The short vowel a is pronounced like the u in but, the long ā like the a in far.
The short i is pronounced as in pin, the long ī as in pique, the short u as in pull, and the long ū as in rule.
The vowel ṛ is pronounced like the ri in rim, the e like the ey in they, the o like the o in go, the ai like the ai in aisle, and the au like the ow in how.
The anusvara (ṁ) is pronounced like the n in the French word bon, and the visarga (ḥ) is pronounced as a final h sound. At the end of a couplet, aḥ is pronounced aha, and iḥ as ihi.
The guttural consonants—k, kh, g, gh, and ṅ—are pronounced from the throat in much the same manner as in English. K is pronounced as in kite, kh as in Eckhart, g as in give, gh as in dig-hart, ṅ as in sing.
The palatal consonants—c, ch, j, jh, and ñ—are pronounced with the tongue touching the firm ridge behind the teeth. C is pronounced as in chair, ch as in staunch-heart, j as in joy, jh as in hedgehog, and ñ as in canyon.
The cerebral consonants—ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, and ṇ—are pronounced with the tip of the tongue turned up and drawn back against the dome of the palate. Ṭ is pronounced as in tub, ṭh as in light-heart, ḍ as in dove, ḍh as in red-hot, and ṇ as in nut.
The dental consonants—t, th, d, dh, and n—are pronounced in the same manner as the cerebrals but with the forepart of the tongue against the teeth.
The labial consonants—p, ph, b, bh, and m—are pronounced with the lips. P is pronounced as in pine, ph as in uphill, b as in bird, bh as in rub-hard, and m as in mother.
The semi-vowels—y, r, l, and v—are pronounced as in yes, run, light, and vine, while the sibilants—ś, ṣ, and s—are pronounced as in the German sprechen, shine, and sun. H is as in home.