside the United States as the United States Information Service (USIS), was founded in 1953 to consolidate information functions that had been managed by the International Information Administration (IIA) and other agencies, while exchanges remained the province of the State Department. The State Department’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Relations (CU) was founded in 1959 to handle its growing exchange programs. In 1961 the bureau was reorganized as the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. In 1977 the USIA and the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs combined to become the United States International Communication Agency (USICA), removing CU from the State Department; the USICA later became again the USIA. In 1999 the USIA was reabsorbed into the State Department and its elements dispersed. Embassy public diplomacy personnel were made subject to the geographic bureaus of the State Department; information elements became the new Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP); press work was transferred into the Bureau of Public Affairs; and the cultural program, exchange, and language work became part of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA). An overview of the history of the State Department’s cultural exchange functions and the related aspects of USIA can be found at the website of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, http://eca.state.gov/about-bureau/history-and-mission-eca. My thanks to Nicholas Cull for his help in sorting out this history.
42. Milton Cummings, “Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey,” cited in Cultural Diplomacy: Recommendations and Research (Washington, DC: Center for Arts and Culture, 2003), 2. Kirsten Bound et al. argue that Cold War cultural diplomacy was a proxy battle between the superpowers and that culture should not be exploited in this way. See Kirsten Bound et al., Cultural Diplomacy (London: Demos, 2007), 12, 21.
43. Ambassador Laurence Pope, closing remarks at the conference “Music and Diplomacy,” Harvard and Tufts Humanities Centers, March 2013.
44. Bas Arts, Math Noortmann, and Bob Reinalda, eds., Non-state Actors in International Relations (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001); Graham Carr, “Diplomatic Notes: American Musicians and Cold War Politics in the Near and Middle East, 1954–60,” Popular Music History 1, no. 1 (2004): 42; Sari Autio-Sarasmo and Katalin Miklóssy, “Introduction: The Cold War from a New Perspective,” in Reassessing Cold War Europe, ed. Sari Autio-Sarasmo and Katalin Miklóssy (London: Routledge, 2011); Jessica Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy: Music and Emotions in Transnational Relations, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
45. Kyle Lehning, interview by the author, 15 December 2008. See also Harvey Cohen, Duke Ellington’s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 428.
46. Thomas D. Huff to Richard Crawford, 18 November 1964, box 1, Richard Crawford Papers, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (hereafter RCP); “Democracy vs. Dictators” and other pamphlets, personal papers of Joe Mallare. My thanks to Mr. Mallare for sharing these documents with me.
47. Brent Herhold, interview by the author, 13 June 2006. Corroborated by Dennis Garrels, interview by the author, 14 June 2006.
48. Student questionnaires, box 1, RCP; Quincy Jones, Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 112. William Faulkner sardonically hoped in 1961 that soon “the new administration will have created an actual foreign policy, so that they wont need to make these frantic desperate cries for help to amateurs like me who dont want to go” [sic]. Lisa C. Hickman, William Faulkner and Joan Williams: The Romance of Two Writers (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006), 188–89.
49. AmEmb Caracas D-315 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Columbus Boy Choir/11–657; AmEmb The Hague D-186 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Concordia College Choir/8–2058, NA.
50. See Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Richard Schechner, Between Theater and Anthropology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 35–36; Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 3, 15.
51. William B. Macomber Jr. to Senator Hubert Humphrey (D-MN), CDF55–59 032/6–359; Macomber to Senator Frank Carlson (R-KS), 11 December 1959, CDF55–59 032 Centennial Choir/12–159, NA.
52. See, e.g., AmEmb Beirut D-406 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/3–1257, NA.
53. Frederick C. Dutton, Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs, to Rep. Charles A. Halleck (R-IN), 20 December 1962, CDF60–63 032 Chapel Choir/12–1161, NA.
54. Michael Boerner, interview by the author, 27 February 2009. For a more complete account of this dynamic see Fosler-Lussier, “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization,” 73–79.
55. Boerner, interview. Likewise, in Tunis, Randy Weston’s performance of modern jazz enabled access to previously unavailable political officials. USIS Tunis Message 5 to USIA Washington, 5 September 1967, ARK II b85 f2.
56. AmEmb Rangoon D-863 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/6–1157; USIS Calcutta D-426 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/2–2057, NA.
57. AmConGen Madras D-616 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/2–557, NA.
58. Larsen and Wolfe, Report of Survey, summary in International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 79.
59. DOS Instruction A-212 to AmEmb Tokyo, CDF55–59 032 Tucker/9–1757, NA.
60. Emily Abrams Ansari, “‘A Serious and Delicate Mission’: American Orchestras, American Composers, and Cold War Diplomacy in Europe,” in Crosscurrents: American and European Music in Interaction, 1900–2000, ed. Felix Meyer, Carol J. Oja, Wolfgang Rathert, and Anne C. Shreffler (Basel: Paul Sacher Stiftung, 2014), 287–98; Jonathan Rosenberg, “An Idealist Abroad,” in Burton Bernstein and Barbara Haws, Leonard Bernstein: American Original (New York: Philharmonic-Symphony Society of New York, 2008), 117–34; Jessica Gienow-Hecht, “The World Is Ready to Listen: Symphony Orchestras and the Global Performance of America,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 17–28.
61. Anna Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 7.
62. See William Mazzarella, “Culture, Globalization, Mediation,” Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 347–48.
63. James Der Derian, On Diplomacy: A Genealogy of Western Estrangement (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 6.
64. Christopher Small, “Why Doesn’t the Whole World Love Chamber Music?” American Music 19, no. 3 (2001): 345. See also Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performing and Listening (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998), 13–14; and Thomas Turino, Music as Social Life: The Politics of Participation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 23–65.
65. Zelma George, interview by Marcia Greenlee, 20–21 August 1978, Black Women Oral History Project, ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill, vol. 4 (Westport, CT: Meckler, 1991), 122.
1. “A Statement on the Selection of American Art to be Sent Abroad under the Government’s International Cultural Relations Programs,” minutes, Eighth Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 25–26 April 1960, Attachment 8, pp. 2–3, folder ACA Document 21, box 159, CU/ACS Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
2. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 15 November 1955, p. 3, ARK II b100 f1.
3. Remarks of Andrew H. Berding, Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs, minutes, First Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 15–16 January 1958, Attachment 3, p. 1, folder ACA Document 1, box 155, CU/ACS Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
4. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 16 September 1959, p. 2, ARK II b100 f5; AmEmb Tokyo Airgram C-127 to Robert H. Thayer, DOS, CDF55–59 032/8–2659, NA.
5. Emily Abrams Ansari, “‘Masters of the President’s Music’: Cold War Composers and the United States Government” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2009), 95–98.
6. Manuela Aguilar distinguishes cultural diplomacy from information policy, saying that the former is directed toward broad publics, whereas information propaganda is aimed at opinion leaders (Aguilar calls them “multipliers”), such as journalists, politicians, publishers, and university professors. The evidence presented here belies this distinction. See Manuela Aguilar, Cultural Diplomacy and Foreign Policy: German-American Relations, 1955–1968 (New York: Peter Lang, 1996), 8–9.
7. Roy Larsen and Glenn Wolfe, Report of Survey of the Cultural Presentations Program for the U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, summary in International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 79–80. See also DOS, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, “Paper for the Advisory Committee on the Arts on the Fiscal Year 1964 Cultural Presentations Program Planning for Africa,” ARK II b94 f14.
8. Examples include Evaluation Report, Claremont Quartet, ARK II b96 f16; Evidence of Effectiveness Reports, Alvin Ailey in Africa, ARK II b97 f1; AmEmb Buenos Aires A-1150 to DOS, 13 October 1968, ARK II b59 f23; AmEmb Mexico A-1325 to DOS, 4 September 1968, ARK II b59 f23.
9. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 26 May 1970, p. 5, ARK II b99 f21; see also Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 26 September 1967, p. 2, ibid.
10. AmEmb Rio de Janeiro A-1028 to DOS, 6 September 1968, ARK II b59 f23; AmEmb Mexico A-1325 to DOS, 4 September 1968, ARK II b59 f23. Cunningham’s three programs included the following works: Program 1: Suite for Five (Cage), Rainforest (Tudor), Place (Mumma); Program 2: Scramble (Ichiyanagi), Winterbranch (Young), How to Pass, Kick, Fall and Run (Cage); Program 3: Collage III (Schaeffer/Henri); Field Dances (Cage); Night Wandering (Nilsson); Walkaround Time (Behrman).
11. “The Caracas Audience: ‘Receptive’ and ‘Sympathetic,’” Daily Journal, 21 August 1968, encl. in AmEmb Caracas A-1102 to DOS, 27 August 1968, ARK II b59 f23.
12. On European classical music in Latin America see Rodrigo Herrera, “The Role of Classical Music in the Development of Nationalism and the Formation of Class in Quito, Ecuador” (PhD diss., University of Texas, Austin, 2000). On prestige see Joseph Bensman, “Classical Music and the Status Game,” Trans-action 4, no. 9 (1967): 55–59.
13. Christopher Small, “Why Doesn’t the Whole World Love Chamber Music?” American Music 19, no. 3 (2001): 351.
14. See AmEmb Quito T-546 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 New Orleans Philharmonic Symphony/3–556, NA.
15. IIA: The International Information Administration Program. DOS Publication 4939 (1953), 4.
16. AmEmb Warsaw T-791 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Cleveland Symphony Orchestra/12–756, NA.
17. Annette Weiner, Inalienable Possessions: The Paradox of Keeping-While-Giving (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 6. See also Marcel Mauss, The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies, trans. W.D. Halls (1923–24; London: Routledge, 2001); and, on reciprocity, The Gift: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, ed. Aafke Komter (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1996), part 1.
18. The foregoing discussion draws on Danielle Fosler-Lussier, “American Cultural Diplomacy and the Mediation of Avant-Garde Music,” in Sound Commitments: Avant-Garde Music and the Sixties, ed. Robert Adlington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 232–53, esp. 240–44.
19. AmEmb Tokyo T-1577 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Boston Symphony Orchestra/11–1859, NA.
20. AmEmb Tokyo Airgram C-127 to Robert H. Thayer, DOS, CDF55–59 032/8–2659, NA. See also the embassy’s more extensive report on the Little Orchestra Society’s visit to Japan, AmEmb Tokyo D-261 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Little Orchestra Society/8–2159, NA.
21. AmEmb Tokyo T-3301 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Cliburn, Van/6–1658. The State Department acknowledged that Japan was a key target for both Soviet and U.S. cultural diplomacy efforts; see R. Allan Lightner, Acting Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs, letter to Amb. Douglas MacArthur Jr., CDF55–59 032/3–959; and DOS Instruction A-449 to AmEmb Tokyo, CDF55–59 032/4–2059, NA.
22. AmEmb Tokyo T-163 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 New York City Ballet/7–2056, NA. See also AmEmb Tokyo D-998 to DOS and USIA, “President’s Program Inadequate to Compete with Communist Cultural Offensive in Japan,” CDF55–59 032/3–659, NA.
23. AmEmb Addis Ababa T-992 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Florida Agriculture and Mechanical University Players/5–1358, NA.
24. See Emily Abrams Ansari, “‘A Serious and Delicate Mission’: American Orchestras, American Composers, and Cold War Diplomacy in Europe,” in Crosscurrents: American and European Music in Interaction, 1900–2000, ed. Felix Meyer, Carol J. Oja, Wolfgang Rathert, and Anne C. Shreffler (Basel: Paul Sacher Stiftung, 2014): 287–98; and D. Kern Holoman, Charles Munch (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 146–54. Jonathan Rosenberg chronicles the New York Philharmonic’s tours in Latin America and the USSR in 1958 and 1959 in “Leonard Bernstein: An Idealist Abroad,” in Leonard Bernstein: American Original, ed. Burton Bernstein and Barbara B. Haws (New York: Collins, 2008), 117–34.
25. AmEmb Lima D-335 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/12–1059, NA.
26. AmEmb Baghdad D-295 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra/11–856, NA.
27. USIS Baghdad D-52 to USIA Washington, CDF55–59 032 Steber, Eleanor/2–2557, NA.
28. AmConGen Lahore D-15 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra/9–2757, NA.
29. AmEmb Rio de Janeiro D-542 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/11–2559, NA.
30. DOS Instruction A-91 to AmEmb Buenos Aires, CDF55–59 032 National Symphony Orchestra/10–258, NA.
31. Arthur Hoffman, Director of ACC Fukuoka, “The Fukuoka Programs of the American Trio,” encl. in USIS Tokyo D-55 to USIA, CDF55–59 032 American Trio/10–1955, NA.
32. USIS Lisbon D-89 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/8–2459, NA.
33. See, e.g., translation from Tokyo Shimbun, 28 March 1957, encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-343 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Steber, Eleanor/9–2057; USIS Vienna D-183 to USIA and DOS, CDF55–59 032 Cleveland Symphony Orchestra/6–1757; USIS Bonn A-62 to USIA Washington, CDF55–59 032 New York Philharmonic Orchestra/10–3059; Translation of article by Björn Johansson in Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning, 9 October 1959, encl. in AmCon Göteborg D-100 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 New York Philharmonic Orchestra/10–1959; AmEmb Rome D-1922 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Robert Shaw Chorale/5–1656; AmEmb The Hague D-731 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 New York Philharmonic Orchestra/3–3160, NA.
34. Much of the material in this section was originally published in Fosler-Lussier, “American Cultural Diplomacy and the Mediation of Avant-Garde Music,” 232–44.
35. Leo Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War: A New Look at USIA’s “Premises for Propaganda,” rev. ed. (Washington: American University Press, 1995), 30.
36. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 8 February 1955, p. 4, ARK II b100 f1.
37. Music Advisory Panel member Virgil Thomson supported the tour. See Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1998), 53–58.
38. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 14 September 1960, p. 4, ARK II b100 f4.
39. See my Music Divided: Bartók’s Legacy in Cold War Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 89–93.
40. Gunther Schuller to John Calhoun, U.S. Mission Berlin, [February] 1966, 1–2, ARK IV (Special Programs) b147 f50.
41. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 21 February 1967, p. 10, ARK II b99 f20.
42. Guy Coriden to Thomas Huff, 19 April 1967, ARK IV b147 f50.
43. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967. A Report to the Congress and the Public by the Advisory Committee on the Arts, with an added section on athletic programs, DOS Publication 8365 (1968), 45–46.
44. “Music from America,” clipping encl. in George D. Henry to Charles Ellison, 7 October 1966, ARK II b81 f21. On American experimental music in Europe see Amy Beal, New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany from the Zero Hour to Reunification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
45. See Fosler-Lussier, Music Divided, xv, 149–56; and Peter Schmelz, Such Freedom, If Only Musical: Unofficial Soviet Music during the Thaw (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
46. Memorandum of conversation, Walter Levin, La Salle Quartet, Ralph Jones, and James A. Duran Jr., DOS, 8 April 1963, SN63, EDX32 Cultural Exchange Program, RG 59, NA.
47. William Sydeman, “Report on Tour of Eastern Europe,” ARK IV b148 f5. Emily Abrams Ansari has explored the strategic interests of American composers in cultural presentations. See Emily Abrams Ansari, “‘Masters of the President’s Music’: Cold War Composers and the United States Government”; and Emily Abrams Ansari, “Shaping the Policies of Cold War Musical Diplomacy: An Epistemic Community of American Composers,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 41–52. For a list of scores Sydeman brought to Europe, see Fosler-Lussier, “American Cultural Diplomacy and the Mediation of Avant-Garde Music,” 238.
48. Translated excerpt in AmEmb Budapest A-88 to DOS, 25 June 1969, CUL13–1 HUNG, SN67–69, RG 59, NA.
49. Nikolais’s programs in Budapest included Tent, Imago, and Somniloquy. See selections on The World of Alwin Nikolais (New York: Nikolais/Louis Foundation for Dance and Video D Studios, 1996), DVD.
50. Jane Taylor, interview by the author, 20 January 2011.
51. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Dorian Woodwind Quintet, May-June 1970, ARK II b97 f4.
52. Sometimes recipients perceived tours as a waste of resources in the face of dire economic need. See Warner Lawson to Roy Larsen and the Advisory Committee on the Arts, “Report of Tour to Africa, Bonn, and Frankfort [sic], Germany and Luxembourg,” p. 3, ARK II b94 f14; and Evaluation Report, Cozy Cole, ARK II b96 f12.
53. AmEmb Taipei A-66 to DOS, 15 April 1976, ARK II b59 f15. On controversies about American modern dance in Korea, see Myung Hye Chun, “The United States Government’s Cultural Presentations Program in Korea from 1955 to 1992” (M.A. thesis, American University, 1993), 52–62.
54. AmEmb Mexico A-1325 to DOS, 4 September 1968, ARK II b59 f23.
55. AmEmb Lima A-179 to DOS, 5 August 1974, ARK II b61 f2.
56. “Staff Study on Embassies’ Reactions, Suggestions and Comments on Effectiveness of Various Categories and Aspects of Cultural Presentations,” pp. 5, 6, ARK II b94 f14.
57. See Bogart, Cool Words, Cold War, 51–59.
58. R. Allan Lightner to Amb. MacArthur, Tokyo, CDF55–59 032/3–959; and DOS Instruction A-449 to AmEmb Tokyo, CDF55–59 032/4–2059, NA.
59. James Magdanz, “Recent Developments in the Cultural Presentations Program,” A-19. In Transcript, Third Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 7 October 1958, box 158, CU/ACS: Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
60. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 17 December 1958, p. 4, ARK II b100 f2. See also AmEmb Phnom Penh D-367 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/4–659, NA.
61. Jack Metcalfe, “Washington Word,” New York Standard, 15 March 1963.
62. AmEmb Rabat A-261 to DOS, 9 November 1962, ARK II b59 f13 (emphasis in original).
63. Mabel Smythe to Lucius Battle, 23 June 1963, folder ACS 7, box 15, Subject Files 1948–65, U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Entry A1–5460, RG 59, NA.
64. Larsen and Wolfe, Report of Survey, summary in International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 85.
65. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 17 December 1958, pp. 4–5, ARK II b100 f2.
66. Dorothy Kilgallen, “Vaudeville Isn’t Dead,” clipping enclosed in Congressman James Delaney (D-NY) to Alfred Boerner, Director, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, DOS, CDF60–63 032 Adams, Joey/1–2662, NA.
67. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 50–51, 57.
68. The mixed program strategy was used to entertain and educate members of the U.S. military during World War II. See Annegret Fauser, Sounds of War: Music in the United States during World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 42–51, 85–89.
69. Cultural Presentations USA 1967–1968, DOS Publication 8438 (1969), 15.
70. Evaluation Report, Claremont Quartet, ARK II b96 f13; “Chamber Music Is a Hit in Africa,” NYT, 11 May 1964. See also Appendix 1.2: “Programs of the Claremont Quartet, 1965 Latin American Tour,” http://musicdiplomacy.org.
71. Jay Walz, “Claremont Group Cheered in U.A.R.,” NYT, 4 March 1964.
72. John Sinclair, “Good Music, Free—but No Audience,” Herald (Melbourne), 8 September 1969, ARK II b73 f19. For the contents of these mixed programs see Fosler-Lussier, “American Cultural Diplomacy and the Mediation of Avant-Garde Music,” 242.
73. Frederick J. Barcroft, PAO, AmEmb Lima A-205 to DOS, 29 September 1965, ARK II b96 f14.
74. Study materials for commission report, Part IV: Views of government officials on the State Department’s educational and cultural programs. Study Materials, Secretariat to the Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, 1962–63, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Entry A1–5458, RG 59, NA.
75. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 24 July 1963, p. 8, ARK II b99 f19.
76. See, e.g., Paul Konye, African Art Music: Political, Social, and Cultural Factors behind Its Development and Practice in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2007); Bode Omojola, Nigerian Art Music (Ibadan: Institut français de recherche en Afrique, 1995).
77. Taylor, interview; see also International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 34–35.
78. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 34.
79. Ibid., 36.
80. Marc Gottlieb, interview by the author, 23 January 2012.
81. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 36.
82. DOS CA-9202 to Buenos Aires, Guatemala, La Paz, Lima, Mexico, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, 8 March 1965, ARK II b59 f2. See also International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 38.
83. “Chamber Music Is a Hit in Africa,” NYT, 11 May 1964.
84. Gottlieb, interview.
85. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 36.
86. Charles Frankel, “The Era of Educational and Cultural Relations,” Department of State Bulletin 54 (6 June 1966): 895.
87. DOS, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, “Paper for the Advisory Committee on the Arts on the Fiscal Year 1964 Cultural Presentations Program Planning for Africa,” ARK II b94 f14.
88. AmCon Chiengmai [Chiang Mai] D-14 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/3–2059, NA.
89. AmEmb Rio de Janeiro D-542 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/11–2559, NA.
90. AmEmb Tokyo D-1459 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/6–1559, NA.
91. AmEmb Saigon D-385 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/5–2559, NA.
92. Ibid.
93. See Frauke Hess, “Verstehen: Ein musikpädagogischer Mythos” (Understanding: A Myth of Music Education), in Musikpädagogik als Aufgabe: Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Siegmund Helms, ed. Matthias Kruse and Reinhard Schneider (Kassel: Bosse, 2003), 119–35; and Jerrold Levinson, Music in the Moment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), esp. 174–75.
94. “Symphony Orchestras in the Cultural Presentations Program,” p. 3, ARK II b94 f11.
95. Peter van Ham, Social Power in International Politics (New York: Routledge, 2010), 8, 49.
96. Joseph Nye Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 193–95; Joseph Nye Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), 46–55.
97. Van Ham, Social Power, 33, 46–59, esp. 52.
98. Edward Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy,” 37.
99. Van Ham, Social Power, 8.
1. See Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,” International Organization 52, no. 4 (1998): 887–917; and Karen Johnson-Cartee and Gary Copeland, Strategic Political Communication: Rethinking Social Influence, Persuasion, and Propaganda (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 4, cited in Geoffrey Allen Pigman, Contemporary Diplomacy: Representation and Communication in a Globalized World (Cambridge: Polity, 2010), 123.
2. On the distinction between the American Specialists program and the Cultural Presentations program see Glenn Wolfe to Members of the Advisory Committee of the Arts, Music Panel, Dance Panel, Academic Panel, and Ad Hoc Drama Panel, memorandum, 9 August 1963, Edwin Hughes Collection, University of South Carolina Music Library, http://digital.tcl.sc.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/ehc/id/72/rec/1; and Glenn Wolfe and John Pressly Kennedy to Lucius D. Battle, memorandum, 9 May 1963, Edwin Hughes Collection, University of South Carolina Music Library, http://digital.tcl.sc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/ehc/id/1603/rec/4.
3. “New Music from the West,” translation from Das neue Österreich, 10 April 1954, William Remsen Strickland Collection, box 3, folder 4 (hereafter cited in the form WSC b3 f4), Music Division, Library of Congress.
4. Warren D’Oyly-Rhind to Giichi Imai of Asahi Shimbun, Tokyo, 2 September 1956, and D’Oyly-Rhind to Riichi Tanaka, Asahi Broadcasting Corporation, Tokyo, WSC b3 f17; and Getta Strok to Noboru Yoshida, General Director of ABC Symphony, 16 September 1957, WSC b3 f15.
5. Noboru Yoshida, Tokyo, to Warren D’Oyly-Rhind [between 2 September and 22 September 1956], WSC b3 f17.
6. See correspondence in WSC b3 f14.
7. “Ilban Kongyŏndo Sŏnghwang, Sŭ Ssi Myŏng Ch’ihwi e Kammyŏng, Hammi Ch’insŏn Yŏnjuhoe” (The concert for a general audience was a great success too—Deeply impressed by Strickland’s excellent conducting—Korean-American friendship concert), Sǒul Sinmun (Seoul newspaper), 31 March 1958, clipping; and “Hammi Ch’insŏn Yŏnjuhoe Taesŏnghwang, Noryŏnhan Ch’ihwi Wa, Nangman ŭi Sŏnnyul e Toch’wi” (The concert for a general audience, a great success. Mr. Strickland’s skilled conducting—the audience was enraptured by elegant and romantic melody), Sǒul Sinmun, 30 March 1958, clipping, both in WSC b5 f3. My thanks to Hye-jung Park for translating these items.
8. Strickland, “Chronology: A Report and Plea for Aid,” WSC b4 f8.
9. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 5–9.
10. Strickland, penciled notes, WSC b4 f8.
11. AmEmb Saigon D-250 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–3159, NA.
12. AmEmb Saigon to AmEmb Tokyo, n.d. [January 1959?], WSC b3 f14.
13. Strickland, “Final Report: Continuing My Last Report of 20 April 1965, a Description of Further Activities,” WSC b6 f10.
14. H.E. Pringsheim, “New Symphony Orchestra Is Organized in Tokyo,” Asahi Evening News, 8 January 1960; Edmund C. Wilkes, “Auspicious Debut of Imperial Philharmonic,” both clippings in WSC b4 f4.
15. ACC Fukuoka to USIS Tokyo, USIS field memorandum, 26 February 1959, WSC b3 f14.
16. Strickland to Douglas Moore, draft letter, 13 May 1958, WSC b3 f15.
17. On the Ditson Fund see Elizabeth Davis and Bob George, “A Force for American Music: The Alice M. Ditson Fund and the ARChive of Contemporary Music,” unpublished paper presented at the Columbia University Department of Music, fall 2009. My thanks to Ms. Davis for sharing the paper. On CRI see Allan Kozinn, “Composers Recordings Inc., Surprising Survivor,” High Fidelity 29, no. 9 (1979): 79–83.
18. These are the works marked with asterisks in Appendices 2.1 (“Recordings of William Strickland Conducting Japanese Orchestras”) and 2.2 (“Recordings by Akeo Watanabe and the Japan Philharmonic Released on CRI”) at http://musicdiplomacy.org. All appendices are available there.
19. Japan Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra Broadcasting Schedule, WSC b4 f3.
20. Hirokazu Suzano, n.t., Ongaku Shinku, 4 April 1959, translated clipping, WSC b4 f4.
21. “Vital Performance: 111th Regular Concert of Kansai Symphony Orchestra,” translation from Osaka Press, 25 January 1959, WSC b4 f5.
22. Strickland to George Allen, Director, USIA, 16 June 1959, WSC b3 f14.
23. Thea Dispeker to Strickland, 6 April 1960, WSC b3 f15. See also Keiji Okuda to Strickland, 1 February 1960, WSC b3 f15.
24. J. Matsukawa, “Envies Tradition-Free Japanese,” Mainichi, 23 February 1959, WSC b4 f4. See also Appendix 2.2: “Recordings by Akeo Watanabe,” http://musicdiplomacy.org.
25. Penciled speech on Shinzo Kusakari to William Strickland, 30 September 1959, WSC b3 f15.
26. Press release, Japan Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra, n.d., WSC b4 f2.
27. Marcel Grilli, n.t., Ongakuno Tomo, n.d. [October 1959], WSC b4 f4. See also Grilli, “A New Musical Promise,” WSC b4 f4.
28. Edmund C. Wilkes, “Auspicious Debut of Imperial Philharmonic,” WSC b4 f4.
29. Yoshio Nomura, “Religious Music,” in Music—East and West, Report on 1961 Tokyo East-West Music Encounter Conference (Executive Committee for 1961 East-West Music Encounter, Tokyo, 1961), 28.
30. Strickland, “Chronology: A Report and Plea for Aid,” WSC b4 f8.
31. Strickland, penciled note, WSC b4 f8.
32. Strickland, “Tractors before Symphonies,” WSC b20 f3.
33. Strickland to Jack James, Asia Foundation, 29 October 1959, WSC b5 f1.
34. Ibid.
35. This perspective is congruent with an economic theory developed in the 1950s by David McClelland, who identified cultural factors (“values,” “motivation”) as keys to development. See David McClelland et al., The Achievement Motive (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953).
36. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), 7, 78–81; Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 13.
37. Americanizing the American Orchestra: Report of the National Task Force for the American Orchestra: An Initiative for Change (Washington, DC: American Symphony Orchestra League, 1993).
38. Carmita Carrion, “The Manila Symphony Society: 1926–1958,” Philippine Studies 6, no. 1 (1958): 18.
39. For biographical information see Trinidad M. Gomez, “Trinidad Fernandez-Legarda,” in Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding Filipino Women of the Past and the Present, ed. Jovita Varias de Guzman et. al. (n.p., 1967): 167–71.
40. Rodolfo Cornejo to Strickland, 13 October 1958, WSC b4 f9; V.P. Joven, “Young Visayan Pianist to Debut with Visiting Conductor, MSO,” Manila Times Daily Magazine, 1 November 1958, WSC b4 f11.
41. Strickland, handwritten notes for speech in Bacolod, WSC b4 f13.
42. Trinidad Legarda to Strickland, 11 April 1958, WSC b4 f9.
43. Correspondence, WSC b4 f9.
44. AmEmb Manila D-460 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–659, NA.
45. “The ‘Good Samaritan’ for P.I. Musicians,” Daily Mirror, 3 January 1959, WSC b4 f11.
46. Morli Dharam, “Views and Reviews,” Manila Times, 10 March 1958, WSC b4 f12.
47. Rosalinda Orosa, “Man with a Messianic Complex,” Manila Chronicle, 6 March 1958, WSC b4 f11.
48. Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 29–32, 171–208; Mary Talusan, “Music, Race, and Imperialism: The Philippine Constabulary Band at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair,” Philippine Studies 52, no. 4 (2004): 499–526.
49. Kramer, The Blood of Government, 32 and 198–208.
50. Strickland, “Report from the Orient: Japan, the Philippines, Korea,” Musical Courier 157 (June 1958): 12–13; “PCS Presents Premiere Feb 22,” Philippines Herald, 19 January 1959, WSC b4 f12. Some of the sheet music for this concert was provided to the choir by USIS, including an arrangement of Tom Scott’s “The Creation” and a series entitled “War Portraits” with movements by Cecil Effinger (“Fanfare on Chow Call”), Robert Ward (“Hush’d Be the Camps Today”), and Homer Keller (“The Raider”). Also on the program were Nicanor Abelardo’s “Mutya ng Pasig,” Polovtsian Dance no. 17 from Alexander Borodin’s Prince Igor, Franz Abt’s “Laughing Song,” and excerpts from Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana.
51. Julian Go, American Empire and the Politics of Meaning (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 4.
52. Kathy Sternberg to Strickland, 14 April 1958, WSC b4 f9.
53. Grace San Agustin to Strickland, 31 March 1958, WSC b4 f9.
54. Rosario Valdés, President of the Manila Symphony Society, to Strickland, 2 January 1959, WSC b4 f9.
55. Rosalinda Orosa, “A Shining Example of Phil-American Unity,” Manila Chronicle, 4 November 1958, cited in AmEmb Manila D-460 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–659, NA.
56. Morli Dharam, “Happy Return,” Manila Times, 3 November 1958, cited in AmEmb Manila D-460 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–659, NA.
57. Morli Dharam, “Views and Reviews,” Manila Times, 4 December 1958, WSC b4 f11.
58. Strickland, “Chronology: A Report and Plea for Aid,” WSC b4 f8.
59. Strickland to Legarda, draft letter, 1 May 1958, WSC b4 f9; Liwanag Cruz to Strickland, 23 March 1958, WSC b4 f9; Legarda to Strickland, 27 June 1958, WSC b4 f9; Legarda to Strickland, 24 March 1959, WSC b5 f5.
60. William Morris, Chief CAO, AmEmb Manila, to Strickland, 12 March 1958, WSC b4 f9.
61. Nick Cullather, Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States–Philippines Relations, 1942–1960 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 154, 160, 172–80.
62. “Korea-American Goodwill Concert Successful,” translation from Sǒul Sinmun, 31 March 1958, WSC b5 f3.
63. “Plans for Phil-American Concert Series,” WSC b4 f9.
64. Herbert Zipper to Strickland, 14 March 1966, WSC b4 f9.
65. Manila Symphony Orchestra website, www.manilasymphony.com/the-orchestra/mso-ii/.
66. Cullather, Illusions of Influence, 152.
67. U.S. government support for Strickland’s visit to Saigon was part of a sweeping program of development aid to Vietnam during this period. See James M. Carter, Inventing Vietnam: The United States and State Building, 1954–1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 84–105.
68. Le journal d’Extrême-Orient, 24 January 1959, translation encl. in AmEmb Saigon D-250 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–3159, NA.
69. “The Times of Viet Nam Interviews Mr. W. Strickland, Musical Director of the Oratorio Society N.Y.C.,” Times of Viet Nam, WSC b5 f7.
70. AmEmb Saigon D-250 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Strickland, William Remsen/1–3159, NA.
71. Tran Van Khe, “Problems of Sino-Japanese Musical Tradition Today,” in Music—East and West, Report on 1961 Tokyo East-West Music Encounter Conference (Tokyo: Executive Committee for 1961 East-West Music Encounter, 1961), 57.
72. Paul Jones, “Orient Goes Symphonic,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 7 July 1959, WSC b5 f7.
73. Legarda to Strickland, 24 March 1959, WSC b5 f5; Nguyeễn Van Huan to Legarda, 14 May 1959, WSC b5 f5.
74. Legarda to Strickland, 28 July 1960, WSC b5 f5.
75. Robert Burton, Assistant CAO, AmEmb Saigon, to Strickland, 8 November 1959, WSC b5 f5.
76. “William Strickland Conducts Open Air Concert at V.A.A.,” Vietnam presse édition en anglais, 13 July 1959, WSC b5 f7.
77. Strickland, “Chronology: A Report and Plea for Aid,” WSC b4 f8.
78. John D. Montgomery to Strickland, 7 September 1967, WSC b5 f5.
79. In the autumn of 2011, for example, German conductor Jonas Alber, Russian violinist Sergei Sivolgin, Korean pianist Cho Eun Young, Korean soprano Cho Hae Ryong, and Italian and Belgian ballet dancers Francesca Imoda and Samuel Lefeuvre were featured as soloists, as were Vietnamese soloists drawn from the orchestra. See http://en.baomoi.com/Info/Beethoven-Mozart-concerts-in-Hanoi-and-HCMC/11/149737.epi; and http://en.baomoi.com/Info/City-orchestra-all-set-for-autumn-concerts/11/169587.epi.
80. Hải Linh to Strickland, 28 September 1961, WSC b5 f5; and Nguyeễn Xuân-Thảo, “Hải-Linh and His Music,” http://hailinhquehuong.com/hai-linh-and-his-music_a22–20.
81. Lawrence Carlson, AmEmb Reykjavík, to Strickland, 18 September 1962, WSC b5 f9.
82. Strickland to Carlson, 11 June 1963, WSC b5 f9.
83. On Cowell and the American Specialists program see ARK IV b143 f56.
84. Thorkell Sigurbjörnsson, “Music,” translation from Visir, 12 October 1962, 5, WSC b5 f11; and “A Symphony Concert,” translation from Timinn, 14 October 1962, 5, WSC b5 f11.
85. Strickland to Carlson, 11 June 1963, WSC b5 f9.
86. Árni Kristjánsson to Strickland, 16 December 1963, WSC b5 f9. Kristjánsson also visited the United States under a Leader grant from the State Department.
87. Carlson to Strickland, 13 February 1963, WSC b5 f9.
88. Strickland to Carlson, 11 June 1963, WSC b5 f9.
89. Carlson to Amb. James K. Penfield, 12 March 1963, WSC b5 f9.
90. Strickland, penciled note on Iceland, WSC b5 f12.
91. Glenn Wolfe to Bela Zempleny, 27 November 1963, ARK IV b147 f86. Buketoff was born in Connecticut of Russian parentage.
92. Schuller was likely funded by a Specialist grant. See Shirley Gornitzky to Bela Zempleny, 7 January 1964, ARK IV b147 f50.
93. Educational and Cultural Diplomacy, 1964, DOS Publication 7979 (1965), 46.
94. For a list of Strickland’s Scandinavian recording projects see Appendix 2.3: “Strickland’s Scandinavian Recordings for CRI,” http://musicdiplomacy.org.
95. Seppo Nummi, “Finnish Music-Cities: Lahti Elected Ives,” translation from Uusi Suomi, 8 November 1964, WSC b6 f3.
96. Strickland, “Report on Trip to Stockholm, Göteborg, Copenhagen, Warsaw, Cracow,” 22 May 1964, WSC b6 f5. See also Daryl Dayton, “Charles Ives in the USIA,” Student Musicologists at Minnesota 6 (1975): 87–94.
97. Strickland to Bela Zempleny, 15 October 1963, ARK IV b147 f86.
98. David Hall, President of CRI, to Sven Wilson, STIM Stockholm, 5 March 1963; and Strickland, “Report on 60 Days of Grant in Finland, 1965,” WSC b6 f5.
99. “Philharmonic Society’s Orchestra Records Music for the United States in the Great Hall of the University,” translation from Aftenposten (Oslo), 16 April 1962, WSC b7 f8.
100. Strickland, “Report on 60 Days of Grant in Finland, 1965,” WSC b6 f5 (emphasis in original).
101. Strickland, “An Interim Report [on 100 days in Finland],” 20 May 1964, WSC b6 f5.
102. Strickland, “Final Report [Finland],” 6 February 1965, WSC b6 f5.
103. Paavo Rautio to Strickland, 7 April 1964, WSC b6 f1.
104. Translated clipping from Kansan Tahto (Communist paper, Oulu), 6 November 1964, WSC b6 f4.
105. Translated clipping from Liitto (agrarian paper, Oulu), 6 November 1964, WSC b6 f4.
106. “USA Conductor in Pori,” Hufvudstadsbladet (conservative paper, Helsinki), 20 January 1965, translated clipping, WSC b6 f4.
107. “American Conductor in Pori,” translation from Satakunnan Työ (Communist paper, Pori), 26 January 1965, WSC b6 f4.
108. “The Symphony Concert a Brilliant Success,” translation from Björneborgs Tidning (Pori), WSC b6 f4.
109. Strickland, “Report on Trip to Stockholm, Göteborg, Copenhagen, Warsaw, Cracow,” 22 May 1964, WSC b6 f5.
110. Elliott Carter, “Letter from Europe,” Perspectives of New Music 1, no. 2 (1963): 195–205.
111. On this book see David Paul, “From American Ethnographer to Cold War Icon: Charles Ives through the Eyes of Henry and Sidney Cowell,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 59, no. 2 (2006): 439–51.
112. Strickland, “An Interim Report [Poland],” 20 April 1965, WSC b6 f10.
113. Strickland, “Final Report: Continuing My Last Report of 20 April 1965, a Description of Further Activities,” WSC b6 f10.
114. Ibid.
115. See Appendix 2.4: “American Works Recorded by the Polish National Radio Orchestra with Polish Conductors and Orchestras,” and Appendix 2.5: “Recordings by the Polish National Radio Orchestra, Strickland Conducting,” both at http://musicdiplomacy.org.
116. Strickland, penciled note on attendance list for a reception, 15 April [1964], WSC b6 f10.
117. Stanisław Lutkiewicz, Ars Polona, to Strickland, 6 May 1967, WSC b6 f6.
118. Lutkiewicz to Bart Stephens, cultural attaché, AmEmb Warsaw, 16 September 1965, WSC b6 f6.
119. Carter, “Letter from Europe,” 203. Strickland also gave the Kraków Trio scores by David Diamond and Vincent Persichetti, as well as access to other scores from the USIS library in Warsaw.
120. Strickland, “Final Report: Continuing My Last Report of 20 April 1965, a Description of Further Activities,” WSC b6 f10.
121. On the Warsaw Autumn Festival as a site of engagement with the West see Lisa Jakelski, “Górecki’s Scontri and Avant-Garde Music in Cold War Poland,” Journal of Musicology 26, no. 2 (2009): 205–39; and Jakelski, “The Changing Seasons of the Warsaw Autumn: Contemporary Music in Poland, 1960–1990” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2009).
122. Cindy Bylander, “Charles Ives and Poland’s Stalowa Wola Festival: Inspirations and Legacies,” Polish Review 59, no. 2 (2014): 43–60. Adrian Thomas also mentions the importance of Ives in the MMMM movement in his Polish Music since Szymanowski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 290.
123. Krzysztof Droba to Cindy Bylander, personal communication, November 2013. My thanks to Dr. Bylander for sharing this information.
124. Strickland, “Report on Two Polish Concerts—September and November 1965,” WSC b6 f10.
125. Guy Coriden, DOS, to Strickland, 11 December 1970 and 19 January 1971, WSC b6 f6.
126. See esp. Michael Latham, ed., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003).
127. See John Degnbol-Martinussen and Poul Engberg-Pedersen, Aid: Understanding International Development Cooperation, trans. Marie Bille (London: Zed, 2003), 239–40, 244, 265; and Clark C. Gibson, Krister Andersson, Elinor Ostrom, and Sujai Shivakumar, The Samaritan’s Dilemma: The Political Economy of Development Aid (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 3–5.
128. The American conductor Joel Eric Suben, who studied in Poland as a Fulbright scholar in the 1970s, has since the 1990s recorded extensively with the Polish National Radio Orchestra and the Slovak State Radio Orchestra.
129. Remarks of Chester Bowles, Official Minutes, Twelfth Meeting of the ACA, 28 February–1 March 1961, p. 12, folder ACA Doc. 26, box 157, CU/ACS Records of the U.S. Advisory Committee on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
130. Johnson-Cartee and Copeland, Strategic Political Communication, 4.
1. Foundational accounts of this dynamic include Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Paul Gordon Lauren, “Seen from the Outside: The International Perspective on America’s Dilemma,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 21–43; Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); and Jonathan Rosenberg, How Far the Promised Land? World Affairs and the American Civil Rights Movement from the First World War to Vietnam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 156–213. See also Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 147–48, 211–13, 234–36; Lisa Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2009); Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004); and Laura Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 159–77.
2. Executive Session, First Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, 16 January 1958, p. B-24, box 158, CU/ACS Records of the United States Advisory Commission on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA.
3. Gwynne Kuhner Brown, “A Dubious Triumph: Porgy and Bess as Propaganda, 1952–1956,” unpublished paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Musicological Society, Seattle, November 2004. My thanks to Dr. Brown for sharing this paper.
4. Christian Herter, DOS Instruction CA-265, “Cultural Presentations: President’s Program: Program Guide,” CDF55–59 032/7–959, NA. On music panelists’ resistance to jazz see Emily Abrams Ansari, “Shaping the Policies of Cold War Musical Diplomacy: An Epistemic Community of American Composers,” Diplomatic History 36, no. 1 (2012): 44–45.
5. My thanks to Richard Crawford for this formulation. Richard Crawford, interview by the author, 10 April 2006.
6. Progress Report on Activities of the OCB Cultural Presentation Committee, 13 July 1956, OCB 007 (file #3) (9), box 16, OCB central files, Eisenhower Presidential Library, cited in Kenneth A. Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 226.
7. AmEmb Phnom Penh D-367 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/4–659, NA.
8. AmEmb Athens D-1019 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/6–456, NA.
9. AmEmb/USIS Tokyo D-730 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Dance Jubilee/12–3158, NA. For a history of jazz subcultures in Japan see E. Taylor Atkins, Blue Nippon: Authenticating Jazz in Japan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
10. U.S. News and World Report, April 1957, clipping, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/4–2357, NA. See also clippings about this tour in box 24 folder 2, box 12 folder 7, and box 20 folder 24, Marshall Winslow Stearns Collection (MC 030), Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University Libraries (hereafter MSC). For context on salary and Gillespie’s tour see Ingrid Monson, Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 111–28.
11. “Jazz Goes to College,” Picture Week, 13 March 1956, 62, clipping, folder “Universities, Jazz in,” Subject Clipping Collection, Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University Libraries (hereafter IJS). On Stearns’s contribution to the historiography of jazz see John Gennari, Blowin’ Hot and Cool: Jazz and Its Critics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 144–55.
12. “John S. Wilson, Jazz Critic, Is Dead at 89,” NYT, 28 August 2002. See also radio programs, folder “Wilson, John S.,” Name Clipping Collection, IJS.
13. Ronald Radano, New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton’s Cultural Critique (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 14–16; see also Gennari, Blowin’ Hot and Cool, 207–15.
14. John S. Wilson, “Weston Is Heard in Jazz Program,” NYT, 14 March 1964.
15. Robert Schnitzer, ANTA, to Marshall Stearns, 30 January 1956, b12 f2, MSC.
16. Handwritten program, b20 f22, MSC.
17. “History of Jazz Big Feature of Gillespie Overseas Tour,” Down Beat, 2 May 1956, 9, clipping, b12 f7, MSC.
18. Building Bridges between Nations . . . through the Performing Arts. A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1965–June 30, 1966, DOS Publication 8254 (1967), 21.
19. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967: A Report to the Congress and the Public by the Advisory Committee on the Arts, with an Added Section on Athletic Programs, DOS Publication 8365 (1968), 36.
20. AmEmb New Delhi D-1512 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Brubeck, David Jazz Band/6–658, NA.
21. “Cozy Cole to Stress Rhythm on Trip Abroad,” Chicago Daily Defender, 9 October 1962.
22. Scott DeVeaux, “Constructing the Jazz Tradition: Jazz Historiography,” Black American Literature Forum 25, no. 3 (1991): 543–44.
23. Marshall Stearns to Glenn Wolfe, 5 March 1963, b10 f29, MSC.
24. Martin Williams, “The Rediscovery of Earl Hines,” Saturday Review, 26 June 1965, 59, clipping, file “Hines, Earl,” Name Clipping Collection, IJS.
25. Robert Palmer, “From Africa—Where His Roots Are: Weston, Jazz, and Africa,” NYT, 7 January 1973.
26. Randy Weston with Willard Jenkins, African Rhythms: The Autobiography of Randy Weston (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 115.
27. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, Sub-committee on Jazz, 12 May 1967, pp. 3–4, ARK II b98 f26.
28. Minutes, Academic/Community Music Advisory Panel, 18 April 1966, p. 2, ARK II b98 f26. Bruce Fisher, interview by the author, 18 July 2006; Lanny Austin, interview by the author, 12 June 2006; Crawford, interview.
29. AmEmb Phnom Penh D-367 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/4–659, NA.
30. Stearns to Glenn Wolfe, 5 March 1963, b10 f29, MSC.
31. AmEmb Ankara D-593 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/6–156, NA.
32. AmConGen Dacca D-230 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/4–1356, NA.
33. “From School to Dipoli,” translation from Uusi Suomi, encl. in AmEmb Helsinki A-98 to DOS, 7 March 1969, ARK II b81 f22.
34. Translation from Hufvudstadsbladet, encl. in AmEmb Helsinki A-98 to DOS, 7 March 1969, ARK II b81 f22.
35. AmEmb Tokyo D-1267 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Teagarden, Jack Sextet/5–759, NA.
36. AmEmb Manila D-537 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Teagarden, Jack/2–359, NA.
37. Nestor Gheorghiu, “The Jazz Orchestra of Illinois University,” translation from Munca, encl. in AmEmb Bucharest A-481 to DOS, 5 November 1968, ARK II b81 f23.
38. AmEmb Ankara D-593 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/6–156, NA.
39. DeVeaux, “Constructing the Jazz Tradition,” 545.
40. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 165–66.
41. Laurence Bergreen, Louis Armstrong: An Extravagant Life (New York: Broadway Books, 1997), 463.
42. J.A. Rogers, “Jazz at Home,” in The New Negro, ed. Alain Locke (1925; repr. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 223. Rogers’s account emphasizes the modernity of jazz, calling it “a joyous revolt from convention” (217).
43. “Jazz Memo to Charlie Palmer,” Joe Barry, Paris bureau chief, to Charles Palmer, Sunday Department, New York Times, 22 January 1951, folder “Jazz Abroad,” Subject Clipping Collection, IJS.
44. Uta Poiger, Jazz, Rock, and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
45. “Memo on Jazz for Magazine” to [Charles] Palmer, 24 January [1951], folder “Jazz Abroad,” Subject Clipping Collection, IJS.
46. Peter J. Martin, “Spontaneity and Organization,” in The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, ed. Mervyn Cooke and David Horn (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002): 133–35.
47. Stearns, quoted in a press release for a 1951 radio show, “Jazz Goes to College,” b9 f8, MSC.
48. Ibid. On the lectures abroad see AmEmb Beirut D-500 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/5–1856, NA.
49. Dave Brubeck, “Jazz Perspective,” Perspectives USA 15 (Spring 1956): 21–29, cited in Stephen A. Crist, “Jazz as Democracy? Dave Brubeck and Cold War Politics,” Journal of Musicology 26, no. 2 (2009): 159.
50. George E. Pitts, “Some Russians Dug Goodman, Some Didn’t,” Pittsburgh Courier, 16 June 1962.
51. AmEmb Bangui A-039 to DOS, 16 April 1969, ARK II b72 f20.
52. William J. Maxwell, “Ralph Ellison and the Constitution of Jazzocracy,” Journal of Popular Music Studies 16, no. 1 (2004): 46.
53. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 24 July 1963, p. 8, ARK II b99 f19.
54. Paul Hofmann, “Satchmo Plays for Congo’s Cats,” NYT, 29 October 1960.
55. AmEmb Leopoldville T-1084 to DOS, 2 November 1960, CDF60–63 032 Armstrong, Louis Band [11–260], NA.
56. Max Kaminsky with V.E. Hughes, My Life in Jazz (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 219.
57. Stearns, tour notebook, b20 f22, MSC.
58. AmEmb Quito D-51 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/7–2656, NA.
59. See Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), 115–19; Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 13–17; S. Frederick Starr, Red and Hot: The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union, 1917–1980 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 243–46; and Terence Ripmaster, Willis Conover: Broadcasting Jazz to the World (New York: iUniverse, 2007).
60. Lanny Austin, interview by the author, 12 June 2006. Joe Mallare also commented on the deep knowledge of Latin American jazz enthusiasts. Mallare, interview by the author, 14 June 2006. See Fosler-Lussier, “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization: The University of Michigan Jazz Band in Latin America,” Journal of the Society for American Music 4, no. 1 (2010): 70–73.
61. AmEmb Moscow A-370 to DOS, 6 September 1966, ARK II b66 f14.
62. Ibid.
63. “Visit of Wilbur de Paris Jazz Orchestra,” AmConGen Leopoldville D-230 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 De Paris, Wilbur/4–2657; and AmEmb Khartoum D-288 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 De Paris, Wilbur/5–257, NA.
64. Stearns, penciled notes “Dizzy Liner,” b20 f1, MSC.
65. “Gillespie’s Band a Hit in Beirut,” NYT, 30 April 1956, clipping, folder Gillespie Tour-1956, box 3, MSC.
66. Translation of Paulo Fernando Cravairo, “Meeting Ground,” Jornal do Comercio, Recife, Brazil, 30 June 1970, ARK II b71 f9.
67. Bruce Fisher, “University of Michigan Jazz Band Tours Latin America,” report, June 1965. Personal papers of Bruce Fisher. McGregor, Crawford, Austin, Post, and Fisher, interviews.
68. Typescript liner notes, “Dizzy in Greece—Volume II,” b20 f1, MSC.
69. Tom Jenkins, interview by the author, 2 September 2008.
70. “Cultural Presentations: Evaluation of University of Illinois Jazz Band Performances in Finland,” AmEmb Helsinki A-52 to DOS, 7 February 1969, ARK II b81 f22.
71. “Ellington Orchestra Leaves after Thrilling Visit,” Deccan Chronicle (Hyderabad), 3 October 1963, clipping, folder “1962–63,” file “Ellington, Duke,” Name Clipping Collection, IJS. On this tour see Harvey Cohen, Duke Ellington’s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 424–41.
72. “Ellington Orchestra Leaves after Thrilling Visit,” Deccan Chronicle (Hyderabad), 3 October 1963, clipping, folder “1962–63,” file “Ellington, Duke,” Name Clipping Collection, IJS; and http://bluerhythm.wordpress.com/2011/08/28/video-clip-from-the-film-an-ellington-story-without-the-duke/. Nance was sent home because of his erratic behavior; the escort officer presumed he was using drugs. Thomas W. Simons Jr. to Glenn Wolfe, 17 September 1963, ARK II b61 f5.
73. AmEmb New Delhi D-1512 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Brubeck, David Jazz Band/6–658, NA.
74. Jack Teagarden Sextet, Concert at Brabourne Stadium, sound recording, 7 October 1958. Library of Congress, Recorded Sound Reference Center, LC control no. 2007654855LCCN.
75. [Thomas W. Simons Jr.], untitled report on Duke Ellington Tour, p. 17, ARK II b61 f5. See also Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 13.
76. AmEmb Ankara D-593 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/6–156, NA; and Stearns, “Dizzy Gillespie—World Statesman,” folder Gillespie Liner–Norman Granz, box 3, MSC.
77. Kaminsky, My Life in Jazz, 219–20.
78. See, e.g., Ingrid Monson, “The Problem with White Hipness: Race, Gender, and Cultural Conceptions in Jazz Historical Discourse,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 48, no. 3 (1995): 396–422; and Paul Lopes, “Pierre Bourdieu’s Fields of Cultural Production: A Case Study of Modern Jazz,” in Pierre Bourdieu: Fieldwork in Culture, ed. Nicholas Brown and Imre Szeman (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000): 165–85.
79. AmConGen Casablanca D-174 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 De Paris, Wilbur/5–2957, NA.
80. AmConGen Dacca D-230 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/4–1356, NA.
81. John Miller, interview by the author, 11 June 2006.
82. AmConGen Bombay D-449 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Teagarden, Jack Sextet/2–459, NA.
83. Harilaos Stecopoulos, “The World Elsewhere: U.S. Propaganda and the Cultural Politics of Race and Nation, 1945–1968” (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 1999), 9–10.
84. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 24, 151, 255.
85. William Warfield with Alton Miller, My Music and My Life (Champaign, IL: Sagamore, 1991), 163–66.
86. AmEmb Lisbon A-258 to DOS, 26 November 1975, ARK II b58 f10.
87. AmConGen Dacca D-230 to DOS, 13 April 1956, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/4–1356, NA.
88. Stecopoulos acknowledges that Gillespie’s actions were not likely received by people abroad as rebellious (“The World Elsewhere,” 127).
89. Marsha Siefert, “From Cold War to Wary Peace: American Culture in the USSR and Russia,” in The Americanization of Europe: Culture, Diplomacy, and Anti-Americanism after 1945, ed. Alexander Stephan (New York: Berghahn, 2005), 185–217, 192.
90. AmEmb Addis Ababa D-240 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 De Paris, Wilbur/5–2057, NA.
91. Ralph J. Gleason, “Jazz Is What the Whole World Wants,” San Francisco Chronicle, 27 January 1957, clipping, b12 f7, MSC.
92. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 44–45.
93. AmEmb Moscow A-51 to DOS, 12 January 1970, ARK II b81 f25.
94. Ibid.
95. George Avakian, a producer at Columbia Records, explained in 1957 that the spread in appreciation for jazz was the result of a worthy compromise. George Avakian, “Louis Armstrong,” in The Jazz Makers, ed. Nat Shapiro and Nat Hentoff (New York: Grove, 1957), 57.
96. Stecopoulos, “The World Elsewhere,” 128.
97. Robert C. Hill to Representative Walt Horan (R-WA), CDF55–59 032 De Paris, Wilbur/3–1957, NA.
98. Robert C. Hill to Senator John Marshall Butler, 29 April 1957, CDF55–59 032 Gillespie, Dizzy/4–1757, NA.
99. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 13 November 1957, p. 5, ARK II b100 f3.
100. William “Billy” Taylor, “Jazz: America’s Classical Music,” in “Black American Music Symposium, 1985,” special issue, Black Perspective in Music 14, no. 1 (1986): 21–25.
101. Robert Sylvester, “Dream Street: Ah, Culture, Culture!” New York Daily News, 8 September 1958; Paul Lopes, The Rise of a Jazz Art World: Jazz Enthusiasts, Professional Musicians, and the Modernist Revolt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 163–73. See also comments of Iola Brubeck cited in Penny Von Eschen, “The Real Ambassadors,” in Uptown Conversation: The New Jazz Studies, ed. Robert O’Meally, Brent Hayes Edwards, and Farah Jasmine Griffin (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 189–90.
102. Don DeMicheal, “The Year in Review,” Down Beat Music ’67 (yearbook), 10; Don DeMicheal, “Jazz in Government,” Down Beat, 17 January 1963, 15–17, 45, cont. in Down Beat, 31 January 1963, 19–20; “State Department Alters Program Affecting Jazz,” Down Beat, 14 February 1963, 15.
103. Dan Morgenstern, “1968: The Year That Was,” Down Beat Music ’69 (yearbook), 11–15.
104. Joseph Kuhn Carey, Big Noise from Notre Dame: A History of the Collegiate Jazz Festival (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986), 45; Harry Allen Feldman, “Jazz: A Place in Music Education?” Music Educators Journal 50, no. 6 (1964): 60, 62–64; Wayne Scott, “Jazz Goes to College,” Music Journal 20, no. 6 (1962): 28, 98–100; William T. McDaniel, “The Status of Jazz Education in the 1990s: A Historical Commentary,” International Jazz Archives Journal 1, no. 1 (1993): 114–39; Alice Goldfarb Marquis, “Jazz Goes to College: Has Academic Status Served the Art?” Popular Music and Society 22, no. 2 (1998): 117–24; Richard Kleinfeldt, interview by the author, 20 August 2008; Alma Schueler, interview by the author, 16 December 2008; and David Morrow, interview by the author, 27 July 2008. See also Fosler-Lussier, “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization,” 68.
105. Dizzy Gillespie with Ralph Ginzburg, “Jazz Is Too Good for Americans,” Esquire, June 1957, 55. See also “Gillespie’s Bop Scores in Greece,” Chicago Daily Defender, 16 May 1956.
106. African American newspapers likewise expressed approval of the State Department’s support for jazz, with feature articles on most tours and editorials praising the Cultural Presentations program. The Chicago Defender even praised the integrationist, color-blind approach of white-led bands such as Benny Goodman’s ensemble and the Paul Winter sextet. “U.S. to Use Jazz in Cold War,” Chicago Defender, 26 November 1955; Bob Hunter, “Rate Jazz U.S.’s Best Export,” Chicago Daily Defender, 17 April 1963.
107. Dizzy Gillespie with Al Fraser, To Be, or Not . . . to Bop: Memoirs (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979), 414. Cited in Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 34.
108. Ben Keppel, The Work of Democracy: Ralph Bunche, Kenneth B. Clark, Lorraine Hansberry, and the Cultural Politics of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 27. See also Gerald Early, “Understanding Integration,” Civilization 3, no. 5 (1996): 51–59.
109. W.E.B. DuBois, “American Negroes and Africa’s Rise to Freedom,” in The World and Africa, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 217–18. See Keppel, The Work of Democracy, 234, 237. For another trenchant critique of jazz musicians’ service to the U.S. government see Frank Kofsky, “Black Music: Cold War ‘Secret Weapon,’” in Frank Kofsky, Black Nationalism and the Revolution in Music (New York: Pathfinder, 1970), 109–21.
110. Gillespie, To Be, or Not . . . to Bop, 434.
111. See Taylor, “Jazz: America’s Classical Music,” 21–25; Jon Pareles, “Don’t Call Jazz America’s Classical Music,” NYT, 28 February 1999. For the Weston quotation see Robin D.G. Kelley, Africa Speaks, America Answers: Modern Jazz in Revolutionary Times (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 76.
112. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 65.
113. See Andre Craddock, Wynton Marsalis, and James Lincoln Collier, “Jazz People,” Transition 65 (1995): 140–78; and Frederick Spencer, “The Debate That Never Was,” IAJRC Journal 37–38, no. 3–4 (2005): 41–43.
114. Herman Gray, Cultural Moves: African Americans and the Politics of Representation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 32–51; Kabir Sehgal, Jazzocracy (Mishawaka, IN: Better World Books, 2008); William Maxwell, “Ralph Ellison and the Constitution of Jazzocracy,” 40–57; Congressional Resolution, 23 September 1987, repr. in Keeping Time: Readings in Jazz History, ed. Robert Walser (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 332–33; Iain Anderson, This Is Our Music: Free Jazz, the Sixties, and American Culture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), esp. 1–48.
115. See Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 29.
1. Ralph Engelman, Friendlyvision: Fred Friendly and the Rise and Fall of Television Journalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 133.
2. The half-hour segment about Armstrong aired as part of “Two American Originals,” See It Now, season 5, episode 3, 12 December 1955. The hour-long program about Anderson was entitled “The Lady from Philadelphia,” See It Now, season 7, episode 4, 30 December 1957.
3. Melinda Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy: The U.S. Information Agency’s Portrayal of American Race Relations, 1953–1976” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004), 167. On the changing roles of African Americans on network television in this period see Thomas Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 70–80; and Herman Gray, Watching Race: Television and the Struggle for Blackness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 74–77.
4. Felix Belair Jr., “United States Has Secret Sonic Weapon—Jazz,” NYT, 6 November 1955. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 9–12; Terry Teachout, Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), 311–12.
5. “They Cross Iron Curtain to Hear American Jazz,” U.S. News and World Report, 2 December 1955, 54–62.
6. Fred Reynolds, “Platter Chatter,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 1 June 1953 and 4 June 1955; John S. Wilson, “Jazz Moves into Microgroove Age,” NYT, 21 November 1954.
7. George Avakian, liner notes to Ambassador Satch, Columbia CL840, 1956; Ricky Riccardi, What a Wonderful World: The Magic of Louis Armstrong’s Later Years (New York: Pantheon, 2011), 116, 118–19. According to Riccardi (122–32), Avakian also arranged the filming of Armstrong for See It Now and the later feature film, though it was Murrow’s idea to send Armstrong to Africa. Gary Giddins notes that Armstrong’s identity as “ambassador” was “manufactured”; see Gary Giddins, Satchmo (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 159. CBS, the network for which See It Now was filmed, also owned Columbia Records, so the episode of See It Now and the LP would have served as mutual advertisements. A soundtrack to Satchmo the Great was also issued on LP.
8. Murrow and Friendly, “Two American Originals.” Armstrong tells similar anecdotes in response to similar questions in an interview with Joe Jeru [June 1956], Louis Armstrong House Museum (hereafter LAHM), 1987.3.14, track 8.
9. Armstrong, interview with Al Collins [1957], LAHM 1987.3.294, track 14. See also “Russian Cats Dig Satchmo,” Washington Post and Times Herald, 11 July 1956. For Dave Brubeck’s version of the Berlin story see Jack Heaney, “Jazzman Says He’d Like to Play Moscow,” Brownsville (TX) Herald, 3 April 1955.
10. Jack Gould, “TV: American Originals: Grandma Moses, Louis Armstrong Featured,” NYT, 14 December 1955.
11. Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl, “Mass Communication and Para-social Interaction: Observations on Intimacy at a Distance,” Psychiatry 19 (1956): 215, cited in David Morley and Kevin Robins, Spaces of Identity: Global Media, Electronic Landscapes and Cultural Boundaries (London: Routledge, 1995), 130.
12. A.M. Sperber, Murrow: His Life and Times (New York: Fordham University Press, 1998), 29–30, 40–44.
13. Lawrence Sheldon Rudner, “The Heart and the Eye: Edward R. Murrow as Broadcast Journalist, 1938–1960” (PhD diss., Michigan State University, 1977), 187.
14. Murray R. Yaeger, “An Analysis of Edward R. Murrow’s ‘See It Now’ Television Program” (PhD diss., State University of Iowa, 1956), 84.
15. Rudner, “The Heart and the Eye,” 190, 195–96, 207.
16. Robert Raymond, Black Star in the Wind (London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1960), 215.
17. John S. Wilson, “American Jazzmen Overseas,” NYT, 14 July 1957. See also “100,000 in Africa Cheer ‘Satchmo,’” NYT, 24 May 1956.
18. Raymond, Black Star in the Wind, 217–18, 236–41; Murrow and Friendly, “Two American Originals.”
19. Raymond, Black Star in the Wind, 227–32.
20. “Bonus at Jazz Concert: Philharmonic Joins Armstrong at Stadium on Saturday,” NYT, 9 July 1956; John S. Wilson, “Music: Jazz Is Tested at Stadium: Armstrong and Brubeck Draw Sellout Crowd,” NYT, 16 July 1956; “Louis Armstrong Storms Stadium,” NYT, 15 July 1956; Michael Meckna, “Louis Armstrong in the Movies, 1931–1969,” Popular Music and Society 29, no. 3 (2006): 366.
21. Armstrong, radio interview [1957], Oneonta, New York, LAHM, 1987.3.56, track 8.
22. Cecil Smith, “Marian Anderson Goodwill Journey to Be Shown,” Los Angeles Times, 29 December 1957; “College to Honor Armstrong,” NYT, 13 April 1958.
23. “‘Ambassador’ Satchmo,” Washington Post and Times Herald, 2 July 1957.
24. Daniel Stein, Music Is My Life: Louis Armstrong, Autobiography, and American Jazz (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012), esp. 12–13, 26–27, 109–10, 135, 247–48.
25. For accounts of the events in Little Rock see Catherine M. Lewis and J. Richard Lewis, eds., Race, Politics, and Memory: A Documentary History of the Little Rock School Crisis (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007); David A. Nichols, A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), 167–213; and Elizabeth Jacoway, Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis That Shocked the Nation (New York: Free Press, 2007).
26. See Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006): 143–83. It has been estimated that 66 percent of American households owned television sets by 1955, and 87 percent by 1960; see Lawrence Lichty and Malachi C. Topping, American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television (New York: Hastings House, 1975), 522. Rates of adoption differed by region, with people in the South and Southwest lagging behind other areas of the country in obtaining television sets, and rural people less likely to own sets than urban people. Leo Bogart, The Age of Television, 2nd ed. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1958), 10, 15, 17.
27. “‘Satchmo’ Tells Off Ike, US! Armstrong Blasts Bias in America,” Pittsburgh Courier, 28 September 1957; “Louis Armstrong, Barring Soviet Tour, Denounces Eisenhower and Gov. Faubus,” NYT, 19 September 1957.
28. See “Satchmo Mad; Blisters Ike in School Fight,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 19 September 1957; “Armstrong May Tour: U.S. Hopes He’ll Visit Soviet Despite Segregation Issue,” NYT, 20 September 1957; W.H. Lawrence, “Eisenhower ‘Disappointed’ by Impasse at Little Rock,” NYT, 20 September 1957; “Satchmo Is a Great Trumpet Player,” editorial, Chicago Daily Tribune, 21 September 1957; “Domestic,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 September 1957; Donald J. Gonzales, “Satchmo Asked to Reconsider Refusal of Iron Curtain Tour,” Washington Post, 20 September 1957; “Station Discards Satchmo Music in Mississippi,” Washington Post, 22 September 1957; “Musician Backs Move: Armstrong Lauds Eisenhower for Little Rock Action,” NYT, 26 September 1957; “Satchmo Wires Ike, ‘Take Me Along, Daddy,’ to School,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 26 September 1957; “Russian Trip for Satchmo Is On Again,” Washington Post, 26 September 1957; Leonard Feather, “Satchmo Blitzes Governor Faubus,” Melody Maker, 28 September 1957; Drew Pearson, “‘Satchmo’ Stand Helped Steel Ike,” Washington Post, 7 October 1957; “Armstrong Asked to Play in Arkansas,” Washington Post, 15 October 1957; “Satch Speaks Twice,” Down Beat, 31 October 1957; Drew Pearson, “Ike to Carry On ‘Like a Soldier,’” Washington Post, 14 December 1957. See also Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy, 62–66.
29. “Eartha, Lena Agree with ‘Satchmo,’” Pittsburgh Courier, 28 September 1957; “Entertainers Join Satchmo in Blast at U.S.,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 20 September 1957.
30. “Satchmo Missed a Point, Sammy Davis Jr. States,” Baltimore Afro-American, 12 October 1957; Lee Belser, “Cole Disagrees with Satch Blast of Ike and Ark. Gov.,” Chicago Defender, 28 September 1957; “Sammy Davis Tells View on Eisenhower,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 22 September 1957. See also Sasha Torres, Black, White, and in Color: Television and Black Civil Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 22.
31. Charles E. Larson, 54th District Republican Assemblyman of Los Angeles County, rejected Armstrong on racist grounds, as well as because of the insult to Eisenhower: Larson to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong, Louis/9–2357, NA. See also Representative George Grant (D-AL) to John Foster Dulles, 24 September 1957, ibid./9–2457; Mrs. H.G. Stuart, Orlando, Florida, to Dulles, ibid./9–3057; Mrs. Sarah E. Williams, San Diego, CA, to DOS, 12 October 1957, ibid./10–1257, NA. For citizens’ negative reactions to other jazz tours see Davenport, Jazz Diplomacy, 46–47.
32. Mrs. Hannah Jones, Salisbury, MD, to Dulles, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong, Louis/11–457, NA.
33. “Satchmo Not Man for Job,” editorial, Miami Herald, 9 October 1957. See also Edwin Kane to Assistant Secretary of State Walter S. Robertson, 20 September 1957: “His remarks about the President make him unfit to speak outside of the United States.” CDF55–59 032 Armstrong, Louis/9–2057, NA.
34. G.C. von Riestenberg, quoted in Senator Lister Hill (D-AL), to Assistant Secretary of State John S. Hoghland II, 26 September 1957, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong, Louis/9–2657. See also postcard, Richard Ziegler to DOS, ibid./9–2257, NA.
35. Donald Bogle characterizes Armstrong’s public persona as a “stepchild” of Stepin Fetchit. See Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films, 4th ed. (New York: Continuum, 2002), 71, 75–77. See also Stein, Music Is My Life, 145–82.
36. See Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), chap. 3.
37. See CDF55–59 032 Armstrong, passim, NA; and Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 15 November 1955 and 12 June 1956, ARK II b100 f1.
38. “Satchmo Will Make Reds ‘Dig’ the Blues,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 7 November 1955; “Satchmo Longs to Warm Cool Moscow Cats,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 31 December 1955. Cf. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 58–91. The idea that the Soviet tour was actually offered to Armstrong is propagated widely in scholarly writing: see, e.g., Brian Harker, review of Thomas Brothers, Louis Armstrong in His Own Words, Notes 57, no. 4 (2001): 913; Joshua Berrett, ed., The Louis Armstrong Companion: Eight Decades of Commentary (New York: Schirmer Books, 1999), 186; and Teachout, Pops, 312.
39. “‘Cats’ Talk Same Language,” Arkansas Democrat, 4 March 1961, clipping in Armstrong, scrapbook, LAHM 1987.8.39.
40. “Eartha, Lena Agree with ‘Satchmo,’” Pittsburgh Courier, 28 September 1957.
41. AmEmb Saigon D-130 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson/10–1657, NA.
42. AmEmb Taipei D-213 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson/10–1557, NA.
43. “Satchmo Lauds Ike for Rockin’ L.R.: Vows He Won’t Toot Horn ‘Down Yonder,’” Chicago Defender, 19 October 1957.
44. CBS Television, “The Lady from Philadelphia: Through Asia with Marian Anderson,” See It Now script, p. 16, folder 7650 (hereafter f7650), box 136, Marian Anderson Papers (hereafter MAP) II.B., Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books, and Manuscripts, University of Pennsylvania.
45. Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy,” 169.
46. Mary Dudziak identifies this story about race as an important Cold War narrative. See Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 13. See also Michael Krenn, Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–1969 (London: M.E. Sharpe, 1999), 39–43.
47. Murrow’s crew had insisted on including a similar scene, set in a classroom of children, in filming Satchmo the Great. See Raymond, Black Star in the Wind, 218. Murrow had previously used the classroom scenario in an episode about the desegregation of southern schools; see “A Study of Two Cities,” season 3, episode 36, which aired 25 May 1954.
48. Murrow and Friendly, “The Lady from Philadelphia,” 1957.
49. Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy,” 72–73, 136.
50. Belmonte, Selling the American Way, 165–66.
51. Script, “Marian Anderson,” folder Marian Anderson (#108), Movie Scripts, 1942–1965, Entry A1–1098, RG 306, NA.
52. Murrow and Friendly, “The Lady from Philadelphia,” 1957.
53. Lillian Gould, Floral Park, Long Island, NY, 31 December 1957, to See It Now and CBS, f7434, box 127, MAP I.C.3. All fan mail cited below is from box 127, MAP I.C.3.
54. Yvonne Porter, Loudonville, NY, to Murrow, n.d., f7441.
55. Vesta Slogel, Topeka, IN, to CBS, 2 January 1958, f7443; Kate B. Carrico, Granite City, IL, to CBS, 30 January 1958, f7430; Mrs. Richard E. Peters, Richmond, IN, to Murrow, 4 January 1958, f7441; Mrs. John D. Owen, Jefferson, IA, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7441; Mrs. E.C. Palm, Darwin, MN, to Murrow, n.d., f7441; Mr. and Mrs. Walter Duvall, West Chester, IA, to WMT-TV, Cedar Rapids, IA, 31 December 1957, f7431.
56. The music of the documentary included “Home” (sung with the Eighth Army Choir, conducted by a Korean civilian); “He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands”; “Getting to Know You” (sung by a chorus of Vietnamese children to welcome Anderson); “Trampin’,” “Comin’ through the Rye,” Schubert’s “Serenade” and “Ave Maria,” “Go Down, Moses” (in a Vietnamese church); “There’s No Hidin’ Place Down There,” “I Open My Mouth” (a few phrases); “Negaraku,” the new Malayan national anthem; “You’ve Got to Be Carefully Taught” from South Pacific; a brief excerpt of Indian traditional music; Saint-Saëns, “Mon cœur s’ouvre à ta voix” from Samson and Delilah, accompanied by the newly formed Bombay City Orchestra; “Lead Kindly Light” (at Gandhi’s grave); and Brahms, “Der Schmied” (over the final credits, with the Bombay City Orchestra).
57. Julia Morris, n.p., to KWX-TV, St. Louis, MO, 15 January 1958, f7439.
58. Indeed, many Korean commentators noted Anderson’s “spiritual superiority” as well. “Hwanghol Kyŏnggŏn ŭi Toch’wikyŏng: Marian Aendŏsŭn Tokch’anghoe” (The state of euphoria of ecstasy and piety: Marian Anderson vocal recital) and “Sasŏl: Aendŏsŭn Yŏsa Naehan e Jŭŭm Hayŏ” (Editorial: On the occasion of Ms. Anderson’s performance in Korea), clippings, Anderson Scrapbook 11, box 427, MAP IX.I.2. My thanks to Hye-jung Park for translations.
59. Margery Ware, Bethesda, MD, to Murrow, 15 January 1958, f7445.
60. Emma V. McFarland, Rutherfordton, NC, to Murrow, 9 January 1958, f7439.
61. Mrs. Chester Lott, Pascagoula, MS, to Murrow, 7 January 1958, f7449; Alfred M. Powers, Augusta, GA, to Murrow and CBS, 3 January 1958, f7449; Leslie E. Pease, Appleton, WI, to Murrow, 4 January 1958, f7449; Frances Frese, Tampa, FL, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7449.
62. Louis H. Bean, Arlington, VA, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7429; and Margery Beavers, Winston-Salem, NC, to Murrow, 7 January 1958, f7429.
63. Steven F. Lawson emphasizes the gender as well as class implications of this role in his Civil Rights Crossroads: Nation, Community, and the Black Freedom Struggle (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2003), 273. Herman Gray points out that “good taste” could also be a way of domesticating black identity for consumption by whites; see Gray, Watching Race, 76.
64. “The Television Code of the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters,” in Television’s Impact on American Culture, ed. William Y. Elliott (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1956), 328. Cited in Alan Nadel, Television in Black-and-White America: Race and National Identity (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 34. The code also claimed “excellence and good taste” as obligations of the television broadcaster.
65. Mary Louise Hinton, Kansas City, MO, to Murrow, n.d., f7435.
66. Shirley Fairley, Long Beach, MI, to Murrow, 20 March 1958, f7433.
67. Janie Stacy Gwynn, Chapel Hill, NC, to Murrow, 5 January 1958, f7434.
68. Elizabeth Cushman, Long Beach, CA, to Murrow, 2 January 1958, f7430; Lura Street Jackson, Washington, DC, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7436; Gladys Lawler, Kansas City, MO, to Murrow, 27 January 1958, f7438; Mr. and Mrs. Sam Lichtenstein, Detroit, MI, to Murrow, [30 December 1957], f7438; Herbert K. Palmer, Everett, WA, to Murrow c/o KTNT-TV, Tacoma, WA, 30 December 1957, f7441.
69. Elizabeth Pattullo, Cambridge, MA, to “Gentlemen” [CBS], 30 December 1957, f7441.
70. Andy Razaf, n.p., to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7442.
71. Peter Renner, Philadelphia, PA, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7442.
72. Mrs. Wallace K. Reese, Winchester, KY, to Murrow and CBS, 30 December 1957, f7442.
73. Anna D. Anderson to Marian Anderson, 11 October 1957, f237, box 5, MAP I.A.
74. Edwin R. Croft, Evanston, IL, to Murrow, 5 January 1958, f7430.
75. Carol Denison, Old Greenwich, CT, to CBS, 31 December 1957, f7431; see also Jane R. Keating, New York, NY, to Murrow, 30 December 1957, f7437.
76. Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; see also Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 93–95.
77. Gladys Kinney, San José, CA, to Program Director, KPIX, San Francisco, 1 January 1958, f7437; Mary D. Moakler, n.p., to Murrow, 30 December 1957, f7439; Betty Johnson, Minneapolis, MN, to WCCO-TV, Minneapolis, 7 January 1958, f7436.
78. Eugene P. Foley, Wabasha, MN, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7433.
79. Ida Hood, Gainesville, TX, to Murrow, 30 December 1957, f7435; Mrs. Bailey Femling, Auburn, CA, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7433; Harriet Trilling Schwartz, Scarsdale, NY, to Murrow, 4 January 1958, f7443.
80. Ivy Madden, New York, NY, to See It Now, 30 December 1957, f7439.
81. Daniel G. McCook, Lafayette, LA, to Murrow, 31 December 1957, f7439. Bunche was a distinguished African American intellectual who worked in the State Department and the United Nations; he collaborated closely with the NAACP and was a famous advocate for civil rights.
82. Mrs. Raymond Hoxing, Pittsburgh, PA, to Murrow, 28 January 1958, f7435; Mr. and Mrs. Sam Lichtenstein, Detroit, MI, to Murrow, [30 December 1957], f7438.
83. AmEmb Buenos Aires D-724 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/11–2157, NA.
84. AmEmb Montevideo D-569 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/12–1257; AmEmb Caracas D-524 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/1–2058, NA.
85. “Satchmo, in S.A., Sounds Off Again on Race Problem,” clipping encl. in Hannah Jones, Salisbury, MD, to Dulles, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/11–457, NA.
86. “They Cross Iron Curtain to Hear American Jazz,” 54; and Leonard Ingalls, “Armstrong Horn Wins Nairobi, Too,” NYT, 7 November 1960. See also “Satchmo Describes His Tour,” clipping, scrapbook, LAHM 1987.8.39.
87. AmConGen Singapore D-319 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson/1–1458, NA.
88. Harold Weston to Lucius D. Battle, 17 January 1963, folder 4, box 9, subseries 7, series 3, Edwin Hughes Collection, University of South Carolina Music Library, http://digital.tcl.sc.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/ehc/id/1931/rec/72.
89. John S. Wilson, “Music: Jazz Is Tested at Stadium,” NYT, 16 July 1956. See also John S. Wilson, “Jazz: Fusion at Newport,” NYT, 7 July 1956, where he quotes similar remarks by George Wein; and [John S. Wilson], “Louis Armstrong Heard in Concert,” NYT, 23 November 1956.
90. The anti-Communist New York Journal American published an editorial supporting Armstrong’s ambassadorship: “Good Will Asset,” 27 December 1960. See also Charles Hersch, “Poisoning Their Coffee: Louis Armstrong and Civil Rights,” Polity 34, no. 3 (2002): 371–92.
91. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 71.
92. DOS T-208 to AmEmb Caracas, 14 October 1957, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/10–1057, NA; AmEmb Caracas T-260 to DOS, 10 October 1957, ibid.
93. AmEmb London T-5059 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/5–356; and DOS Instruction A-178 to AmEmb Rio de Janeiro, 20 December 1957, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/12–557, NA.
94. Ralph J. Gleason, “Perspectives,” Down Beat, 6 February 1958, 33.
95. Dave Brubeck wrote a musical theater piece called “The Real Ambassadors” that satirized musical diplomacy. See Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 260, 58–91. This usage has become widespread: see, e.g., Nate Chinen, “The Real Ambassadors,” Jazz Times 35, no. 4 (2005): 30.
96. Carol Anderson has criticized narratives that too quickly dismiss black intellectuals who worked within the system. See Carol Anderson, “The Histories of African Americans’ Anti-colonialism in the Cold War,” in The Cold War in the Third World, ed. Robert McMahon (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 178–87. My thanks to Dr. Anderson for sharing the paper before its publication.
97. Torres, Black, White, and in Color, 3.
98. Terry Teachout, “The Soul of Marian Anderson,” Commentary 109, no. 4 (2000): 56.
99. Gray, Watching Race, 76. For an alternative and illuminating reading of black performers’ assimilation see Gerald Early, “Sammy Davis Jr., Establishment Rebel,” in This Is Where I Came In: Black America in the 1960s (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 36–66.
100. Giddins, Satchmo, 165.
101. See Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy,” esp. chap. 4.
102. Telegram no. TOUSI 106 to U.S. Information Agency from Manila, 20 September 1957, cited in Schwenk-Borrell, “Selling Democracy,” 149–50.
103. Quoted in AmEmb Manila D-502 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson/12–657, NA.
104. AmEmb Montevideo D-569 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Armstrong/12–1257, NA.
105. Toni Morrison, “The Site of Memory,” in Inventing the Truth: The Art and Craft of Memoir, ed. William Zinsser (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 109–10. The personal writings of Anderson and Armstrong, like the writings Morrison describes, are rarely straightforward in conveying political opinions.
106. Marian Anderson to Sol Hurok, draft letter, f6739, box 108, MAP I.B.
107. “Armstrong Cites Gains: Trumpeter, in Venezuela, Sees U.S. Negroes Better Off,” NYT, 30 November 1957.
108. Murrow and Friendly, “The Lady from Philadelphia.”
109. Anderson continued to comment about race after these events. In an interview in the Ladies’ Home Journal in September 1960 she spoke frankly about her personal experiences of racism, even while continuing to voice support for the United States and its institutions. See Marian Anderson with Emily Kimbrough, “My Life in a White World,” Ladies’ Home Journal, September 1960, 160, 173–74, 176.
1. Jonathan P. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 6, 49–50. See also Dianne Kirby, “The Religious Cold War,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 540–64.
2. Andrew Preston, “Peripheral Visions: American Mainline Protestants and the Global Cold War,” Cold War History 13, no. 1 (2013): 109–30.
3. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex, 126.
4. Ibid., 6, 98. From the early 1950s Secretary of State John Foster Dulles articulated a plan for demonstrating U.S. intellectual and spiritual superiority. See Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles: Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in U.S. Foreign Policy (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1999), 40; and William Lee Miller, “The ‘Moral Force’ behind Dulles’ Diplomacy,” in Piety along the Potomac: Notes on Politics and Morals in the Fifties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964), 161–74.
5. Papers Prepared by a Working Group of the Operations Coordinating Board Assistants for the Operations Coordinating Board, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1950–1955, doc. 190; see also Report to the National Security Council by the National Security Council Planning Board, FRUS, 1952–1954, v. 8, doc. 51. Most volumes of the FRUS series are available at http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/.
6. “Policy Guide on Religious Matters Issued by U.S. Information Agency,” The Chaplain: A Journal for Protestant Chaplains 13, no. 4 (1956): 8.
7. C. Kenneth Snyder, PAO, USIS Pretoria, to Ronald Bridges, Religious Affairs Officer, USIA Washington, “Memorandum: Some Thoughts on USIA Religious-Cultural Policy,” cabinet 2, drawer C, folder 19 (hereafter 2/C/19), John Finley Williamson Collection (hereafter JFW), Westminster Choir College Archives, Talbott Library, Rider University.
8. “Explains USIA Policy on Religious Information,” press release, Baptist Press: News Service of the Southern Baptist Convention, 23 January 1959, media.sbhla.org.s3.amazonaws.com/804,23-Jan-1959.pdf. This policy was documented in Basic Guidance and Planning Paper No. 8, 1 May 1959, Subject: Religious Information Policy, File: Religious Materials, 1959, box 16, Subject Files, 1953–1967, Information Center/Bibliographic Division, Records of the United States Information Agency (RG 306), NA. My thanks to Laura Belmonte for sharing this source.
9. Evaluation Report, Robert Shaw Chorale, ARK II b96 f13.
10. Typed copy, Foreign Service Despatch from AmEmb Tokyo, 13 December [1956], JFW 2/C/3.
11. Congressman John J. Rooney (D-NY) to William Schuman, 18 July 1956, folder 3, box 2, William Schuman Papers and Records, JPB 87–33, New York Public Library.
12. AmEmb Bangkok T-1061 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/10–1556, NA.
13. The Roger Wagner Chorale, proposed for 1966, was rejected by Soviet and Eastern European officials (ARK II b96 f17); in 1974 their performances of spirituals “invariably brought down the house” in the USSR (ARK II b97 f5). The U.S. embassy in Moscow reported that Soviet audiences responded enthusiastically to the University of Michigan Chamber Choir’s rendition of spirituals (ARK II b97 f5).
14. “The Night That Moscow Listened,” New York Herald Tribune, 16 October 1962, clipping, ARK II b98 f21.
15. AmEmb Belgrade D-13 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Robert Shaw Chorale/8–156, NA.
16. AmCon Zagreb D-94 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/3–457, NA.
17. AmCon Hue D-8 to DOS, “Conditions Affecting Cultural Presentations,” CDF55–59 032/3–1659; AmCon Peshawar D-31 to DOS, “Conditions Affecting Cultural Presentations in Peshawar,” CDF55–59 032/3–459; AmEmb Rangoon T-626 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/11–756, NA.
18. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Deep River Boys, Africa, 21 May–3 July 1970, ARK II b97 f4.
19. AmEmb Rangoon D-392 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/2–359, NA.
20. Ronald Radano, Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 182–86.
21. Pura Santillan Castrence, writing in the Manila Bulletin, 2 March 1959, quoted in AmEmb Manila D-625 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/3–1059, NA.
22. AmEmb San José A-410 to DOS, “Hamline University Choir—Latin America,” 17 May 1967, ARK II b66 f2. See also Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967, DOS Publication 8365 (1968), 43.
23. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967, 44.
24. AmConGen Nairobi D-92 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Warfield, William/10–2356, NA.
25. USIS Nairobi D-30 to USIA Washington, CDF55–59 032/5–459, NA.
26. AmConGen Hong Kong D-728 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/4–359, NA.
27. AmEmb Beirut D-176 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Warfield, William/10–2556, NA.
28. AmEmb Rangoon D-948 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Warfield, William/4–3058; AmEmb Kuala Lumpur D-436 to DOS, ibid./5–658; AmConGen Lahore D-131 to DOS via AmEmb Karachi, ibid./1–2858; AmEmb Bangkok T-2499 to DOS, ibid./2–2558; AmEmb Rangoon T-671 to DOS, ibid./1–958; AmConGen Singapore D-479 to DOS, ibid./4–258, NA.
29. Bayard Rustin and Davis Platt, “First Steps in Working for Racial Justice,” p. 4, folder Race Relations/Racial-Industrial Department, 1943–1948, box 16, series E, Fellowship of Reconciliation Records, Swarthmore College Peace Collection. My thanks to Nancy Kates and Wendy Chmielewski for assistance in locating this document.
30. Luis A. Meza, review of Betty Allen, El comercio, 1968, translation in ARK II b54 f9. See also Evaluation Reports, Betty Allen, fiscal year 1964, ARK II b96 f13.
31. Bjorn Franzson, “Betty Allen,” Thjodviljinn, 19 January 1960, 2; and Bjorn Franzson, “Betty Allen Captivated Her Listeners,” Morgunbladid, 13 January 1960, 3, both translations encl. in AmEmb Reykjavík D-280 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Allen, Betty/2–360. Ryoichi Yokomizo also refers to “natural” and “in-born” traits in “Amazed at and Admired the Voice and Acting of the Golden Gate Quartet,” Tokyo Shimbun, 21 March 1959, translation encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-168 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/8–459, NA.
32. Vicente Rivera Jr., in Evening News, 13 March 1958, quoted in AmEmb Manila D-820 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Warfield, William/4–758, NA. On essentialism in Japanese reception of jazz see E. Taylor Atkins, Blue Nippon: Authenticating Jazz in Japan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 11, 19–30.
33. El mundo, 15 August 1960, quoted in AmEmb Buenos Aires D-429 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Howard University Choir/9–2760, NA.
34. AmEmb San José D-222 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Wagner, Roger Chorale/11–459, NA.
35. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, University of Maryland Singers, 20 February–24 May 1964, ARK II b97 f1.
36. Ilhan Mimaroğlu, review of Shaw Chorale in Akis, translation encl. in AmEmb Ankara D-572 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Robert Shaw Chorale/5–1556, NA.
37. “My Humble Opinion,” Manila Chronicle, 7 August 1961, cited in report on Harvard Glee Club, AmEmb Manila to DOS, 11 August 1961, ARK II b97 f11.
38. AmEmb Kuala Lumpur D-436 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Warfield, William/5–658, NA; Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Deep River Boys, Africa, 21 May–3 July 1970, ARK II b97 f4. There was precedent for the use of spirituals abroad as a vehicle for engagement: see “Talented GIs Convert Jazz-Loving German Kids to Spiritual Singers,” Chicago Defender, 29 September 1951.
39. USIS Belgrade D-106 to USIA, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/4–2457, NA.
40. Ibid.
41. AmEmb Pretoria D-23 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/7–1459, NA. The Westminster Singers were the alumni chorus of the Westminster Choir College, led by John Finley Williamson.
42. Anthony Tommasini, “Leonard De Paur Dies at 83; Lincoln Center Administrator,” NYT, 11 November 1998.
43. Building Bridges between Nations . . . through the Performing Arts. A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1965–June 30, 1966, DOS Publication 8254 (1967), 10–12.
44. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967, 38–40. Other delegates to the First World Festival of Negro Arts included Duke Ellington and Alvin Ailey. See Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 151–70.
45. Translation of “Artistic Message,” O povo (Fortaleza, Brazil), encl. in AmEmb Rio de Janeiro D-360 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Howard University Choir/10–3160, NA.
46. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 11 October 1955, ARK II b100 f1.
47. “Westminster Choir (new project),” JFW 2/C/2.
48. Ralph Lewando, “Westminster Choir Fails to Equal Past Quality,” Pittsburgh Press [1956], clipping, JFW 2/C/1.
49. Jim Arnold, “Fine Choir Turns Auditorium into Substitute for Heaven,” Sacramento Union, 26 October 1956, clipping, JFW 2/C/4.
50. Tokyo Shimbun, 10 November 1956, cited in “Westminster Choir, Japan Tour, November 7–27, 1956,” encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-309 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/9–1357, NA; “Westminster Choir Performance in Fukuoka and Shimonoseki,” ibid.
51. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 19 December 1956, ARK II b100 f1; see also Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 16 January 1957, ARK II b100 f3.
52. Mohammed A. Rauf Jr., “Music to Remember Down the Years: Westminster Choir in City,” Daily Haque (Lucknow), JFW 2/C/12; praise for these concerts is also cited in Delhi Consular District D-1196 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/4–157, NA.
53. “Report from Singapore,” encl. in AmConGen Kuala Lumpur D-286 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/5–3157, NA.
54. AmEmb Cairo D-908 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/5–2659; AmEmb Monrovia D-271 to DOS, ibid./3–259, NA.
55. See Rhea Williamson, Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour, entries for 21 and 28 November 1956, 15 and 21 January 1957, JFW 1/B/12.
56. Williamson to Joseph Satterthwaite, DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/3–1059, NA.
57. “Women around the World Discussed at Travel Club,” Invercargill Southland News, 1 March 1961, clipping, JFW 2/C/4.
58. Rhea Williamson, “Around the World with Westminster Choir,” unpaginated, JFW 2/C/3.
59. Rhea Williamson, Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour, 23 January 1957, JFW 1/B/12.
60. Ibid., entry for 23 November 1956.
61. Notes on Westminster Choir, ARK II b98 f20; DOS Instruction CA-1998 to Bombay, Calcutta, Dacca, Kabul, Lahore, Madras, Phnom Penh, Saigon, Taipei, Vientiane, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/8–3156, NA.
62. “Westminster Choir (new project),” JFW 2/C/2.
63. “The Westminster Choir, Dr. John Finley Williamson, Conductor: Press Book,” [n.d., 1957 or later], JFW 2/C/31. The two African American members of the choir that toured abroad were Clarence Moore and Afrika Hayes.
64. Williamson to Mrs. M.N. Easton, Trenton, NJ, 13 April 1956, JFW 1/D/5.
65. Williamson to Dr. John B. Bennette, Director of Religious Activities, East Carolina College, Greenville, NC, 22 March 1956, JFW 1/D/2.
66. Williamson to James N. Mellor, First Methodist Church, El Dorado, AR, 8 January 1958; and Williamson to Walter Michels, El Dorado, AR, 28 January 1958, JFW 2/A/6.
67. On Williamson’s tours in the South see the correspondence in JFW 2/A/6.
68. “Westminster Choir (new project),” JFW 2/C/2.
69. See Rhea Williamson, Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour, 14 December 1956, JFW 1/B/12.
70. Ibid., entry for 28 December 1956.
71. AmEmb Seoul D-160 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/11–1656, NA; Rhea Williamson, “Around the World with Westminster Choir,” JFW 2/C/3.
72. My thanks to Hye-jung Park for this observation. On the relationships between anti-Communist politics and Western music in Korea see Hyun Kyong Chang, “Exilic Suffering: Music, Nation, and Protestantism in Cold War South Korea,” Music and Politics 8, no. 1 (2014), http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/exilic-suffering-music-nation-and-protestantism-in-cold-war.pdf?c=mp;idno=9460447.0008.105; Ji-Young Lee (Yi Chi-Yŏng), “Han’guk Kaesin’gyo Pangongjuŭi Palchŏn Gwajŏng Yŏn’gu (1920–1950-yŏndae)” (Research on the Development of Protestant Anti-Communism in Korea: 1920s–1950s), master’s thesis, Ewha Woman’s University, 2011; and Chong-chol An (An Chong-Ch’ŏl), “Panil, Pan’gong ŭi T’odae rosŏ Kidokkyo: Han Kyŏng-ch’ik Moksa ŭi Haepang Chŏn’hu Sayŏk” (Christianity as a Foundation of Anti-Japanese and Anti-Communist Work: The Minister Kyung-Chik Han’s Ministry before and after the Liberation), paper presented at the colloquium for the eleventh-year anniversary of the death of Kyung-Chik Han (Seoul: Kyung-Chik Han Foundation, 2011), 67–79.
73. AmEmb Tehran D-753 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/2–2557, NA.
74. Williamson to Mrs. M.N. Easton, Trenton, NJ, 13 April 1956, JFW 1/D/5.
75. Typescript, “Dr. Bodo’s Prayer of Concern, Dec. 30, 1956,” JFW 2/C/3.
76. Williamson, verbal introduction to homecoming concert, “1957 World Tour Westminster Choir,” track 2, compact disc, Talbott Library, Rider University.
77. Amb. Max W. Bishop, AmEmb Bangkok, to Williamson, 4 March 1957, JFW 2/C/4; Williamson to Robert Schnitzer, ANTA, 7 June 1957, JFW 2/A/4.
78. José S. Jacinto Jr., “Commentary” [radio script], Radio DYSR, Silliman University, 3 December 1956, JFW 2/C/3.
79. Ibid.
80. See Rhea Williamson, Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour, 31 December 1956, JFW 1/B/12.
81. Rhea Williamson, “Around the World with Westminster Choir”; and K.C. Harvey, “Artistic Spice,” Hong Kong Standard, 9 December 1956, clipping, JFW 2/C/5.
82. “Westminster Choir, Japan Tour, November 7–27, 1956,” encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-309 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/9–1357, NA.
83. Typescript copy of Foreign Service Despatch from Calcutta, encl. in Floria Paci, ANTA, to Williamson, 21 March 1957, JFW 2/A/4.
84. Karl Diffenderfer, Director, U.S. Civil Service Association of the Ryukyu Islands, Civil Information and Education Department, to John M. Steeves, American Consul General, Okinawa, 29 November 1956, encl. in Richard W. Boehm, American Vice Consul, American Consular Unit, Naha, Okinawa D-30 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/1–1857, NA.
85. AmEmb Karachi D-558 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/2–2057, NA.
86. AmCon Madras D-616 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/2–557, NA.
87. Rhea Williamson, Diary, Westminster Choir World Tour, 25 November 1956, JFW 1/B/12.
88. “Westminster Choir, Japan Tour, November 7–27, 1956,” encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-309 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/9–1357, NA.
89. Ibid.; and Ross Parmenter, “The World of Music: Orient Seeks Teachers from Choir College Schools in Japan,” NYT, 14 July 1957.
90. “Church News,” Mainichi, 4 August 1958; “On Global Instruction Tour,” Mainichi, 22 August 1958; Williamson’s secretary to Edward W. Weidner, Director, Institute of Research on Overseas Programs, Michigan State University, 25 September 1957; Williamson to Robert Schnitzer, ANTA, 7 June 1957, JFW 2/A/4.
91. John Foster Dulles, War or Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1950, 1957), 224–32, cited in Marc G. Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles: From Prophet of Realism to Priest of Nationalism (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1985), 226; see also ibid., 116.
92. Dr. Nichio Kozaki, President of New Church Music Institute, speech at farewell party for the Williamsons, 11 September 1957, JFW 2/C/6.
93. Teruko Uraguchi to Williamson, n.d., JFW 2/C/7.
94. Yayonie Hirayama, quoted in Rhea Williamson [Tokyo] to “Friends,” 11 September 1963, JFW 1/A/3. See also Ichiro Saito, Nippon Christian Academy, to Williamson, 24 August 1960, JFW 2/C/22; and Ko Yuki, Chairman of Hymnal Committee, and Darley Downs, Secretary of Inter-board Field Committee for Christian Work in Japan, United Church of Christ in Japan, Tokyo, to Williamson, n.d., JFW 2/C/3.
95. Ruth Kirby, “Concert by the Music Society of H.K.,” South China Morning Post (Hong Kong), 24 October 1958, clipping, JFW 2/C/5; “‘Elijah’ to Be Presented Here Next Thursday” [Taipei], n.p., 1 October [1958], clipping, JFW 2/C/5.
96. Report: Dr. and Mrs. Williamson in the Orient, JFW 2/C/19; Rhea Williamson to “Dearest Friends,” 9 November 1960, JFW 1/A/4.
97. Rhea Williamson, Bangkok, to “Dear Friends All,” 2 January 1961, JFW 1/A/4.
98. Festival Choir of Manila, program, 6 November 1960, JFW 2/C/21.
99. Manila Concert Choir, program, 12 November 1960, JFW 2/C/21.
100. Williamson to Arthur Kamitsuka, 25 June 1960; Kamitsuka to Williamson, 26 July 1960, JFW 2/C/22.
101. Hyun Kyong Chang has written powerfully of the Korean situation in “Exilic Suffering: Music, Nation, and Protestantism in Cold War South Korea.” My thanks to Dr. Chang for sharing her article before its publication.
102. Congressman Frank Thompson Jr. (D-NJ), 85th Cong., 1st sess., Cong. Rec. 103, part 9 (15 July 1957), E11777–78; Cyril J. O’Brien, “Princeton’s Westminster Choir Is Praised,” Trentonian, 25 July 1957, clipping, JFW 2/C/4; and Williamson to Robert Schnitzer, ANTA, 7 June 1957, JFW 2/A/4.
103. William Malm, “Layers of Music in Japan since 1945,” in The Fourth Kyushu International Cultural Conference Report, 1977: 33 Years of Post-War Japan (Fukuoka: Fukuoka Yunesuko Kyokai, 1978), English section, 93–94; Tamie Komiya, “Heiwa Kenpō o Mamoru sengoshi no Naka de: Utagoe, Rōon, Hankaku Nihon no Ongakukatachi” (Surveying the peace article in Japan’s postwar Constitution: Musicians of Utagoe, Rōon, and Hankaku Nihon), Ongaku Geijutsu 53, no. 11 (1995): 44–47; Shisō Undō Kenkyu¯jo (Ideological Movement Research Institute), Osorokubeki Rōon: Goju¯man Nen Kasō Shu¯dan no Naimaku (Formidable Rōon: The story behind the masked group of five hundred thousand people) (Tokyo: Zenbōsha, 1967). Thanks to Hye-jung Park for helping me access these sources.
104. Committee for Study of Social Problems, United Church of Christ in Japan, “The Labor Movement in Japan from the Viewpoint of Christianity,” 5 January 1954, encl. in Rev. Henry D. Jones, Osaka, to Williamson, 14 November 1954, JFW 1/D/9.
105. Williamson, verbal introduction to homecoming concert, “1957 World Tour Westminster Choir,” track 2, compact disc, Talbott Library, Rider University.
106. “Westminster Choir, Japan Tour, November 7–27, 1956,” encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-309 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/9–1357, NA.
107. Typed copy, Foreign Service Despatch from AmEmb Tokyo, 13 December [1956], JFW 2/C/3.
108. AmEmb Tokyo D-309 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Choir/9–1357, NA.
109. “Report: Dr. and Mrs. Williamson in the Orient,” JFW 2/C/19; Rhea Williamson to “Friends,” Sapporo, 3 September 1960, JFW 1/A/4.
110. Williamson to Grace Spofford, Chairman, International Music Relations Department, 2 December 1957, JFW 2/C/16.
111. Williamson to Joseph Satterthwaite, DOS, CDF55–59 032 Westminster Singers/9–559, NA.
112. “Report: Dr. and Mrs. Williamson in the Orient,” JFW 2/C/19.
113. Kate Hansen to Williamson, 4 December 1955, JFW 1/D/5; Williamson to Hansen, 7 December 1955, JFW 1/D/5; and Rhea Williamson, Tokyo, to “Dear Ones All,” 8 August 1963, 2/C/21.
114. Typescript translation from The Choral World (Tokyo), August 1957, JFW 2/C/21.
1. Synopsis of meeting, Advisory Committee on the Arts, 7–8 March 1963, p. 1, ARK II b94 f11.
2. Minutes, Academic/Community Music Advisory Panel, 25 March 1963, p. 3, ARK II b98 f26.
3. Martin Ackerman to Anderson and Sorensen, “Cultural Presentations Advisory Committee Meeting March 7 and 8, 1963, Transcript of Proceedings,” memorandum, 23 April 1963, ARK II b94 f21.
4. Building Bridges between Nations . . . through the Performing Arts, DOS Publication 8254 (1967), ii.
5. Larsen and Wolfe, Report of Survey, summary in International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts, 79, 86.
6. Minutes, Subcommittee on Folk and Jazz, April 1968, “General Discussion on the Current Trend toward Folk-Rock and Electronic Music,” p. 11, ARK II b101 f3.
7. Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 16 May 1967, Report on Meeting of Subcommittee on Folk and Jazz held on 12 May 1967, p. 2, ARK II b99 f20.
8. AmEmb Cairo D-302 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/11–658, NA.
9. Translated excerpt from Swing Journal, 1959, encl. in AmEmb Tokyo D-168 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/8–459, NA.
10. Thomas D. Huff, Deputy Director, CU/CP, memorandum: ACA Monthly Bulletin no. 4, December 1967, p. 2, ARK II b95 f1.
11. Effectiveness report, Millikin University Jazz Band, ARK II b71 f7; USIS Beirut FM-24 to USIA Washington, 12 May 1969, “Packaged Program: Today’s Music,” ibid.; USIS Ankara M-73 to USIA Washington, 19 June 1969, Subject: Packaged Program: “Today’s Music,” ibid. The USIA sent the six-film set Jazz Casual and On the Road with Duke Ellington as part of the exhibit. It also recommended several films that had been sent to posts within the past year: American Music: From Folk to Jazz and Pop, The Cradle Is Rocking, and Jazz at Berklee. USIA Circular CA-734, “Packaged Program ‘Today’s Music’: Field Programming Notes,” 1 April 1969, ARK II b71 f7. The Cradle Is Rocking is available online at www.folkstreams.net/film,208.
12. Richard Kostelanetz’s article “New Rock: Culture or Chaos” was sent to the posts for translation, as was Daryl Dayton’s lecture “Today’s Music: USA.” USIA Circular CA-734, “Packaged Program ‘Today’s Music’: Field Programming Notes,” 1 April 1969, ARK II b71 f7. “New Rock: Culture or Chaos?” appeared in the Russian-language USIA publication America Illustrated in 1969 and is reprinted as “Rock: The New Pop Music,” in Kostelanetz, The Twenties in the Sixties (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979), 261–71.
13. USIA Circular CA-734, “Packaged Program ‘Today’s Music’: Field Programming Notes,” 1 April 1969, p. 2, ARK II b71 f7.
14. AmEmb Tehran A-363 to DOS, 18 August 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
15. Translation of George Leotsakos, “An American Jazz Group,” Ta Nea, 7 June 1969, encl. in AmEmb Athens A-292 to DOS, 17 July 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
16. AmEmb Tehran A-363 to DOS, 18 August 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
17. “Millikin University Jazz Band: Repertoire,” ARK II b71 f7.
18. AmEmb Tehran A-363 to DOS, 18 August 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
19. DOS Circular CA-2082 to Ankara, Athens, Beirut, Istanbul, Lisbon, Nicosia, Tehran, 7 April 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
20. Thomas Huff to Charles E. Courtney, 19 March 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
21. Harry Hirsch, Escort Officer, Istanbul, to Irene Carstones, DOS/CU, 11 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7; Alma Schueler, interview by the author, 16 December 2008.
22. Hirsch, Tehran, to Carstones, 28 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
23. AmEmb Athens A-292 to DOS, 17 July 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
24. Hirsch, Shiraz (Iran), to Carstones, 22 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
25. AmEmb Nicosia A-107 to DOS, 16 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
26. Roger Schueler, Tehran, to Thomas Huff, DOS, 27 May 1969; Hirsch, Istanbul, to Carstones, 11 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
27. AmEmb Ankara M-73 to DOS, 10 June 1969, ARK II b71 f7. Gence also recalls meeting Blood, Sweat and Tears, as well as playing with Herbie Mann. Correspondence with the author, 12–13 July 2008.
28. S. I. Nadler, USIS Ankara, to USIA Washington, 19 June 1969, Subject: Packaged Program: “Today’s Music,” ARK II b71 f7.
29. AmEmb Ankara M-73 to DOS, 10 June 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
30. AmEmb Tehran A-363 to DOS, 18 August 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
31. AmEmb Nicosia A-107 to DOS, 16 May 1969, ARK II b71 f7.
32. Effectiveness report, Millikin University Jazz Band, ARK II b71 f7.
33. USIS Beirut FM-24 to USIA Washington, 12 May 1969, “Packaged Program: Today’s Music,” ARK II b71 f7; Hirsch, Beirut, to Carstones, 30 April 1969, ibid.; Congressman William L. Springer (R-IL), 91st Cong., 1st sess., Cong. Rec. 113, part 13 (23 June 1969), E16864.
34. Maxime Celeste, “Black America,” L’oracle (Mauritius), clipping, ARK II b65 f14.
35. AmEmb Manila A-009 to DOS, 11 January 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
36. AmEmb Taipei A-108 to DOS, 7 March 1969, ARK II b84 f20; AmEmb Lusaka A-314 to DOS, 31 October 1969, ARK II b65 f14.
37. AmEmb Tananarive T-82 to USIA and DOS, 8 May 1969, ARK II b65 f14.
38. AmEmb Port Louis A-182 to DOS, 26 July 69, ARK II b65 f14.
39. AmEmb Djakarta T-11474 to USIA, 12 December 1968, ARK II b84 f20.
40. AmEmb Vientiane A-44 to DOS, 24 February 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
41. AmConGen Hong Kong A-47 to DOS, 11 February 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
42. AmEmb Saigon A-250 to DOS, 10 May 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
43. Fiscal Year 1969 Annual Report: Buddy Guy and his Band, ARK II b65 f14.
44. AmEmb Nairobi A-154 to DOS, 18 June 1969, ARK II b65 f11.
45. Telegram, AmEmb Lusaka to USIA, 23 May 1969, ARK II b65 f11.
46. AmEmb Dar es Salaam D-008 to USIA, 3 May 1969, ARK II b65 f11; AmEmb Blantyre T-322 to USIA and DOS, 28 May 1969, ARK II b65 f11.
47. Monthly Highlights Report—April 1969, USIS Kinshasa M-25 to USIA Washington, ARK II b65 f11.
48. AmEmb Nairobi A-154 to DOS, 18 June 1969, ARK II b65 f11.
49. AmEmb Dar es Salaam A-119 to DOS, 7 May 1969, p. 7, ARK II b65 f11.
50. AmEmb Port Louis A-182 to DOS, 26 July 1969, ARK II b65 f14.
51. AmEmb Djakarta A-50 to DOS, 8 February 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
52. “Mary Apio Talks to Buddy Guy,” People (Kampala), 17 June 1969, clipping, ARK II b65 f13.
53. AmEmb Tananarive A-99 to DOS, 17 May 1969, ARK II b65 f14.
54. Highlights report—May 1969, USIS Dar es Salaam M-9 to USIA, ARK II b65 f11.
55. AmConGen Hong Kong A-47 to DOS, 11 February 1969, ARK II b84 f20.
56. Buddy Guy with David Ritz, When I Left Home: My Story (Philadelphia: Da Capo, 2012), 204.
57. AmEmb New Delhi D-1022 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Two Arrows, Tom/3–2256; AmConGen Kuala Lumpur D-261 to DOS, ibid./5–357, NA.
58. Myung Hye Chun, “The United States Government’s Cultural Presentations Program in Korea from 1955 to 1992” (master’s thesis, American University, 1993), 52; Donald E. Webster, First Secretary of Embassy, AmEmb Taipei D-251 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Two Arrows, Tom/12–1956; AmEmb Rangoon D-846 to DOS, ibid./6–757; DOS Instruction CA-1870 to Asian posts, ibid./8–2856, NA.
59. Robert Cantwell, When We Were Good: The Folk Revival (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 291.
60. AmEmb Singapore A-459 to DOS, 30 August 1968, ARK II b60 f2; AmEmb Bangkok A-1480 to DOS, 30 September 1968, ARK II b60 f2.
61. AmEmb Kuala Lumpur T-5174 to AmEmb Saigon and DOS, 30 July 1968, ARK II b60 f2; AmEmb Manila A-770 to DOS, 8 August 1968, ARK II b60 f2.
62. AmEmb Port of Spain A-50 to DOS, 4 April 1969, ARK II b56 f22; AmEmb Port of Spain to DOS, telegram, 14 November 1968, ARK II b56 f26.
63. “Egyptians Pleased by American Music,” NYT, 8 June 1966; Warner Lawson to Roy Larsen and ACA, “Report of Tour to Africa, Bonn, and Frankfort [sic], Germany and Luxembourg (March 27, 1966 to April 24, 1966),” memorandum, 4 June 1966, ARK II b94 f14.
64. “Ned Wright: Rossford Native Had Long Career in Entertainment,” Toledo Blade, 1 October 1981.
65. Kate Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 202–51.
66. Remarks by Harry Belafonte to the Veterans of the Lincoln Brigade, Paul Robeson Centennial Celebration website, Columbia College Chicago, www.cpsr.cs.uchicago.edu/robeson/belafonte.html. See also Sam Adams, “Interview: Harry Belafonte,” 19 October 2011, A.V. Club, www.avclub.com/articles/harry-belafonte,63640/; and Doris Evans McGinty and Wayne Shirley, “Paul Robeson, Musician,” in Paul Robeson: Artist and Citizen, ed. Jeffrey C. Stewart (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press and Paul Robeson Cultural Center, 1998), 117–20.
67. In 1958 the Music Advisory Panel considered Belafonte’s backup singers for a tour but would not approve them without Belafonte; see Minutes, Music Advisory Panel, 15 January 1958, p. 6, ARK II b100 f2. The USIA specifically requested Belafonte for Africa in fiscal 1964; see Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Paper for the Advisory Committee on the Arts on the Fiscal Year 1964 Cultural Presentations Program Planning for Africa, ARK II b94 f14. Belafonte was also one of the artists about whom Peter Mennin commented that entertainment would achieve “nothing”; see Martin Ackerman to Anderson and Sorensen, “Cultural Presentations Advisory Committee Meeting March 7 and 8, 1963, Transcript of Proceedings,” memorandum, 23 April 1963, ARK II b94 f21.
68. Philip Maxwell, “Music Festival to Swing to Hootenanny,” Chicago Tribune, 26 April 1964; Larry Wolters, “Gigantic Hootenanny Is Set for Chicago,” Chicago Tribune, 18 June 1964. The group was recorded on the album “Hoot Tonight!” (Warner Bros. W-1512, 1963). See Robert Shelton, “Hoots Galore: Fad Leads to Folk Name on Many Disks,” NYT, 17 November 1963.
69. The U.S. embassy in Bangkok reported that Thai students were reputedly reserved but that when the Phoenix Singers performed at Chiengmai and Thammasat universities, hundreds of students joined the singers onstage to sing. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967, DOS Publication 8365 (1968), 27.
70. Cultural Presentations USA 1967–1968, DOS Publication 8438 (1969), 29.
71. See the reminiscence by Pete Seeger in Paul Robeson: The Great Forerunner, collected by the editors of Freedomways (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1965), 311–12. Despite his imprisonment during the Red Scare, Seeger would later travel as a cultural ambassador. See The United States Information Agency: A Commemoration (Washington, DC: United States Information Agency, 2000), 68.
72. Mike Seeger, Evaluation Report for DOS, 21 March 1977, ARK II b59 f21 (emphasis in original).
73. Evaluation Report, Addiss and Crofut, Southeast Asia tour 1965, p. 3, ARK II b96 f15.
74. Minutes, Academic/Community Music Advisory Panel, 18 April 1966, p. 4, ARK II b98 f26.
75. Strengthening Cultural Bonds between Nations . . . through the Performing Arts. A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1964–June 30, 1965, DOS Publication 8038 (1966), 20. “How to Defend U.S. on Race to Be Told Students by Kennedy,” Chicago Defender, 8 December 1962.
76. Steve Addiss, interview by the author, 21 May 2014; William Crofut, Troubadour: A Different Battlefield (New York: Dutton, 1968), 153.
77. Ganfa, “U.S. Singer Pleases,” Navhind Times (Panjim [Panaji]), 20 January 1967, clipping, ARK II b59 f20.
78. Crofut, Troubadour, 211–15.
79. Robert Shelton, “Music from Vietnam,” NYT, 24 October 1965. The album was Ethnic Folkways Library FE4352, released on LP in 1965 and 1966, on cassette in 1992, and on CD in 1999 and 2001.
80. “Bill Crofut Scrams State Dept. Tour in Protest over Policy,” Variety, 29 October 1975, 1, 77.
81. Addiss, interview; William Crofut, “American Folk Music,” Rising Nepal, 9 February 1967, 3, clipping encl. in AmEmb Kathmandu A-205 to DOS, 6 March 1967, ARK II b59 f20; AmCon Madras A-95 to DOS, 28 February 1967, ARK II b59 f20.
82. Addiss, interview.
83. Robert Shelton, “U.S. Sending Two Folk Singers to Asian and African Towns,” NYT, 22 November 1964.
84. Ibid.
85. Crofut, Troubadour, 144–45.
86. Ibid., 116–17.
87. Addiss, interview.
88. Topy Malagaris, “The Sound: Music and Radio: For Young Listeners,” Chicago Tribune, 11 October 1967.
89. Edward Folliard, “LBJ Honors General, Touring Troubadours,” Washington Post, 3 April 1965; “Johnson Hears Duo Sing of S. Viet Paddies,” Chicago Tribune, 3 April 1965; Nan Robertson, “Presidential Day Is Grave and Gay: Songs, Party, Ceremony and Vietnam Study Dot Agenda” NYT, 3 April 1965.
90. Susie Crofut, interview by the author, 3 May 2013; Crofut, Troubadour, 250, 252.
91. Frankel, High on Foggy Bottom, 80.
92. Cultural Presentations USA 1966–1967, 26.
93. Hilaire du Berrier, Background to Betrayal: The Tragedy of Vietnam (Boston: Western Islands Press, 1965), 283.
94. Irwin Silber, “Fan the Flames,” Sing Out: The Folk Song Magazine, May 1965, 63.
95. J. Kirk Sale, “Well Tuned to the Times,” NYT, 26 May 1968.
96. Crofut, Troubadour, 254.
97. Susie Crofut, interview. Most Americans were unaware of or apathetic about American involvement in Vietnam before the 1964 presidential election; and even then, no organized opposition had yet coalesced. Charles DeBenedetti with Charles Chatfield, An American Ordeal: The Antiwar Movement of the Vietnam Era (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 85–102. See also Adam Garfinkle, Telltale Hearts: The Origins and Impact of the Vietnam Antiwar Movement (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995), 67–71.
98. Addiss, interview.
99. Crofut, Troubadour, 259, 283.
100. Susie Crofut, interview; Crofut, Troubadour, 177.
101. Addiss, interview.
102. Crofut, Troubadour, 219–20.
103. Ibid.
104. Harry C. McPherson Jr., the White House, to Charles Frankel, 8 May 1967, ARK II b59 f19.
105. Crofut, Troubadour, 283.
106. Robert Clark, The Basques: The Franco Years and Beyond (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1979), 175, 180.
107. “Bill Crofut Scrams State Dept. Tour in Protest over Policy,” Variety, 29 October 1975, 1, 77.
108. Crofut to Beverly Gerstein, DOS, 12 June 1978, ARK II b59 f21.
109. Some of the material in this section appears in Fosler-Lussier, “American Cultural Diplomacy and the Mediation of Avant-Garde Music,” 244–46.
110. Memorandum of conversation, Michael Feld, Congressman Scherle’s office (R-IA), Mark B. Lewis, DOS/CU, 15 June 1970, ARK II b57 f4.
111. Mark B. Lewis to William Ackerman, memorandum, 9 June 1970, ARK II b57 f4; Pamela Howard, “Rock Group Goes Right On,” New York Post, 13 June 1970, clipping, ARK II b57 f2.
112. Sally Quinn, “Dissidents as Envoys,” Washington Post, 13 June 1970; “American Rock Group to Tour Three Countries in Eastern Europe,” NYT, 12 June 1970; Don Heckman, “Lessons for a Rock Group,” NYT, 19 July 1970.
113. Louise Patterson to Mrs. John Richardson, 15 June 1970, ARK II b57 f2.
114. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Blood, Sweat and Tears, ARK II b57 f2.
115. Remarks of Congressman William Scherle (R-IA), 91st Cong., 2nd sess., Cong. Rec. 116, part 15 (17 June 1970), H20248.
116. “Blood, Sweat and Tears: Background Paper for Department of State Press Office,” 8 May 1970, ARK II b57 f2; memorandum of conversation, Michael Feld of Congressman Scherle’s office (R-IA), Mark B. Lewis, DOS/CU, 15 June 1970, ibid.
117. Pamela Howard, “Rock Group Goes Right On,” New York Post, 13 June 1970.
118. John Richardson Jr., “Only If Asked,” 16 June 1970, ARK II b57 f4.
119. David Clayton-Thomas, Blood, Sweat and Tears (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2010), 117–19.
120. Typescript translation, “An Oscar for Music,” Radio revija (Belgrade), 19 July 1970, ARK II b57 f5.
121. AmEmb Bucharest to DOS A-256, 1 August 1970, pp. 6–7, ARK II b57 f5; AmEmb Bucharest T-1685 to DOS, 29 June 1970, ibid.
122. Don Heckman, “Lessons for a Rock Group,” NYT, 19 July 1970.
123. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Blood, Sweat and Tears, ARK II b57 f2.
124. “Rock Group Sparks Bucharest Melees,” NYT, 8 July 1970.
125. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, Blood, Sweat and Tears, ARK II b57 f2.
126. Translation, Goran Kobali, “If This Makes Me a Traitor,” interview with David Clayton-Thomas, Susret (Belgrade), 9 September 1970, encl. in AmEmb Belgrade to DOS, operations memorandum, 2 October 1970, ARK II b57 f4.
127. Mark Lewis to John Richardson, memorandum, 13 July 1970, ARK II b57 f5; Ira Wolfert to Richardson, 28 July 1970, ARK II b57 f5.
128. Wolfert to Richardson, 28 July 1970, ARK II b57 f4.
129. AmConGen Istanbul A-29 to DOS, 7 August 1970, ARK II b57 f6.
130. Mark Lewis to Frederick Irving, “Radical Left—Yippies—Attacks Blood, Sweat and Tears,” ARK II b57 f3.
131. Nicholas von Hoffman, “Yippies Unveil ‘Politics of Ecstasy,’” Washington Post, 20 March 1968; Don Heckman, “Pop,” NYT, 8 February 1970.
132. A 1973 concert was cancelled for lack of ticket sales. See “B,S&T, Mayfield Canceled,” Washington Post, 22 June 1973.
133. Peter Gorner, “B, S and T Still Have the Touch of Midas,” Chicago Tribune, 23 August 1970; Tom Zito, “Blood, Sweat and Tears: No Spontaneity,” Washington Post, 8 March 1971; James Lichtenberg, “Making Rock Respectable,” NYT, 28 February 1971; Craig McGregor, “Rock: Where Do We Go from Here?,” NYT, 5 April 1970.
134. Tom Zito, “B, S, &T: ‘Devoid of Feeling,’” Washington Post, 3 September 1971.
135. Tom O’Brien, letter to the New York Times, 23 August 1970.
1. Alexander Werth, Musical Uproar in Moscow (London: Turnstile, 1949); Rósa Magnúsdóttir, “Keeping Up Appearances: How the Soviet State Failed to Control Popular Attitudes Toward the United States of America, 1945–1959” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2006), 23–63; Amanda Wood Aucoin, “Deconstructing the American Way of Life: Soviet Responses to Cultural Exchange and American Information Activity during the Khrushchev Years” (PhD diss., University of Arkansas, May 2001), 9–10.
2. The literature on U.S.-Soviet cultural exchanges is voluminous. Key items include J.D. Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence: American-Soviet Cultural Relations, 1917–1958 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1983); Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003); Yale Richmond, U.S.-Soviet Cultural Exchanges, 1958–1986: Who Wins? (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987); Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press/University Press of New England, 1998), 69–91; Hans N. Tuch, Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas (New York: St. Martin’s, 1990), 125–39; and Nigel Gould-Davies, “The Logic of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (April 2003): 193–214.
3. See, e.g., Yale Richmond, Practicing Public Diplomacy: A Cold War Odyssey (New York: Berghahn, 2008), 88.
4. Examples include Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), xii, xv–xvi, 114–19; Reinhold Wagnleitner, “The Empire of the Fun, or Talkin’ Soviet Union Blues: The Sound of Freedom and U.S. Cultural Hegemony in Europe,” Diplomatic History 23, no. 3 (1999): 499–524; David Caute, The Dancer Defects (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 1; Sarah Bittner, “Pop in the Bloc: How Popular Music Helped the United States Win the Cold War” (master’s thesis, Georgetown University, 2012). See also comments by Ambassador Foy Kohler in David Mayers, The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 218. This line of thinking is criticized by Kristin Roth-Ey in her Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost the Cultural Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 9–10; see also Jolanta Pekacz, “Did Rock Smash the Wall? The Role of Rock in Political Transition,” Popular Music 13, no. 1 (1994): 41–49; and Gleb Tsipursky, “Pleasure, Power, and the Pursuit of Communism: Soviet Youth and State-Sponsored Popular Culture during the Early Cold War, 1945–1968” (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 2011), 10–11.
5. See Schmelz, Such Freedom, If Only Musical; Poiger, Jazz, Rock, and Rebels, 162–67; and Fosler-Lussier, Music Divided, 149–56.
6. Anne E. Gorsuch, “From Iron Curtain to Silver Screen: Imagining the West in the Khrushchev Era,” in Imagining the West in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, ed. György Péteri (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010): 154–55.
7. Milton Cummings, “Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey,” cited in Cultural Diplomacy: Recommendations and Research (Washington, DC: Center for Arts and Culture, 2003): 2; see also Susan Reid, “Who Will Beat Whom? Soviet Popular Reception of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, 1959,” Kritika 9, no. 4 (2008): 860–65.
8. “The Need for a Comprehensive Counter-Offensive to Soviet Cultural Aggression,” OEX/S Document 76, 14 September 1951, p. 2, box 17, Subject Files 1948–65, U.S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Entry A1–5460, RG 59, NA.
9. Ibid., pp. 2–4; and Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 214–20.
10. See, e.g., Murrey Marder, “Brownell Reassures U.S. on Reds: Declares Federal Agencies Effective,” Washington Post and Times Herald, 10 April 1954; Will Lissner, “100 Groups Fight Red Infiltration,” NYT, 28 March 1954; “Anti-Red Series Backed: N.A.A.C.P. Is Eighth Group to Sponsor Seminars,” NYT, 25 September 1956; “Red Menace Put at a Peak in U.S.: House Panel Reports New Penetration of Industry and Theft of Secrets,” NYT, 9 February 1958.
11. William J. Jorden, “U.S. Study Traces a Soviet Pattern: Intelligence Report Analyzes Communist-Bloc Tactics in Emerging Nations,” NYT, 27 March 1960; Hanson W. Baldwin, “Soviet Is Intensifying Its Middle East Drive,” NYT, 23 December 1956; Polyzoides, “Mikoyan Surprises by Attitude,” Los Angeles Times, 7 January 1959.
12. AmEmb Cairo D-856 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra/5–1057, NA.
13. AmEmb Damascus T-3099 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 San Francisco Ballet Company/6–658, NA. See also “Moscow Woos Mexico,” NYT, 30 November 1959.
14. The visitors included Czech violinists Ladislav Jacek and Josef Suk; Czech pianist Mirka Pokorna; the Czech state circus; Soviet violinists Valery Klimov and Mikhail Veiman; Soviet bass Ivan Petrov; Soviet pianist Lev Vlassenko; the Moiseyev State Folk Dance Ensemble; and the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. AmEmb Tokyo C-127 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/8–2659, NA.
15. AmEmb Tegucigalpa D-181 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 San Francisco Ballet Company/11–1458, NA.
16. Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, 118–22.
17. Aucoin, “Deconstructing the American Way of Life,” 56–57; Harlow Robinson, The Last Impresario: The Life, Times, and Legacy of Sol Hurok (New York: Viking, 1994), 339–40.
18. U.S. Congress, 81st Cong., 1st sess., Cong. Rec. 95 (17 March 1949), H2736. Cited in Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, 126.
19. See “Canceled Trip,” Commonweal 62, no. 4 (1955): 92; and Robert T. Hartmann, “Moscow Ballet May Yet Come to Hollywood Bowl: Eisenhower Removes Fingerprinting Block,” Los Angeles Times, 12 September 1957.
20. Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, 156–58; Elizabeth Wilson, Rostropovich: The Musical Life of the Great Cellist, Teacher, and Legend (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2008), 93–97. See also Meri Herrala, “David Oistrakh and Sviatoslav Richter Stepping through the Iron Curtain,” in Ei ihan teorian mukaan, ed. Mikko Majander and Kimmo Rentola (Helsinki: Työväen historian ja perinteen tutkimuksen seura Yhteiskunnallinen arkistosäätiö, 2012): 241–58, http://free.yudu.com/item/embedded_reader/483206/Ei-ihan-teorian-mukaan?refid=93494.
21. Oistrakh, Gilels, and Rostropovich were all brought in for profit by Columbia Artists. See Robinson, The Last Impresario, 343–51. On Stern’s tour see Isaac Stern with Chaim Potok, My First 79 Years (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999): 115–31.
22. Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, 162.
23. See Truman Capote, The Muses Are Heard (New York: Random House, 1956); and John Harper Taylor, “Ambassadors of the Arts: An Analysis of the Eisenhower Administration’s Incorporation of Porgy and Bess into Its Cold War Foreign Policy” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 1994). Czech and Polish reception is detailed in CDF55–59 032 Porgy and Bess, RG 59, NA.
24. AmEmb Moscow D-226 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Boston Symphony Orchestra/10–1856, NA. For a general account of the tour see D. Kern Holoman, Charles Munch (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 146–54.
25. Timothy Ryback, Rock around the Bloc: A History of Rock Music in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 30, 34.
26. Ibid., 8–18; Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War, 11–13; Tsipursky, “Pleasure, Power, and the Pursuit of Communism,” 88–93, 121–64, 283–98.
27. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc, 32–34.
28. On these negotiations see Parks, Culture, Conflict, and Coexistence, 168–71; Katie Louchheim, “10 Years of US-USSR,” Variety, 4 January 1967, 223, 240; and FRUS, 1955–1957, v. 24, docs. 110–14.
29. “Your Request for a Report on the Status of Certain OCB Items,” Arthur L. Richards to DOS, 27 February 1956, p. 2, folder Miscellaneous 1953–56, Records Relating to State Department Participation in the OCB and the NSC, 1953–60, Entry A1–1586, RG 59, NA.
30. FRUS, 1955–1957, v. 24, docs. 110, 111; and “Fingerprint Requirement Waived,” Department of State Bulletin, 28 October 1957, 682.
31. Amb. William Lacy, Mr. H.J. Heinz II, Mrs. Ruth Kupinsky, Mr. M.G. Kelakos, memorandum of conversation, CDF55–59 511.61/4–458, NA; and Hartmann, “Moscow Ballet May Yet Come.”
32. Frans A.M. Alting von Geusau, Cultural Diplomacy: Waging War by Other Means? (Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Wolf Legal Publishers, 2009), 22–23. See also Charles A. Thomson and Walter H.C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963), 167–68.
33. Mr. Boris N. Krylov (Cultural Counselor, Soviet Embassy), Mme. Mamedova (Second Secretary, Soviet Embassy), Frederick T. Merrill, Scott C. Lyon, W. Paul O’Neill Jr., and Lawrence C. Mitchell, memorandum of conversation, CDF55–59 511.613/3–1059; Lacy to John Foster Dulles, CDF55–59 511.61/7–2558, NA.
34. As early as 1958, a representative of the Soviet Ministry of Culture quietly encouraged Hurok’s competitor, Columbia Artists Management, to join the negotiations to extend the Lacy-Zarubin agreement past 1959. See “Visit of Columbia Artists Management Team to the Soviet Union,” memorandum of conversation, CDF55–59 511.613/10–1558, NA.
35. Krylov, Mamedova, Merrill, et al., memorandum of conversation, CDF55–59 511.613/3–1059; Policy Information Statement EUR-279 “U.S.-Soviet Exchange Agreement,” encl. in DOS Instruction “U.S.-Soviet Exchange Agreement,” CDF55–59 511.00/1–2958, NA.
36. Joseph H. Dockow, Hicksville, NY, to Senator Stuart Symington, CDF55–59 511.61/1–2858, NA.
37. “America’s Zany Cultural Program,” National Observer, 10 February 1964, 1, 14.
38. Alfred W. Pritchard, “Mass Hypnosis: Soviet Weapon,” American Mercury, February 1959, 111.
39. Eugene Castle, “‘Culture’ for Khrushchev,” American Mercury, May 1959, 38–39. See also Scott MacGillivray, Castle Films: A Hobbyist’s Guide (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2004), 5–8.
40. “The Fears of the Periodical ‘American Mercury,’” translation by Hans N. Tuch, encl. in Richard H. Davis, Minister-Counselor, AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, CDF55–59 511.613/4–759, NA.
41. William D. Bonis, letter to the editor, Saturday Review, 5 September 1959, 29.
42. CBS, Ed Sullivan Show, season 11, episode 40. See Victoria Hallinan, “The 1958 Tour of the Moiseyev Dance Company: A Window into American Perception,” Journal of History and Cultures 1 (September 2012): 51–64; John Chapman, “Russian Dancers Put Fun and Laughter in Show,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 16 April 1958.
43. F. Larrick, Miami Beach, Florida, to DOS, CDF55–59 511.61/7–1858, NA.
44. Anne and Helen Bannon, Brooklyn, New York, to John Foster Dulles, CDF55–59 032 State Folk Ensemble/7–358, NA.
45. FRUS, 1955–1957, v. 24, doc. 112; and William B. Macomber Jr. to Senator John Marshall Butler, 19 February 1958, CDF55–59 511.61/2–758, NA.
46. Castle, “‘Culture’ for Khrushchev,” 45. The OCB had considered this problem. See “Report on Soviet-Dominated Nations in Eastern Europe (NSC5811/1),” 27 July 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, v. 10, part 1, doc. 30.
47. Mrs. Norman Cooke, Vero Beach, Florida, to DOS, CDF55–59, 511.61/1–2758, NA.
48. Policy Information Statement EUR-279, “U.S.-Soviet Exchange Agreement,” encl. in DOS Instruction “U.S.-Soviet Exchange Agreement,” CDF55–59 511.00/1–2958, NA.
49. Christopher A. Squire, Second Secretary, American Legation Budapest, to DOS, CDF55–59 032 State Folk Ensemble/7–358, NA.
50. “Bolshoi Ballet to Get Big Play in Soviet Press,” Los Angeles Times, 18 April 1959; see also Jack Masey and Conway Lloyd Morgan, Cold War Confrontations: U.S. Exhibitions and Their Role in the Cultural Cold War (Zürich: Lars Müller, 2008), 152–283.
51. AmEmb Quito T-422 to DOS, CDF55–59 032/5–2759, NA.
52. On Latin America’s place in Cold War historiography see Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniela Spenser, eds., In from the Cold: Latin America’s New Encounter with the Cold War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008).
53. DOS T-1157 to AmEmb Moscow, CDF55–59 032 Rostropovich, Mstislav/4–1356. See also Frederick Schang (Columbia Artists) and Robert O. Blake, DOS, memoranda of conversations, CDF55–59 032 Rostropovich, Mstislav/3–1256 and 3–2756; Yuri I. Gouk, Second Secretary, Soviet Embassy, and Blake, memorandum of conversation, ibid./4–956; and Sergei Striganov, Counselor, Soviet Embassy, and Francis B. Stevens, DOS, memorandum of conversation, ibid./4–1156, NA.
54. Mikhail Smirnovsky, Minister Counselor, and Gennadi D. Fursa, Attaché, Soviet Embassy, with Ambs. William Lacy, Frank Siscoe, and Harry Barnes Jr., DOS, memorandum of conversation, CDF60–63 032 Michigan University Symphonic Band/1–1061, NA; Amb. Llewellyn Thompson, AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, CDF60–63 032 University of Michigan Symphonic Band/1–1061, /1–3061, /2–361, and /2–1061, NA; Rusk to AmEmb Moscow, ibid./1–3061.
55. On the Beriozka Ensemble’s bookings in Detroit and San Francisco see William Macomber Jr. to Senator Charles E. Potter, CDF55–59 511.613/10–358, NA; and Macomber to Potter, ibid./10–2358.
56. Mr. and Mrs. Nicholas Skylor and Mr. and Mrs. L.A. Spake, San Francisco, to DOS, 3 April 1959; DOS to Mr. and Mrs. Skylor, CDF55–59 032 Bolshoi Ballet/4–359; Marshall W. Krause to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Bolshoi Ballet/4–359; Lydia V. Arnautoff to President Eisenhower (referred to DOS), CDF55–59 032 Bolshoi Ballet/4–559, NA.
57. DOS T-2340 to AmEmb Moscow, CDF60–63 032 Ballet Theatre/5–2060, NA.
58. “Hurok Essays New US-USSR Rapport,” Variety, 27 September 1967, 61. See also Robinson, The Last Impresario, 416–19.
59. Soviet and Eastern European Exchanges Staff, Department of State, Semiannual Reports on Exchanges with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, 1964 and 1965.
60. Anne E. Gorsuch, All This Is Your World: Soviet Tourism at Home and Abroad after Stalin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 18.
61. See Coolidge, Peggy Stuart: Collection of Musical Scores, 1924–1981, http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/∼mus00007.
62. See Constance A. Bezer, ed., Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: A Guide to Financial Aid, Exchanges and Travel Programs (Columbus, OH: American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 1972).
63. Gorsuch, All This Is Your World, 18, 112. See also David Mayers, The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 217.
64. Larsen and Wolfe, Report of Survey, Cultural Presentations Program, 7, encl. in Larsen and Wolfe to Gardner, CDF60–63 032/1–1463, NA.
65. William B. Macomber Jr. to Senator Frank Carlson, 11 December 1959, CDF55–59 032 Contennial [sic] Choir /12–159, NA. On the competitive dynamic see Greg Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front: The Soft Power of Midcentury Design (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).
66. Transcript of Proceedings, Third Meeting of the Advisory Committee on the Arts, October 1958, p. A-8, box 158, CU/ACS Records of the United States Advisory Commission on the Arts, 1951–60, Entry A1–5079, RG 59, NA. For details on a similar visit, see Kevin Bartig, “Aaron Copland’s Soviet Diary (1960),” Notes 70, no. 4 (2014): 575–96.
67. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts: A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1963–June 30, 1964, DOS Publication 7819 (1965), 25, 26.
68. Ibid., 27. The orchestra played Hall Overton’s Dialogue for Chamber Orchestra; John Lessard’s Concerto for Winds and Strings (revised version); Aaron Copland’s Two Pieces for String Orchestra 1928; Ulysses Kay’s Suite for Strings of 1952; and Ben Weber’s Two String Pieces. “Chamber Players Will Tour Soviet: Clarion Orchestra to Take 2 New Works to 11 Cities,” NYT, 9 September 1963.
69. “Tass Critic Hails Clarion Players: Chamber Orchestra Praised for Moscow Concert,” NYT, 30 September 1963; “Moscow Hails U.S. Orchestra,” Chicago Tribune, 20 September 1963.
70. “Leningrad Hails U.S. Clarion Chamber Orchestra,” Washington Post, 23 September 1963.
71. Florence Jonas, “Moscow Baroque: Soviet Group to Play Early Music Here,” NYT, 20 October 1963.
72. Ibid.
73. Newell Jenkins, “Russia Is Taking to Chamber Orchestras,” NYT, 1 December 1963.
74. Jenkins was not the only one to use early music in diplomacy. Noah Greenberg’s New York Pro Musica Antiqua was received with acclaim, as a novelty, but one that was acceptable to Russian authorities and the musical public. Strengthening Cultural Bonds Between Nations . . . through the Performing Arts: A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1964–June 30, 1965, DOS Publication 8038 (1966), 18; and Scott C. Lyon, Liaison Officer, to Charles Ellison, DOS, 1 December 1964, ARK II b75 f5.
75. Jenkins, “Russia Is Taking to Chamber Orchestras.”
76. “Barshai Explains Soviet Defection,” Los Angeles Times, 11 March 1977; and “Soviet Conductor Given Permission to Emigrate,” Washington Post, 21 December 1976.
77. Raymond Ericson, “Season Is Opened by Clarion Group: Jenkins Conducts Program of Tour Favorites,” NYT, 4 December 1963.
78. Alexander Gauk, Historical Russian Archives: Alexander Gauk Edition, vol. 2, Brilliant Classics CD 9146/10. My thanks to Peter Schmelz for information about this recording.
79. Prevots, Dance for Export, 75–91.
80. AmEmb Moscow T-2992 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Ballet Theatre/5–3160, NA. See also Tim Scholl, “Dansdiplomati genom kalla kriget,” Danstidningen 6 (2006): 20–24, repr. in English as “Guns and Roses, or Dancing through the Cold War,” TEAM Network Yearbook [Trans-disciplinary European Arts Magazines], 2009/10, 66–71.
81. Translation of review published in Göteborgs-Tidningen, 12 June 1960, encl. in USIS Stockholm D-1151 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Ballet Theatre/6–3060, NA.
82. Croft, “Funding Footprints,” 94–95.
83. International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts: A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1963–June 30, 1964, DOS Publication 7819 (1965), 31–32.
84. Ibid., 33.
85. Croft, “Funding Footprints,” 98; Bernard Taper, Balanchine (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), 290.
86. John Chapman, “Bolshoi Ballet Puts Worst Foot Forward in Its Debut,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 26 April 1959.
87. Richard H. Davis, Minister-Counselor, AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, CDF55–59 511.61/12–1858, NA.
88. Houston Brummit, letter to the editor, “New York and Moscow,” NYT, 27 March 1960.
89. Charles Frankel, “We Must Not Let Moscow Set Our Pace,” NYT, 2 October 1960.
90. Excerpts from the film Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow (CBS, aired 25 October 1959) can be viewed at www.paleycenter.org/from-the-collection-leonard-bernstein/; and www.carnegiehall.org/bernstein/leonardbernstein/socialactivist.aspx.
91. “English Commentary by Mr. Bernstein, Preceding the Stravinsky Piano Concerto,” 25 August 1959. New York Philharmonic Digital Archives, European Tour 1959: Russia, 14 April 1959–23 March 1960, ID: 023–13–05, p. 19.
92. “Lured Pasternak Out of Retreat—Bernstein,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 13 September 1959; “Pasternak Eulogizes Bernstein at Concert,” Washington Post, 12 September 1959; Val Adams, “Pasternak Film Set for C.B.S.-TV,” NYT, 21 September 1959. See also Nigel Simeone, ed., The Leonard Bernstein Letters (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 418–20.
93. Barry Seldes, Leonard Bernstein: The Political Life of an American Musician (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 84. The management of the New York Philharmonic did everything it could to encourage extensive coverage in the press, especially of Pasternak’s emergence. See George E. Judd Jr., orchestra manager, to Aline Moseby, United Press, Moscow, 28 May 1959, New York Philharmonic Digital Archives, European Tour 1959: Russia, 14 April 1959–23 March 1960, ID: 023–13–05, p. 7; and Carlos Moseley, New York Philharmonic Director of Press and Public Relations, to Frank Milburn, Philharmonic press department, 11 September 1959, ibid., p. 38.
94. My thanks to Emily Erken for gathering and surveying the Russian-language sources on this tour. Part of Pasternak’s conversation with Bernstein is recorded in Evgenii Pasternak and Elena Pasternak, Zhizn’ Borisa Pasternaka: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie (Saint Petersburg: Zvezda, 2004), 480, which does not mention Pasternak’s attendance at the concert. My thanks to Peter Schmelz for this information.
95. Leonard Bernstein. “Jottings—Moscow Show,” notes for broadcast, September 1959. Leonard Bernstein Collection, Music Division, Library of Congress, Digital ID: bhp0193_02, http://myloc.gov/Exhibitions/hopeforamerica/blurringlines/culturaldiplomacy/ExhibitObjects/BernsteinInTheSovietUnion.aspx. Emily Abrams Ansari has described the positive comments Bernstein made about and to Soviet musicians in “Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow: Educational Television, Diplomacy, and the Politics of Tonal Music,” unpublished paper delivered at the annual meeting of the American Musicological Society, New Orleans, 2012.
96. “Bernstein Drops Talk with Music: Leads 2 Stravinsky Works without Explanation to Leningrad Audience,” NYT, 1 September 1959; “Bernstein Hits Sour Note in Moscow,” Washington Post, 28 August 1959; and transcript of excerpts of Press Club remarks broadcast over VOA, Library of Congress, Music Division, Leonard Bernstein Collection, Box 77, Folder 11. My thanks to Emily Abrams Ansari for sharing her Bernstein essay and Bernstein Collection documents with me.
97. Aram Khachaturian, “Leonard Bernstein on the Podium,” English translation in Current Digest of the Russian Press, 23 September 1959, 14; original in Izvestia, 27 August 1959.
98. Transcript of excerpts of Press Club remarks broadcast over VOA, folder 11, box 77, Leonard Bernstein Collection, Music Division, Library of Congress.
99. Abbott Washburn to Leonard Bernstein, 17 November 1959, folder 17, box 1019, Leonard Bernstein Collection, Music Division, Library of Congress.
100. Sorensen, The Word War, 4.
101. M. Nikolaev, “Free Improvisations of Conductor L. Bernstein,” Soviet Culture, 8 December 1959, translation encl. in Leslie S. Brady, Counselor for Cultural Affairs, AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, CDF55–59, 511.613/12–1159, NA.
102. AmEmb Rome D-606 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 New York Philharmonic Orchestra/1–460, NA.
103. Translation of Alexander Medvedev, “Good—but Not All Good, Mr. Bernstein,” Soviet Culture, 27 August 1959, New York Philharmonic Digital Archives, European Tour 1959: Moscow Reviews and Translations, ID: 023–13–03, pp. 17–18.
104. AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, 19 May 1967, “Trends in Soviet Cultural Policy Since the 23rd Congress,” SN67–69, CUL 1 USSR, RG 59, NA.
105. Isaiah Berlin, cited in Mayers, The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy, 197; and in Yale Richmond, Practicing Public Diplomacy: A Cold War Odyssey (New York: Berghahn, 2008), 89.
106. The idea that jazz breached a “hermetically sealed” Iron Curtain remains in some current scholarship: see, e.g., Rüdiger Ritter, “The Radio—A Jazz Instrument of Its Own,” in Jazz behind the Iron Curtain, ed. Gertrud Pickhan and Rüdiger Ritter (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2010), 1:36. This idea is challenged by György Péteri, “Nylon Curtain: Transnational and Transsystemic Tendencies in the Cultural Life of State-Socialist Russia and East Central Europe.” Slavonica 10, no. 2 (2004): 113–23.
107. Ryback, Rock around the Bloc, 102–14, and Tsipursky, “Pleasure, Power, and the Pursuit of Communism,” 122–64, 202–27. See also Sergei Zhuk, Rock and Roll in the Rocket City: The West, Identity, and Ideology in Soviet Dniepropetrovsk, 1960–1985 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; and Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010); Thomas Cushman, Notes from Underground: Rock Music Counterculture in Russia (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995); and Alexei Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, until It Was No More: The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 158–206.
108. Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War, 123.
109. “A Regime Afraid of Jazz,” Washington Post, 13 March 1987.
110. Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time, 143.
111. Evaluation Report, Juilliard String Quartet, Soviet Union, 9 May–12 June, 1965, ARK II b96 f16.
112. Capote, The Muses Are Heard, 19. See also John MacCormac, “Reds Crack Down on ‘Hooliganism’: Satellites Bewail Infiltration of Jazz, Jitterbugs, Zoot Suits as Secret Weapons,” NYT, 18 April 1954.
113. Peter Schmelz, “Shostakovich Fights the Cold War: Reflections from Great to Small,” typescript essay, 2013. My thanks to Prof. Schmelz for sharing this text with me in advance of its publication.
114. Evidence of Effectiveness Report, University of Michigan Chamber Choir, U.S.S.R., 16 April–7 June 1971, ARK II b97 f5.
115. Joseph Silverstein and Harry J. Kraut, “Report on the Tour to England, Soviet Union, West Germany under the auspices of Department of State Cultural Presentations Program, April 29–June 16, 1967,” p. 18, ARK II b57 f13.
116. Amb. Llewellyn Thompson to DOS, 31 May 1962, FRUS, 1961–1963, v. 5, doc. 199.
117. Amb. Llewellyn Thompson, “Trends in Soviet Cultural Policy Since the 23rd Congress,” SN67–69, CUL 1 USSR, RG 59, NA.
118. Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time, 9–13, 164.
119. Thompson, AmEmb Moscow, to DOS, CDF55–59, 511.61/6–1058, NA.
120. AmEmb Moscow T-2548 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny/4–462, NA.
121. Felix Belair Jr., “United States Has Secret Sonic Weapon—Jazz,” NYT, 6 November 1955.
122. Annegret Fauser, Sounds of War: Music in the United States during World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 16, 35, 55, 93, 106.
123. For descriptions of music as a “weapon” see Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 3, 17, 18, 28, 253, 256; and John Gennari, “The Other Side of the Curtain: U.S. Jazz Discourse, 1950s America, and the Cold War,” in Jazz behind the Iron Curtain, ed. Gertrud Pickhan and Rüdiger Ritter (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2010), 1:26. For Bowman’s statement see George Weeks, “U.S. Wants More Jazz on Tour” Chicago Defender, 24 December 1960.
124. Ralph Gleason, “This Is the Moment to Get Jazz to Russia,” San Francisco Chronicle, 23 November 1958.
125. N. Eugene Hill, San Francisco, to Dulles, CDF55–59 511.61/11–2358, NA; James Magdanz to Hill, ibid.
126. J.E. Baudine, Vice President, Westinghouse Broadcasting, Red MacLeish, Chief, Washington News Bureau, Westinghouse Broadcasting, Ambassador William Lacy, and Scott Lyon, “Westinghouse Offer of Goodman Jazz Tapes for Exchange Program,” memorandum of conversation, CDF55–59 511.61/6–658, NA.
127. “Jazz Has Firm Foothold in USSR,” 2 January 1957, report S-20–57, Special Reports of the Office of Research, Entry P-160, RG 306, NA.
128. John Tynan, “Russian Culture Workers Meet Western Jazzmen,” Down Beat, 17 August 1961, 18–19; see also George Sherman, “Moscow Jives (Briefly) on a Saturday Night,” Washington Post, Times Herald, 28 February 1960.
129. Leonard Feather, “Report from Russia: Moscow Diary,” Down Beat, 19 July 1962, 17–19, 59–60.
130. Leonard Feather, “Inside Soviet Jazz,” Down Beat, 16 August 1962, 37, 14.
131. AmEmb Moscow A-370, “Cultural Exchange: The Earl Hines Band in the USSR,” to DOS, 6 September 1966, p. 7, ARK II b66 f14.
132. Willie Ruff’s account of the tour is published in his memoir, A Call to Assembly: An American Success Story (New York: Penguin, 1991), 287–90, 294–308.
133. Ibid., 308.
134. “Leningrad’s Longhairs Jump to New York Jazz,” Washington Post, Times Herald, 9 July 1959.
135. Willie Ruff, “Jazz Mission to Moscow,” Down Beat, 21 January 1960, 17.
136. Osgood Caruthers, “U.S. Jazz Duo Rocks Staid Moscow Hall,” NYT, 1 July 1959.
137. Ruff, “Jazz Mission to Moscow,” 19. Leonard Feather reported similar comments from Russian musicians about calling jazz a “weapon.” He may have been talking to the same people. See Feather, “Inside Soviet Jazz,” 13–15, 37.
138. Caruthers, “U.S. Jazz Duo Rocks Staid Moscow Hall.”
139. On the controversy of the Goodman choice see Cynthia Gossett, “‘Our Task Is to Present the Truth’: State Department Cultural Diplomacy and Benny Goodman’s 1962 Jazz Tour of the Soviet Union” (master’s thesis, Kent State University, 2003), 61–64. Gossett reviews the Goodman tour in detail, 70–82. See also editorial, “The Goodman Tour and the Teapot Tempest,” Down Beat, 24 May 1962, 14; and Bill Coss, “Benny Goodman: On the First Steppe,” ibid., 16–17.
140. Indeed, Leonard Feather noted that Goodman’s conservative taste matched that of Soviet officials. See Feather, “Inside Soviet Jazz,” 15.
141. Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs Frederick G. Dutton to Senator Jacob Javits, 14 May 1962, CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny/4–1862, NA.
142. “Russia Denies Rejecting Duke and Count,” Jet, 21 March 1963, 65. See also Harvey Cohen, Duke Ellington’s America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 418–21.
143. AmEmb Moscow to DOS, 6 July 1962, Records of the Bureau of Cultural Affairs, Records Relating to the Evaluation of Cultural Programs and to Staff Visits Overseas, 1952–1960, Entry A1–1600, RG 59, NA.
144. “The Goodman Tour and the Teapot Tempest.”
145. Sophia Duckworth, “Letter from a Tourist,” Down Beat, 2 August 1962, 12.
146. Yuri Vikharieff, “Waitin’ for Benny: A Report from Russia,” Down Beat, 5 July 1962, 14; and “Soviets Disappointed Because 1st Jazz Band Wasn’t Negro,” Jet, 28 June 1962, 56–57.
147. AmEmb Moscow A-31 to DOS, “Benny Goodman and His Band in the Soviet Union,” CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny Band/7–1062, NA.
148. Translation of K. Pevsner, “After the First Acquaintanceship,” Evening Tbilisi, 11 June 1962, encl. in AmEmb Moscow A-31 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny Band/7–1062, NA.
149. Quoted in Max Frankel, “New Spirit in Soviet: Jazz, Lipstick and Freer Expression Mark Period of ‘Post-Repressionism,’” NYT, 17 August 1963.
150. “Special Report: Goodman Men Sound Off about Soviet Tour,” Down Beat, 30 August 1962, 12–13, 36; and AmEmb Moscow A-31 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny Band/7–1062, NA.
151. AmEmb Moscow A-31 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Goodman, Benny Band/7–1062, NA.
152. DOS T-819 to AmEmb Moscow, 5 August 1968, ARK II b60 f4.
153. Aucoin, “Deconstructing the American Way of Life,” 14; Thomas W. Wolfe, “Obstacle Course for Attachés,” Studies in Intelligence 4, no. 3 (1960): 71–77, CIA-RDP78–03921A000300290001–3, CREST, NA.
154. AmEmb Moscow A-370, “Cultural Exchange: The Earl Hines Band in the USSR,” to DOS, 6 September 1966, pp. 3–4, ARK II b66 f14.
155. AmEmb Moscow A-132, “Boston Symphony Chamber Players’ Tour of the USSR,” to DOS and USIA, 1 August 1967, p. 3, ARK II b57 f11.
156. Ibid., p. 4.
157. AmEmb Moscow A-51, “The University of Illinois Jazz Band—An Evaluation,” to DOS, 12 January 1970, ARK II b81 f25.
158. Amanda Aucoin describes persistent Soviet efforts to limit the impact of the U.S. exhibition at Sokolniki Park, including presenting competing exhibitions, constraints on journalists, and limiting ticket sales. Aucoin, “Deconstructing the American Way of Life,” 106–8.
159. Walter Kolar and Patricia French, interview by the author, 29 May 2012.
160. David Kolar, interview by the author, 28 March 2012.
161. Evaluation Report, University of Illinois Jazz Band, ARK II b97 f4.
162. “Exchanges: Illinois Band, to AmEmb Moscow 6 September 1969,” DOS telegram, 6 September 1969, ARK II b82 f2. See also (all in ARK II b82 f2): AmEmb Moscow T-4002 to DOS, 8 September 1969; AmEmb Moscow T-4545 to DOS, 10 October 1969; AmEmb Moscow T-4712 to DOS, 21 October 1969.
163. Guy Coriden to Walter Kolar, 4 February 1969, Duquesne University Tamburitzans Archives (hereafter DUT). My thanks to Susan Stafura for access to the archives.
164. Evaluation Report, Duquesne University Folk Ensemble, EE/USSR, 10 June–29 July 1969, ARK II b60 f3.
165. AmEmb Moscow T-4296 to DOS, “Exchanges: Illinois Band,” 25 September 1969, ARK II b82 f2.
166. David Kolar, interview.
167. Mary Patzer, “Duquesne University Folk Dance Ensemble Tour of East Europe and USSR,” 5 November 1969, ARK II b60 f3.
168. Walter Kolar, interview.
169. Effectiveness Report, Duquesne University Folk Ensemble EE/USSR 10 June–29 July 1969, ARK II b97 f3; AmEmb Moscow A-1298 to DOS, “Exchanges: Duquesne University Song and Dance Ensemble,” 22 October 1969, ARK II b60 f3.
170. Telegram copy from Bucharest [to DOS] 13 June [1969], DUT.
171. Rudy Grasha, interview by the author, 13 March 2012.
172. AmEmb Moscow A-1298 to DOS, “Exchanges: Duquesne University Song and Dance Ensemble,” 22 October 1969, ARK II b60 f3; Effectiveness Report, Duquesne University Folk Ensemble EE/USSR 10 June–29 July 1969, ARK II b97 f3; Christine Jordanoff, interview by the author, 29 May 2012.
173. David Kolar, interview.
174. Christine Jordanoff, interview.
175. “Travel to the Soviet Union,” DUT.
176. Roth-Ey, Moscow Prime Time, 10.
177. AmEmb Moscow D-755 to DOS, 27 February 1962, CDF60–63 032 Eastman Philharmonia/2–2762, NA.
178. Richard Service to Foy Kohler, “Shoplifting by Accordionist of Beryozka Ensemble,” memorandum and talking points, 10 February 1959, CDF55–59 032 Beriozka Ensemble/2–1059, NA.
179. Grasha, interview.
180. Suki Schorer, interview by Clare Croft, 20 August 2008, cited in Croft, “Funding Footprints,” 101–2.
181. Kay Mazzo, interview by Clare Croft, 22 August 2008, “Funding Footprints,” 75.
182. Ibid.
183. Joseph Silverstein and Harry J. Kraut, “Report on the Tour to England, Soviet Union, West Germany under the Auspices of Department of State Cultural Presentations Program, April 29–June 16, 1967,” p. 18, ARK II b57 f13.
184. AmEmb Moscow A-132 to DOS and USIA, “Boston Symphony Chamber Players’ Tour of the USSR,” 1 August 1967, ARK II b57 f11.
185. Matthiew Ruggiero, interview by the author, 26 November 2011.
186. Scott C. Lyon, Liaison Officer, to Charles Ellison, DOS, “Pro Musica Tour of Yugoslavia and U.S.S.R., 1964,” 1 December 1964, ARK II b75 f5.
187. AmEmb Moscow A-1582, “The University of Illinois Jazz Band: Mid-tour Observations,” to DOS, 10 December 1969, ARK II b81 f25.
188. AmEmb Moscow A-51 to DOS, “The University of Illinois Jazz Band—An Evaluation,” 12 January 1970, ARK II b81 f25; see also Dan Morgenstern, “Cultural Confluence,” Down Beat, 30 April 1970, 13–14.
189. Diane Haley, “Curtain Call,” Oberlin Today 22, no. 4 (1964): 5. Cited in Tim Scholl, “Student Interactions, Race, and the Media: The Oberlin College Choir 1964 Tour of the USSR and Romania,” unpublished working paper presented at the conference “East-West Cultural Exchanges,” Jyväskylä, Finland, 16 June 2012.
190. Russ Hurd, comp., “The Russian Tour—Ten Years Later” (1974), 34, box 4, Series IV: Scrapbooks, Russian Tour, 1964, Robert Fountain Papers, RG 30/368, Oberlin College Archives (hereafter RFP).
191. Ibid., 26, 23.
192. Scholl, comments on “Student Interactions, Race, and the Media,” 16 June 2012; International Understanding . . . through the Performing Arts: A Report on the Cultural Presentations Program of the Department of State, July 1, 1963–June 30, 1964, DOS Publication 7819 (1965), 63–66.
193. Lee Irwin, interview by the author and Tim Scholl, 15 November 2013; Barbara Muller, interview by the author and Tim Scholl, 16 November 2013; and Muller, recollection in Memories of the Oberlin College Choir 1964 Soviet Union Tour (Oberlin, Ohio: Oberlin College and Conservatory, 2013), 26; Barbara Dee Silva, interview by the author, 15 November 2013.
194. Alexander Holmes, “Are Communists ‘Human’? Writer Back from Moscow Raises Doubt,” Los Angeles Times, 30 June 1959.
195. Castle, “‘Culture’ for Khrushchev,” 40.
196. Walter Kolar and Patricia French, interview.
197. Leonid Gesin, interview by Katerina Frank, 5 May 2007, cited in Katerina Frank, “Looking at Both Sides of the Iron Curtain: Boston Symphony Orchestra’s Tour of the Soviet Union,” unpublished seminar paper, 2007. My thanks to Ms. Frank for sharing her paper.
198. Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War, 124. A State Department interpreter cited Soviet observations of American abundance and comfort as a source of disgust with conditions in the Soviet Union: ibid., 179. See also Castillo, Cold War on the Home Front.
199. Shelley Gruskin, interview by the author, 3 November 2011. On the strangeness of the experience of cultural diplomacy see David Newsom, introduction to Private Diplomacy with the Soviet Union (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987), xii.
200. Interview with David Swain, 16 November 2013.
201. Barbara Limberg Davis, quoted in “The Russian Tour—Ten Years Later” (1974), comp. Russ Hurd, 20, box 4, Series IV: Scrapbooks, Russian Tour, 1964, RFP; Capote, The Muses Are Heard, 10; Jordanoff, Ruggiero, D. Kolar, interviews; Sheila Yeomans, interview by Tim Scholl and the author, 15 November 2013; Stanley Drucker, interview with Peter Schmelz, 16 April 2013, cited in Schmelz, “Shostakovich Fights the Cold War.”
202. David Kolar, interview.
203. Tim Edensor, “Staging Tourism: Tourists as Performers,” Annals of Tourism Research 27, no. 2 (2000): 334–36. See also Judith Adler, “Travel as Performed Art,” American Journal of Sociology 94, no. 6 (May 1989): 1366–91.
204. Leonard Garment, Crazy Rhythm: My Journey from Brooklyn, Jazz, and Wall Street to Nixon’s White House, Watergate, and Beyond . . . (New York: Random House, 1997), 173. See also Nancy Dickerson, “Letter from Moscow,” Washington Post, 24 July 1969.
205. “As High Fidelity Sees It: The Moscow–New York Shuttle,” High Fidelity, 15 October 1965, 49.
206. Robert J. Landry, “Soviet ‘Steals’ Cultural Exchange; Oistrakh and Moscow Orch New Case; US May Now Woo East Europeans,” Variety, 14 January 1970, 2, 32.
207. AmEmb Moscow D-107 to DOS, CDF55–59 511.613/8–1458, NA; Jussi M. Hanhimäki, The Rise and Fall of Détente: American Foreign Policy and the Transformation of the Cold War (Washington: Potomac Books, 2013), xvii; Jeremi Suri, “Détente and Human Rights: American and West European Perspectives on International Change,” Cold War History 8, no. 4 (2008): 528. On President Johnson’s strategy of “bridge-building” with Eastern Europe see Mitchell Lerner, “‘Trying to Find the Guy Who Invited Them’: Lyndon Johnson, Bridge Building, and the End of the Prague Spring,” Diplomatic History 32, no. 1 (2008): 77–103.
208. Hanhimäki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 8–9; Anne de Tinguy, U.S.-Soviet Relations during the Détente, no. 526, trans. A.P.M. Bradley (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1999), 14.
209. President John F. Kennedy, Commencement Address at American University, 10 June 1963, quoted in Hanhimäki, The Rise and Fall of Détente, 158.
210. Nikita Khrushchev, speech on 8 March 1963, The Great Mission, 187–88, cited in Nancy Condee, “Cultural Codes of the Thaw,” in Nikita Khrushchev, ed. William Taubman, Sergei Khrushchev, and Abbott Gleason (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 165.
211. The term was first used officially during the Nixon administration. See Raymond Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1985), 1–2; Michael B. Froman, The Development of the Idea of Détente: Coming to Terms (New York: St. Martin’s, 1991), 2–8, 121; Keith L. Nelson, The Making of Détente: Soviet-American Relations in the Shadow of Vietnam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), ix, xv.
212. Wilfried Loth and Georges-Henri Soutou, eds., The Making of Détente: Eastern and Western Europe in the Cold War, 1965–1975 (London: Routledge, 2008), 1.
213. “U.S.-U.S.S.R. Agreement on Basic Principles of Relations,” International Legal Materials 11, no. 4 (1972): 760.
214. de Tinguy, U.S.-Soviet Relations during the Détente, 21–23, 64, 74–78.
215. Robert Shaw, “Lecture on ‘The Conservative Arts,’” Harvard University, 9 November 1981, in The Robert Shaw Reader, ed. Robert Blocker (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 355–56.
216. Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, 8–9.
217. In 1977 a task force of the Twentieth Century Fund urged the U.S. government to keep negotiating against Soviet-imposed limits on the styles of American-sponsored cultural presentations and to urge the Soviets to send a greater variety of styles of art to the West. Herbert Kupferberg, “Background Paper,” in The Raised Curtain: Report of the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Soviet-American Scholarly and Cultural Exchanges (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1977), 10.
218. Howard Taubman, “White House Salutes Culture in America: Dissent of Artists on Foreign Policy Stirs 400 at All-Day Fete,” NYT, 15 June 1965.
1. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994), 3, 4.
2. See Daniel Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America (1961; New York: Atheneum, 1972), 10, 11, 39.
3. Ibid., 12, 10.
4. Henry A. Kissinger, “Reflections on American Diplomacy,” Foreign Affairs 35, no. 1 (1956): 46. Cited in Osgood, Total Cold War, 183. See also Harvey Molotch and Marilyn Lester, “News as Purposive Behavior,” American Sociological Review 39 (February 1974): 104.
5. President’s Committee on Information Activities Abroad, folder PCIAA No. 24, “Disarmament and the Factor of Public Opinion,” 6 June 1960; and folder PCIAA No. 21, “The Problem of U.S. Public Understanding of International Affairs,” 8 August 1960, Bureau of Public Affairs Policy Plans and Guidance Staff, Records Relating to the President’s Committee on Information Activities Abroad, Entry A1–1587Q, RG 59, NA. See also Osgood, Total Cold War, 181–85, 212.
6. David Finn, “Big Sell in the Cold War,” Saturday Review, 10 October 1959, 55. See also Justin Hart, “Foreign Relations as Domestic Affairs: The Role of the ‘Public’ in the Origins of U.S. Public Diplomacy,” in The United States and Public Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History, ed. Kenneth Osgood and Brian Etheridge (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), 206–23.
7. The New York Philharmonic attracted an estimated twenty thousand people at an open-air concert in São Paulo: AmEmb Rio de Janeiro D-185 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 New York Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra/8–1858. The Boston Symphony Orchestra attracted nineteen thousand listeners over three concerts in Manila: AmEmb Manila D-641 to DOS, CDF60–63 032 Boston Symphony Orchestra/6–1060, NA.
8. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 6–8. See also Peter Dunbar-Hall, “Culture, Tourism, and Cultural Tourism: Boundaries and Frontiers in Performances of Balinese Music and Dance,” Journal of Intercultural Studies 22, no. 2 (2001): 173–87.
9. Charles Frankel, “The Era of Educational and Cultural Relations,” DOS Publication 8093 (1966), 3. This article also appeared in the Department of State Bulletin 54, no. 46 (1966): 889–97.
10. Frankel, “The Era of Educational and Cultural Relations,” 3, 5. See also Educational and Cultural Diplomacy, 1964, DOS Publication 7979 (1965), 1.
11. Boorstin, The Image, 44.
12. AmConGen Hong Kong D-311 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Anderson, Marian/10–2257, NA. The USIA facilitated many translations of Anderson’s autobiography, My Lord, What a Morning (New York: Viking, 1956). By mid-1958 these included versions in Korean, Chinese, Bengali, Thai, Tamil, Hindi, and Gujarati. George V. Allen, Director, USIA, to Anderson, 30 April 1958, f5858, MAP I.A.
13. DOS Instruction A-227 to AmEmb Managua, CDF55–59 032 National Symphony Orchestra/2–2459, NA. Mediated cultural diplomacy is an important precedent for the “media events” (televised public ceremonies) described by Daniel Dayan and Elihu Katz in Media Events: The Live Broadcasting of History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
14. “Concert by National Symphony Orchestra of Washington D.C. in San Salvador, July 30, 1959,” encl. in AmEmb San Salvador D-97 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 National Symphony Orchestra/8–3159, NA.
15. Preliminary Notes on OCB Meeting of August 13, 1958, folder Preliminary Notes III, Records Relating to State Department Participation in the OCB and the NSC 1953–60, Entry A1–1586A, RG 59, NA.
16. AmEmb Helsinki D-779 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 George, Zelma (Dr.)/5–2859, NA.
17. AmEmb Rangoon D-392 to DOS, CDF55–59 032 Golden Gate Quartet/2–359, NA.
18. See Helge Danielsen, “Mediating Public Diplomacy: Local Conditions and U.S. Public Diplomacy in Norway in the 1950s,” in The United States and Public Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History, ed. Kenneth Osgood and Brian Etheridge (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2010), 285–314.
19. Boorstin, The Image, 34.
20. “Outline of Tentative Program for the Division of Cultural Relations, Department of State, June 1, 1939,” 1–2, folder Cultural Cooperation Program 1939–1948, Subject Files 1953–2000, USIA Historical Collection, Entry A1–1066, RG 306, NA.
21. Sorensen, The Word War, x. For another account of cultural programs as “honest” but selective see also J.M. Mitchell, International Cultural Relations (London: Allen and Unwin, 1986), 5.
22. These were hotly debated issues within government agencies, and propaganda campaigns were often given names that would soften their propagandistic intent. See Edward W. Barrett, Truth Is Our Weapon (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1953); IIA’s internal debates and polling data about propaganda, folder Propaganda, Subject Files 1950–53, Office of the Administrator, International Information Administration, Entry A1–5056, RG 59, NA; Scott Lucas, “Campaigns of Truth: The Psychological Strategy Board and American Ideology, 1951–1953,” International History Review 18, no. 2 (1996): 279–302.
23. On implicit endorsement see Boorstin, The Image, 219.
24. Ibid., 36.
25. Thomas de Zengotita, Mediated: How the Media Shapes Your World and the Way You Live in It (New York: Bloomsbury, 2005), 30.
26. Ibid., 134.
27. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 34, 44.
28. Marvin Keenze, interview by the author, 6 December 2011; Matthew Ruggiero, interview by the author, 26 November 2011.
29. Shelley Gruskin, interview by the author, 3 November 2011; “The Russian Tour—Ten Years Later” (1974), comp. Russ Hurd, box 4, Series IV: Scrapbooks, Russian Tour, 1964, Robert Fountain Papers 30/308, Oberlin College Archives.
30. AmEmb Moscow A-1582 to DOS, 10 December 1969, ARK II b81 f25.
31. Gruskin, interview; Alma Schueler, interview by the author, 16 December 2008; Kleinfeldt, interview by the author, 20 August 2008; Marc Gottlieb, interview by the author, 23 January 2012; Barry Campbell, interview by the author, 25 August 2008.
32. Gottlieb, interview.
33. Kleinfeldt, interview; Tom Jenkins, interview by the author, 2 September 2008.
34. Kleinfeldt, interview; Ron Post, interview by the author, 1 July 2006; Irwin, interview.
35. Rob Roy McGregor, interview by the author, 12 June 2006; Dennis Garrels, interview by the author, 14 June 2006; Joe Mallare, interview by the author, 14 June 2006.
36. Lawrence M. Greenberg, United States Army Unilateral and Coalition Operations in the 1965 Dominican Republic Intervention (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, Analysis Branch, [1986]), 18, 21, 32; and “Evacuees Arrive, Tell of Terror,” NYT, 29 April 1965.
37. Bruce Fisher, interview by the author, 18 July 2006; Crawford to McGregor, 2 August [1965], personal papers of Rob Roy McGregor; and McGregor, interview. My thanks to Mr. McGregor for sharing his papers, photographs, and an audio recording with me.
38. Susan Migden Socolow, interview by the author, 15 January 2008. See Fosler-Lussier, “Cultural Diplomacy as Cultural Globalization,” 78.
39. Socolow, interview.
40. See “U.S. Band’s Latin Concert Off,” NYT, 7 April 1965; “Reds Label U-M Band ‘Imperialist,’” box 1, RCP. The band had been denounced by a Communist paper; however, the conflict on campus was due not to the band’s presence but to the death of a student protester in antigovernment riots the previous week.
41. Post, interview.
42. Ibid.
43. According to Mary Dudziak, Americans’ interest in their international role substantially altered their decisions. See Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 17.
44. See Travis Jackson, “Tourist Point of View? Musics of the World and Ellington’s Suites,” Musical Quarterly 96, no. 3–4 (2013): 513–40.
45. Boorstin, The Image, 19.
46. On the purposeful creation of authentic experience see Dean MacCannell, “Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist Settings,” American Journal of Sociology 79, no. 3 (1973): 589–603.
47. Bas Arts, Math Noortmann, and Bob Reinalda, eds., Non-state Actors in International Relations (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 1–4; Autio-Sarasmo and Miklóssy, “Introduction,” 2.
48. The inversion is Lauren Berlant’s, in The Queen of America Goes to Washington City: Essays on Sex and Citizenship (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 175–80. See also Helen Laville and Hugh Wilford, eds., The U.S. Government, Citizen Groups, and the Cold War: The State-Private Network (New York: Routledge, 2006); Michael Hardt, “The Global Society of Control,” Discourse 20, no. 3 (1988): 149; Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 1, 251–53.
49. Michael Hardt, “The Withering of Civil Society,” Social Text 45 (Winter 1995): 32. Hardt draws especially on Michel Foucault, “Governmentality,” which appears in English in The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, ed. Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87–104. A precedent for the state’s enlistment of citizens as actors is described in Elizabeth A. Wood, Performing Justice: Agitation Trials in Early Soviet Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), 206–7; and Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear Off the Masks! Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-Century Russia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005). See also Gorsuch, All This Is Your World, 107–8.
50. Boorstin, The Image, 12, 10.
51. Nye, Soft Power, x; Nye, Bound to Lead, 194.
52. Charles M. Ellison, “The Performing Arts and Our Foreign Relations,” Music Educators Journal 52, no. 2 (1965): 138.
53. Former Asst. Secretary of State John Richardson, Testimony Before Congress on “Public Diplomacy and the Future,” 15 June 1977, Public Diplomacy and the Future: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on International Operations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session, 153.
54. See Richard Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History (New York: Norton, 2001), 146–55, 272–92, 305–13.
55. See, e.g., Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 3, 11–12, 154–56. Boorstin agreed: he argued repeatedly that works of art were entirely unsuitable for propaganda because their value was separate from practical action, and each work was special. See Boorstin, “The Indivisible World: Libraries and the Myth of Cultural Exchange,” Remarks at the IFLA General Conference, Chicago, 19 August 1985 (Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1985), 9.
56. Cited in Thomson and Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy, 86; and in John Brown, “The Purposes and Cross-Purposes of American Public Diplomacy,” note 23, American Diplomacy, 15 August 2002, www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2002_07–09/brown_pubdipl/brown_pubdipl.html.
57. On appropriations difficulties see Philip H. Coombs, “The Past and Future in Perspective,” in Cultural Affairs and Foreign Relations, ed. Robert Blum (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963), 139–71, 145; Asst. Secretary of State William Benton, Statement Before the House Foreign Affairs Committee, 16 October 1945, cited in DOS, Office of Public Affairs, “America—‘A Full and Fair Picture’: The Government’s Information and Cultural Relations Program Overseas,” April 1946, 5–6, folder Cultural Cooperation Program, Subject Files 1953–2000, USIA Historical Collection, Entry A1–1066, RG 306.
58. Osgood, Total Cold War, 185.
59. Sorensen, The Word War, 4–5.
60. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (1983; London: Verso, 2006), 33–46. Anderson’s work is critiqued and extended in John D. Kelly and Martha Kaplan, Represented Communities: Fiji and World Decolonization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 85–99.
61. John Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture (Cambridge: Polity, 1999), 9, 11–12.
62. Remarks of Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs John Richardson Jr. to the Annual Foreign Policy Conference for Senior Executives, 7 April 1971, folder Educational Exchanges, Remarks of John Richardson Jr., 1971, Subject Files 1953–2000, USIA Historical Collection, Entry A1–1066, RG 306, NA.
63. Anna Tsing, “The Global Situation,” Cultural Anthropology 15, no. 3 (2000): 330. Cf. Hung-Gu Lynn, “Globalization in the Cold War,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, ed. Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 584–601.
64. David Sarnoff, “The Importance of Allies in Their Relation to U.S. Strategy and Policy,” Address at the Third Annual Meeting of the Association of the U.S. Army, 29 October 1957, CIA-RDP80R01731R000700010017–0, CIA Records Search Tool (CREST), NA. A CIA staffer’s summary of Sarnoff’s agenda cited his recommendation to create “new channels of contact.”
65. Educational and Cultural Diplomacy, 1964, 1.
66. Charles Thomson and Walter H.C. Laves, Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963), 141–42, 145.
67. Coombs, “Past and Future in Perspective,” 147–53.
68. Brian Larkin, Signal and Noise: Media, Infrastructure, and Urban Culture in Nigeria (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 3; Nancy E. Bernhard, U.S. Television News and Cold War Propaganda, 1947–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 178–90.
69. See Rebekah Ahrendt, Mark Ferraguto, and Damien Mahiet, eds., Music and Diplomacy from the Early Modern Era to the Present (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
70. Dipesh Chakrabarty, “The Legacies of Bandung: Decolonization and the Politics of Culture,” in Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives, ed. Christopher J. Lee (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2010), 53–55. See also Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 65; and Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View from the Receiving End,” Diplomatic History 23, no. 3 (1999): 467.
71. Kelly and Kaplan, Represented Communities, 18–26, 139–42. See also Connie McNeely, Constructing the Nation-State: International Organization and Prescriptive Action (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), 21–26, 35–36.
72. Sulwyn Lewis, “Principles of Cultural Co-operation,” Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, no. 61 (Paris: UNESCO, 1970), 11–12; James W. Fernandez, “Andalusia on Our Minds: Two Contrasting Places in Spain as Seen in a Vernacular Poetic Duel of the Late 19th Century,” Cultural Anthropology 3, no. 1 (1988): 21–35; Kathy Foley, “The Metonymy of Art: Vietnamese Water Puppetry as a Representation of Modern Vietnam,” Drama Review 45, no. 4 (2001): 134–35, 139; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 65.
73. The sovereignty of media was debated hotly in the 1970s: decolonizing nations wanted to join the international exchange of information as equal partners rather than as recipients of foreign media. See Dietrich Berwanger, Television in the Third World: New Technology and Social Change (Bonn: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1987), 63.
74. Kelly and Kaplan explain the doubleness of “representation”—meaning both delegated spokesmanship and symbolic portrayal—in their Represented Communities, 22.
75. Anthony Shay, Choreographic Politics: State Folk Dance Companies, Representation, and Power (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2002); Kelly Askew, Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Lisa Gilman, The Dance of Politics: Gender, Performance, and Democratization in Malawi (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 39; Steve Chimombo and Moira Chimombo, The Culture of Democracy: Language, Literature, the Arts and Politics in Malawi, 1992–1994 (Limbe, Malawi: WASI, 1996), 2–3; and Mike McGovern, Unmasking the State: Making Guinea Modern (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 209, 214–18.
76. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Intangible Heritage as Metacultural Production,” Museum International 56, no. 1–2 (2004): 52–65.
77. Greg Castillo, “Peoples at an Exhibition: Soviet Architecture and the National Question,” in Socialist Realism without Shores, ed. Thomas Lahusen and Evgeny Dobrenko (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 91–119.
78. Philip Kotler and David Gertner, “Country as Brand, Product, and Beyond: A Place Marketing and Brand Management Perspective,” Brand Management 4, no. 5 (2002): 249–61; and a remarkable early example, Edward Bernays, “The Marketing of National Policies: A Study of War Propaganda,” Journal of Marketing 6, no. 3 (1942): 236–44. See also Margaret Mead, “The Importance of National Cultures,” in International Communication and the New Diplomacy, ed. Arthur S. Hoffman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968), 89–105.
79. AmEmb Moscow D-107 to DOS, CDF55–59 511.613/8–1458, NA.
80. “Main Conclusions of U.S. Missions Abroad on U.S. Educational and Cultural Exchange Programs” [ca. 1967], folder Educational Exchanges, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, 1981–1984, Subject Files, USIA Historical Collection, Entry A1–1066, RG 306, NA.
81. Post, interview.
82. Murrow, appearance before Senate Foreign Relations Committee, quoted in remarks by Thomas C. Sorensen, in “The U.S.—Warts and All”: Edward R. Murrow as Director of USIA, Presenting the U.S. to the World: A Commemorative Symposium, Washington, D.C., October 16, 1991 (Washington, DC: U.S. Information Agency Alumni Association and the Public Diplomacy Foundation, 1992), 16.
83. Giles Scott-Smith and Martijn Mos, “Democracy Promotion and the New Public Diplomacy,” in New Directions in U.S. Foreign Policy, ed. Inderjeet Parmar, Linda B. Miller, and Mark Ledwidge (New York: Routledge, 2009), 227. Scott-Smith and Mos here summarize Jan Melissen, ed., The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 12–13. See also Philip Seib, ed., Toward a New Public Diplomacy: Redirecting U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Frank Hodsoll, “Issue Briefs: Cultural Engagement in a Networked World,” Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society 39, no. 4 (2010): 280–81; and Anne-Marie Slaughter, “America’s Edge: Power in the Networked Century,” Foreign Affairs 88, no. 1 (2009): 112.
84. Nicholas Cull, “Public Diplomacy: Seven Lessons for Its Future from Its Past,” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6, no. 1 (2010): 15.
85. Asst. Secretary of State for Public Affairs Andrew Berding, Address to Seattle Bar Association and American Association for the United Nations, 12 November 1958, State Department Bulletin 39 (1958): 955–59.
86. Further: “Iran is a respected member of the free world community, including CENTO, and a valued ally of the United States”; “It is advantageous to Iranians to maintain a realistic awareness of the threat of Communist encroachment and subversion”; “The U.S. is strong, dynamic, and democratic.” Field Message, USIS Tehran to USIA Washington, 8 February 1965, folder Iran 1 of 2, Records of the Office of Exhibits, Entry A1–1039, RG 306, NA.
87. Cull, “Public Diplomacy,” 15. See also Brown, “Purposes and Cross-Purposes.”