At the risk of echoing a former president, the answer depends on what you mean by correct.
For most editors and proofreaders, correct doesn't mean "true." It's usually someone else's job (the author's, for instance) to vouch for the veracity of the content. It might be your job to check facts, and you're certainly free to flag something you know to be false, but in most cases editorial correctness is a whole different topic.
From an editorial standpoint, correctness has to do with whether the right caption goes with the right picture, whether numbered items are sequential, whether heading levels are accurate, whether bullet styles are consistent, and many other details.
And, of course, mostly it has to do with the mechanics of the writing—spelling, grammar, capitalization, punctuation, and so forth. It has to do with all those language things you learned (or were exposed to) in school. Is it which or that? Who or whom? Its or it's? It's (not its) an editor's job to know the answers.
But let's face it: for most people, English class is a dim memory. You know writing has its rules, but you're a little hazy on a few of them.
What's more, "correct" English is a moving target; both the language and the rules evolve over time. And despite what Ms. Stickler told you in eighth grade, some of the "rules" were never rules at all. So deciding what's currently correct can tax the best of us, even the pros.
Here's help. In this chapter, you'll find mercifully simple answers to the preceding questions and many more. We've chosen the writing dilemmas that seem to stymie most people most often and provided just what you need to solve them, briefly. We know you mean to read that stack of English usage manuals, cover to cover, but until you get to them, here are the highlights.
And you don't even need to take notes. At the end of the chapter, you'll find tools to help you remember it all.
A sentence is like a jigsaw puzzle, and the parts of speech are its pieces. When the pieces fit, the picture they form is clear, even beautiful. The pieces are the same ones you met in Ms. Stickler's class, so they're probably old acquaintances. But in case it's been a while, here's a quick refresher before we move on:
• Noun—a word that indicates a person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns represent unique, named people or things and always start with a capital letter (Mike, London). Common nouns indicate one or more of a whole group of things, and unless they begin a sentence, they start with a lowercase letter (tree, freedom).
• Pronoun—a word that stands in for a noun (I, he, them, who, that, which, all, anyone, one, none, etc.).
• Adjective—a word that describes a noun (small woman, tall man, windy day).
• Verb—a word that shows action (walk, read, go, speak) or a state of being (be, seem, feel, become).
• Adverb—a word that describes a verb (walk quickly, read slowly), another adverb (walk very quickly, read quite slowly), or an adjective (a very small woman, a remarkably tall man).
• Conjunction—a word that connects other words or parts of a sentence (and, or, but, since, because, etc.).
• Preposition—a word that "positions" other words in a sentence (about, above, between, in, on, out, to, up, etc.).
NOTE: With each of the topics in this chapter, we've included references to some well-respected resources for further reading. We bow to their wisdom and expertise. CMS is The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition; Garner is Garner's Modern American Usage, by Bryan A. Garner; Woe is Woe Is I, by Patricia T. O'Conner; and WC is Word Court, by Barbara Wallraff.
To be fair, most of what your English teacher had to tell you was right on. Now, as then, you really do need to keep your subject and verb on speaking terms; you really do need a semicolon in a sentence like this one.
But a few things have changed in recent years, and a few things were never more than myths. So in the sections that follow, we'll jog your memory on the bedrock basics of grammar and usage, bring you up to date on a few others, and banish some grammar ghosts that have been in the attic far too long.
Tip
Why all the rules? Not because editors are control fiends, although some authors think so. We have standards for writing for the same reason we have rules of the road: so everyone reads the signs and symbols the same way, and no one collides with a comma on the way to clear understanding. Rules serve the reader, which is why editors heed them.
Sentences in which the parts don't match up can confuse the reader or alter the meaning. Fortunately, most people naturally choose the right words. But there are times when the right choice is less obvious. Here are the basics of agreement, plus some help with perennial puzzlers.
Counting Is Key. Agreement in number is fundamental to good grammar. Singular subjects need singular verbs and singular pronouns, and plural subjects need plural verbs and plural pronouns (CMS 5.12, 5.40–41, 5.123).
Correct: Joe is a man who knows his own mind.
Correct: Bob and Steve are men who know their own minds.
Simple enough. But what happens when more words move in? To keep your subject and verb in sync, don't be distracted by what comes between them (CMS 5.123; Garner 174–75; WC 92–93; Woe 50–53).
Correct: Each of the candidates has her strengths.
Incorrect: Each of the candidates have their strengths.
And make sure you've matched the right subject with the right verb. Watch out for sentences that have more than one.
Correct: She is one of those people who make it look easy.
Incorrect: She is one of those people who makes it look easy.
In this sentence, the first subject is she, and the first verb is is. No confusion there. But here's the tricky part: The second subject is who, and the second verb is make. And because who is standing in for people, it needs a plural verb (make, not makes).
Tip
With the phrases one of the, one of those, or one of these, look for the pronoun that or who before the verb. If it's there, the verb that follows is plural. If it's not, the verb is singular (Garner 572–73; Woe 60–61).
Sometimes subjects come in more than one part. When they do, here's how to decide whether to use a singular or plural verb (Woe 52–53).
With or or nor, if both parts of the subject are singular, use a singular verb.
Correct: Either blue or black is acceptable.
Incorrect: Either blue or black are acceptable.
If they're both plural, use a plural verb.
Correct: Neither the sandwiches nor the doughnuts were eaten.
Incorrect: Neither the sandwiches nor the doughnuts was eaten.
If one part of the subject is singular, and one part is plural, match the verb to the part closest to it.
Correct: Neither the sandwiches nor the doughnut was eaten.
Correct: Neither the sandwich nor the doughnuts were eaten.
And sometimes a subject can be either singular or plural. When the subject is a word that indicates a group—like majority, couple, number, all, any, or none—the verb form you choose depends on what you mean. Are you talking about the group as a whole or its individual members (CMS 5.8; WC 122–31; Woe 25–28, 53)?
Correct: The couple next door has two cats.
Correct: A couple of offers have just come in.
Correct: The majority wants change.
Correct: A majority of the members want a new policy.
Tip
There's no substitute for thinking it through, but with subjects like these, the often points to a singular meaning, while a (especially with of...) points to the plural.
Timing Is Everything. While verbs are busy agreeing with their subjects, they must also keep an eye on the clock. The form of the verb shows the tense, or the "when," of the action—the past, the present, or the future, and different divisions of each. When the same time frame applies to all parts of the sentence, it's not hard to pick the right verbs (CMS 5.115–21; Garner 777–79; Woe 730).
Correct: Every morning she runs (present), takes (present) a shower, and eats (present) breakfast.
Correct: Every morning she ran (past), took (past) a shower, and ate (past) breakfast.
But it gets a little trickier when time zones overlap. When something started in the past and continues to the present, take care not to cut off the action too soon.
Correct: I have gone (present perfect) there for two years. (And I still go there.)
Correct: I went (past) there for two years. (But I no longer do.)
Correct: I haven't done (present perfect) it yet. (But I still might.)
Incorrect: I didn't do (past) it yet. (Time for action is all in the past; conflicts with yet, which implies it might still happen.)
And when a sentence starts in one time zone and ends in another, watch to be sure the verbs follow suit.
Correct: If Harry says (present) so, I will believe (future) it.
Correct: If Harry said (past) so, I would believe (conditional) it.
Incorrect: If Harry said (past) so, I will believe (future) it.
Tip
When the verb in the first part of an "if" sentence is in the present tense, the verb in the second part starts with will (future). When the verb in the first part is in the past tense, the verb in the second part starts with would (conditional) (Woe 75–77).
Me, Myself, and I. Is it he or him, me or I, she or her? The answer depends on just one thing—is it a subject or an object (CMS 5.40–42, 5.47; Garner 642–44; WC 132–36; Woe 10–13)?
A subject is the one doing the action.
Correct: Jim called Susan.
Correct: He called Susan.
An object is the receiver of the action.
Correct: Jim called Susan.
Correct: Jim called her.
It's also what's being "positioned" by a preposition (in this case, between).
Correct: The call was between Jim and Susan.
Correct: The call was between him and her.
Incorrect: The call was between he and she.
To choose the right personal pronoun, first decide whether you need a subject or an object; then choose the one that fits.
Tip
When you see a preposition before a pronoun, it's a tip-off you need the object form (the fog rolled over them).
Pronouns that include self or selves (myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, etc.) are just for emphasis or to toss the focus back to the subject. They should never be used in place of a subject or an object.
Correct: I said I'd do it myself.
Correct: He himself already knew that.
Incorrect: Three others and myself (make it I) will attend.
Incorrect: The group will include John, Henry, and myself (make it me).
We've all seen the signs and read the ads: The Wallace's. Hundreds of Over-stock's. Only Three Day's Left. Not one of those apostrophes belongs, but they show up so often that they've almost stopped looking like gate-crashers.
Just Say No. When adding s to any word, it's tempting for writers to tuck in an apostrophe. Sometimes their fingers do it before their minds can weigh in. So keep that on your mind as you edit, and remember:
To make most singular words plural, use the s alone, with no apostrophe.
Correct: We invited Jim and Susan (the Smiths) to join us.
Incorrect: We invited Jim and Susan (the Smith's) to join us.
Correct: We have a lot full of new Toyotas.
Incorrect: We have a lot full of new Toyota's.
If the word ends in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z, add an es—again, with no apostrophe (CMS 7.6).
Correct: The membership at both churches is roughly the same.
To make a singular word show ownership (possessive), add an apostrophe and an s. Add the extra s even if the word already ends in one (CMS 7.17–18).
Correct: May I give you Chris's voice mail?
Incorrect: May I give you Chris' voice mail?
To make a plural word that already ends in s possessive, just add an apostrophe following the s. If the plural word ends in something other than s, add an apostrophe and an s, just as you would for the singular.
Correct: The Smiths' new car is a Hummer.
Correct: The children's favorite pastime is Nintendo.
Ah, those eye-catching capitals. With just a pinky on the Shift key, you can confer importance, singularity, and distinction. You can show and command respect. You can set a word apart. So, naturally, many writers are quick to capitalize perfectly ordinary words like City, Company, President, and Sale, even when they aren't part of a proper name. Sometimes it seems improper not to.
But it's a misuse of power and a mark of misunderstanding to be too free with capitals. Far fewer English words require capitalization than most people think. There are places where capitals belong and places where they don't (CMS 8.4–210, 15.4–7, 15.71–76; Garner 128–30).
Tip
Some English words are capitalized for logical reasons, and some are capitalized just because. The conventions are based part on reason, part on habit, so it's not always easy to know when to go uppercase and when to stay low. The guidelines here will help you make many decisions, but as you work, keep a good style guide and dictionary close by for further guidance—you'll need them. Rely, too, on any style guidelines you've been given, because certain industries and professions use capitals in their own ways.
When Capitals Are Correct. Use the Shift key for the first letter of:
• The proper names of unique, individual beings, regions, or things
Correct: Monday, Jane leaves for the Pacific Northwest.
• Titles used before a name, as a part of it
Correct: I'll refer that question to President Thomas.
• Adjectives derived from personal names
Correct: She's a fan of Victorian architecture.
Use all capitals—with no periods, unless confusion is possible—in abbreviations formed from the first letters of the words in a term.
Correct: Your appointment is with David M. Sanders, MD.
Correct: The U.S. military is currently on high alert. (Periods to prevent misreading U.S. as an emphatic form of us)
When Capitals Aren't Called For. Use all lowercase for:
• Abbreviations of units of measure—with periods for English units, without them for metric
Correct: The room is 13 ft. 6 in. by 12 ft. 6 in., or roughly 4 m square.
• Generic terms not part of a proper name
Correct: The university and the city share resources.
• Academic subjects and degrees
Correct: My bachelor's degree is in history; my master's is in business administration.
• Titles of offices (even really important ones) alone or after a name
Correct: At that time, Lincoln was the president of the United States.
• Adjectives derived from proper names but not used literally
Correct: Few manila envelopes come from Manila.
• Names of the seasons
Correct: I'll see you this fall or maybe next spring.
• The compass directions
Correct: They live in the South, so I drive south to see them.
Capitals in Titles. People tend to get skittish when capitalizing words in titles. They're not sure just what to do. Some people decide based on length: long words get a capital; short words don't. Some people reserve the capital treatment for "important" words. Some egalitarian souls just capitalize everything.
Such chaos isn't necessary. There really are guidelines for capitalizing titles, even if some are at least as arbitrary as any ad hoc system just described. The following rules should put you on firmer ground (CMS 8.164–73; Garner 129).
Always capitalize the first and last words in a title, regardless of their parts of speech. Elsewhere:
• Capitalize all nouns, pronouns (including tiny it), verbs (including little is), adjectives, and adverbs.
• Capitalize that wherever it appears.
• Lowercase the articles a, an, and the.
• Lowercase the conjunctions and, but, for, or, and nor.
• Capitalize all other conjunctions, such as since and because.
• Lowercase as and to wherever they appear.
• Lowercase prepositions with fewer than five letters (like in, out, over, on).
• Capitalize prepositions of five letters or more (like between and through).
• Capitalize the first letter following a colon and, optionally, the first letter following a hyphen or a dash.
Tip
When choosing what to capitalize in a title, remember that the same word isn't always the same part of speech. For instance, down is often a preposition, as in Roll down the Hill. It's indicating direction, like a proper preposition.
But in Track Down Your Ancestors, down is an adverb, modifying the verb track. So in this case it gets capitalized.
If you've checked a dictionary and you're still not sure of a word's part of speech, The Chicago Manual of Style suggests you read it out loud. If you would stress it, capitalize it. If you wouldn't, don't. Frankly, we don't consider that a lot of help. We have a better suggestion: in a pinch, go ahead and capitalize any words in titles that are ordinarily prepositions if they look odd to you lowercase.
The comma's main job is to prevent confusion. There are times when it's vital, times when it's optional, and times when it's just the wrong choice.
Do use a comma between items in a list, including the last two, when and or or joins the last item. This is called a series (or serial) comma, and some writers omit it, particularly those who go by AP style. In most cases, though, it's a service to the reader to use it. Here's why (CMS 6.19, 6.60; Garner 654, 660; Woe 137, 139):
Correct: He called his colleagues, the vice president, and the secretary. (Several phone calls)
Incorrect (for same meaning): He called his colleagues, the vice president and the secretary. (Just two phone calls)
Note: When list items have punctuation of their own, separate them with semicolons instead of commas (for more on semicolons, see "Semicolons Are Sophisticated," later in the chapter).
Correct: The score was Henry, 4; Jeff, 6; and Alan, 12.
Incorrect: The score was Henry, 4, Jeff, 6, and Alan, 12.
Don't use a comma when an ampersand replaces the word and (CMS 6.24).
Correct: Smith, Jones & Blake is the best firm for the job.
Incorrect: Smith, Jones, & Blake is the best firm for the job.
Do use commas between adjectives if you could use and between them without affecting the meaning (CMS 6.19, 6.39; Garner 655).
Correct: It was a long, rewarding discussion.
Don't use commas when a noun and its immediate modifier express a single idea and you couldn't use and to join the adjectives (CMS 6.39; Garner 655).
Correct: Their office is in an old brick building.
Do use a comma where you want a natural pause (CMS 6.29; Woe 138).
Correct: Yes, that seems right to me.
Correct: Alternatively, we could ask them to come here.
Don't use a comma between an introductory phrase and the verb it modifies (CMS 6.26; Garner 655).
Correct: Right behind her came the rest.
Incorrect: Right behind her, came the rest.
Do use a comma when two parts of a sentence each have their own subject and verb and there's a word like and, but, or or between them (CMS 6.32).
Correct: Mark did the research, and Tom designed the site.
Incorrect: Mark did the research and Tom designed the site.
Don't use a comma when two or more verbs have the same subject, unless misreading is possible or a pause will aid comprehension (CMS 6.34).
Correct: He walked to the store and rode the bus home.
Correct: She realized he was the man who had called, and shouted his name.
Comma optional: He walked to the store, and rode the bus home.
Do use commas around extra, nonessential, information (CMS 6.43; Garner 782–83; WC 112–17; Woe 3, 138).
Correct: Her husband, Bob, was there. (She has only one husband.)
Incorrect (unless she's a polygamist): Her husband Bob was there.
Don't use commas around information that's necessary to the meaning (CMS 6.43; Garner 782–83; WC 112–17; Woe 3, 138).
Correct: Her brother Bill planned to meet us. (She has more than one brother.)
Incorrect (if there's more than one brother): Her brother, Bill, planned to meet us.
Do use commas around elements of an address or place name (CMS 6.47; Garner 655).
Correct: We sent it to Fairfield, Maine, instead of Fairfield, Connecticut.
Incorrect: We sent it to Fairfield, Maine instead of Fairfield, Connecticut.
Do use a comma to set off introductory phrases unless they're very short and no pause is needed (CMS 6.25; Garner 655; Woe 138).
Correct: As soon as we're done with this topic, we'll tackle the next.
Comma optional: On Monday, we'll look at the numbers.
Comma optional: Oh, no!
Don't insert a comma between months and years when they're used without a day or date (CMS 6.46; Garner 655).
Correct: The book came out in June 2005.
Incorrect: The book came out in June, 2005.
Commas are optional in names that contain Jr., Sr., II, III, Inc., Ltd., etc. If you do use them, use them in pairs (CMS 6.49–50; Garner 538).
Correct: James Rogers Jr. has been CEO of Rogers Inc. since July.
Also correct: James Rogers , Jr., has been CEO of Rogers , Inc., since July.
You might be surprised—and relieved—to know you can stop feeling guilty every time you end a sentence with on. Or start one with but. The "rule" that sentences mustn't end with a preposition has never been anything but hearsay. Neither has the "rule" that they mustn't start with a conjunction. Both constructions have appeared in proper written English for centuries, because they give it strength, emphasis, and natural phrasing. So go ahead. On these points, defy your English teacher (CMS 5.169, 5.191; Garner 762, 763; WC 105–7; Woe 182–83, 185).
Correct: That jet is the plane he came in on.
Correct: But he left on a single-engine puddle jumper.
Hyphens, like commas, help keep meanings clear. But they're also a pretty trend-conscious crowd, and the trend is toward fewer, not more.
Not so long ago, prefixes like un and non sported hyphens the way men once sported fedoras. Now the look is sleek and modern: the hyphens are gone, in most cases, and prefixes ride firmly attached to their words.
The same pattern follows with multiword terms—they often start open, then sprout a hyphen, and finally merge. Consider, in just a few years, the journey from on line to on-line to online. Or the migration in some quarters of health care to healthcare, without the stop for a hyphen.
To keep current on hyphens, it's best to check the latest style guides and dictionaries. We've done that, and here are the up-to-the-minute results (CMS 7.82–90; Garner 657–58, 809; Woe 145–51). Rely on them for now, but stay tuned.
Do use hyphens:
• Before a noun, with two or more words that describe it, when either of the words wouldn't make sense if used there alone (a well-traveled road, a strong-willed man)
• Where misreading is possible (re-creation vs. recreation, small-business owner vs. small business owner)
• With prefixes, to separate two i's or two a's (anti-intellectual, ultra-allergic)
• With self and ex (self-confident, ex-president)
• With fractions (three-quarters, two-thirds—but for words with half, check a dictionary)
• In two-word numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine, when spelled out (thirty-five, sixty-three)
• In most terms that have three or more parts (mother-in-law, two-year-old)
• In terms that are hyphenated as nouns or adjectives but open as verbs (a prompt follow-up, a follow-up report, but I'll follow up on that)
• In terms that are hyphenated as adjectives but open as nouns (decision-making process, but he's in charge of decision making)
• With space following, to stand in for the part of a word shared by another nearby (both over- and underused)
• To break a word at the end of a line to make the right margin more even
Tip
In these days of electronic word processing, you see fewer hyphens at the end of lines. By default, Microsoft Word breaks lines only after whole words. But if you or your client prefers tighter, more even margins, you may find yourself reviewing end-of-line word breaks. If so, be sure the hyphen is inserted at the right place in the word. If you have the slightest doubt, verify the syllable divisions in a dictionary and remember that some words break in different places, depending on their meaning: pro-ject is to plan for the future; proj-ect is a specific job or undertaking.
Don't use hyphens:
• In most two-word descriptors that come after the thing they describe, even if the dictionary shows only the hyphenated form (the road is well traveled, the man is strong willed)
• In two-word descriptors that come before nouns, if either word would make sense used alone or there's no risk of confusion without a hyphen (clever young woman, employee review form)
• With adverbs that end in ly (slightly used car, highly skilled executive)
• In terms that are open as adverbs but hyphenated as adjectives (the file was brought up to date, the decision was made on the fly, but an up-to-date file, an on-the-fly decision)
• With very (a much-needed friend, but a very much needed friend, a very long day)
• With least, most, and less (least likely outcome, most valued effort, less seen species)
Everybody knows the hyphen, that tiny line that ties words together or, sometimes, splits them apart. And you've no doubt encountered the hyphen's big siblings, the em dash and the en dash. Here's a quick reminder of which dash to use when (CMS 6.83–94; Garner 656–57):
The Em Dash (—). If there's a generic dash, this is it. Officially, an em dash is the width of a capital M in whatever typeface you're using, and it's a big, bold mark. It signals breaking news—a whole new thought, more information, or an explanation.
If you're using just one em dash, not two, be sure what's set off by the dash ends with a period (or other ending punctuation). A comma won't do. If what's set off falls in the middle of a sentence, surround it on both sides with dashes.
Correct: It was the best news imaginable—the house was undamaged.
Incorrect: Work continued—although slowly, through the night.
Correct: Work continued—although slowly—through the night.
Tip
Em dashes grab the eye and make a point more pointed, but like any strong punctuation, they're best used sparingly. To avoid confusing the reader, no sentence should contain more than two.
The En Dash (–). Once upon a time, this dash was the width of a capital N (hence the name). Now, in the era of word processing, it's officially half the width of an em dash. It's the right punctuation:
• In ranges, in place of the word to
Correct: We looked all day for the 2001–2002 files.
Correct: Last quarter, January – March, was a real surprise.
Correct: The Cleveland–Toronto flight has been delayed.
But use the word to or through, not an en dash, if you use the word from, and use and if you use the word between.
Correct: Last quarter, from January through March, was a real surprise.
Correct: The flight between Cleveland and Toronto has been delayed.
• To prevent confusion when linking open compounds or some terms that already contain hyphens
Correct: That music is from the post–World War I era.
Correct: It was a combined high school–junior high event.
Correct: A Labradoodle is a part-retriever–part-poodle hybrid.
Note: You don't have to use an en dash every time you connect terms that contain hyphens. If the meaning is clear with hyphens alone, don't get fancy.
Correct: This translation is for our non-English-speaking friends.
Correct: Chicken is a staple on fund-raising-friendly menus.
• After a date, with nothing following, to indicate ongoing time
Correct: John Smith (1953–) is the author.
Correct: The study (2002–) follows eight hundred subjects.
Tip
En dashes should never have spaces around them, and em dashes can sit tight too. But some people prefer to give em dashes a little air. It's okay to add a space on both sides of an em dash — like this — but if you do, make sure you do it consistently.
Back to some ghost-busting. You hereby have permission to go right ahead and split your infinitives (verbs with to in front of them) when the phrase demands it. Ms. Stickler meant well, but she was a slave to superstition. Keeping to and its verb together, come what may, has never been necessary in English grammar. It stifles the language, disregards idiom, and sometimes causes confusion. Let your ear—and the meaning—be your guide when fitting descriptors around verbs (CMS 5.106, 5.160; Garner 742–44; WC 98–100; Woe 182–83).
Sometimes a sentence sounds better when to and its verb stay together.
Natural phrasing: We want you to arrive safely.
Awkward phrasing: We want you to safely arrive.
But sometimes keeping an infinitive intact is a force fit.
Natural phrasing: He decided to flatly refuse the offer.
Awkward, ambiguous phrasing: He decided to refuse the offer flatly.
And sometimes it's impossible, without a complete overhaul.
Natural phrasing: The storm is expected to more than double in strength.
Drastic (and unnecessary) work-around: The storm is expected to be more than twice as strong.
Great writers of English have been splitting infinitives whenever the need arose for hundreds of years, and great editors have been letting them do it. Join the club.
Tip
The same thing is true for other multiword verbs. It's no more necessary to keep soon out of will arrive than it is to keep summarily out of to dismiss. You have enough to keep track of as an editor; don't add split-verb superstitions to your list.
It starts innocently enough; then, trouble. At four, Tina's birthday party was a huge success. Who's four? Tina or Tina's party? The way this sentence reads, that party's been going on for years (maybe it was a huge success). Or maybe it was a success at four o'clock but a disaster at three-thirty.
When the start of a sentence describes something other than what comes next, the result can be confusing, even hilarious. To keep writing clear (and humor intentional), make sure the beginning of a sentence really applies to what follows and doesn't "dangle" (CMS 5.84; Garner 217–19; WC 291–94; Woe 159–66).
Correct: Waving frantically, she got the cab to pick her up.
Incorrect: Waving frantically, the cab picked her up. (The cab wasn't doing the waving.)
Spelled out or numerals? Which one when? Without a little discipline, numbers can get unruly. Here are some guidelines to help you keep order. There are different ways to handle numbers, but what's important is to choose a system and apply it consistently (CMS 9.3–7, 9.10, 9.14, 9.19, 9.23, 9.59, 9.62, 15.71–72, 15.75).
• Spell out either one through nine or one through ninety-nine. (Pick one approach and stick to it.)
• In addition, spell out round numbers above ninety-nine (three hundred) and any number that starts a sentence.
• Spell out only single-digit numbers and numbers that start sentences.
• Use numerals for everything else.
• Where many numbers appear together, if your chosen system requires a numeral for one item in a group of similar things, use numerals for all (reports of 107 pages, 24 pages, and 5 pages).
• However, to prevent confusion, you can mix styles (six 4-story buildings, 12 six-story buildings).
• Always use numerals with years, days of the month, and percentages (2001, June 20, 6 percent).
• When you use a numeral for money, use a symbol for the monetary unit; when you spell out the amount, spell out the monetary unit (£12, eight cents, $3.95).
• When a quantity is spelled out, spell out the unit of measure as well. Spell it out, too, if there's no common abbreviation for it (five miles an hour, fifteen minutes, seven pounds, a 60-watt bulb).
• When a unit of measure is abbreviated, or shown as a symbol, always use a numeral. Note that with the exception of time, abbreviations for units of measure are the same in the singular and the plural (5 yd., 3 sq. mi., 34 m, 6", 1 min., 8 yrs.).
• Use an en dash (–), not a hyphen (-), in ranges of numbers (2005–2006).
• Except in page numbers, addresses, and four-digit years, use commas in numbers of 1,000 or more (1,253; 10,000). For very large numbers, use spelled-out words in addition to numerals (2.3 million people, $5 billion).
Most of the time, it's no mystery where to put a period or any other piece of punctuation. But what do you do when different types of punctuation show up together? Which one has right of way? Here are a few simple rules to help you direct traffic.
With quotation marks (CMS 6.9; Garner 658–59; Woe 153–54):
• Periods and commas go inside quotation marks.
Correct: She used to tell me that there's "always room at the top ."
Correct: "There's always room at the top," she would say.
• Colons and semicolons go outside.
Correct: Ben Franklin said, "Waste not, want not "; so did my mother.
• Other punctuation goes inside if it's part of the quoted material, outside if it's not.
Correct: "For the first time, I really understand !" he told me.
Correct: What exactly do you mean by "the right choice"?
Tip
A note on quotes: Unless you're actually quoting someone, using a word in a special sense, or giving the title of a TV program, radio program, or part of a longer work, there's no need for quotation marks. If you use them for ordinary words, you might convey an ironic meaning you don't intend. Consider the difference between The new feature is an upgrade and The new feature is an "upgrade" (CMS 7.60; Garner 658; Woe 156).
With parentheses (CMS 6.103; Garner 658; Woe 143):
• Periods go inside parentheses if they enclose a separate and complete sentence.
Correct: Her vision inspired us all. (Optimism was her strong suit.)
• Periods go outside if what's in the parentheses—even a complete sentence—is included in another sentence.
Correct: The information is in this handout (you'll find it on page 2).
• Other punctuation is inside only if it's part of the parenthetical material.
Correct: Take your seat quickly (and quietly!); the play has just begun.
Tip
Space bar update: These days, a single space is all that's needed between sentences and following any punctuation (including periods and colons). No more double-spacing. Really! (CMS 6.11)
We all wrote far too many sentences like this one in, ironically, grammar school:
The dog chased the cat up the tree, it was very frightened.
Leaving aside the problem of whether it was the cat or the tree that was scared (we'll assume the dog was feeling just fine, thank you), what else is wrong with the sentence?
Yes, you're right. It's not one complete sentence; it's two, separated by a comma. The dread comma splice, bane of Ms. Sticklers everywhere. Two complete thoughts not joined by and, or, or another conjunction. In this case, Ms. Stickler's red ink is justified. A comma used this way was, is, and probably always will be a serious faux pas.
There are two ways to salvage the situation. You can do the straightforward thing and actually make it two sentences.
The dog chased the cat up the tree. It was very frightened.
Or you can do the sophisticated thing and replace the comma with a semicolon.
The dog chased the cat up the tree; it was very frightened.
What's the difference? The two-sentence approach is a bit abrupt and choppy, but more important, if you want readers to understand that the second statement is in some way related to the first, you've left them to make that connection by themselves. The semicolon lets you highlight the relationship. Half period, half comma, it says, "What follows is another complete thought, but it's closely connected to this one."
Separating two complete but related thoughts not joined by a conjunction is the most common job for a semicolon, but there are others. Semicolons provide clarity (CMS 6.57–62; Garner 659–60; Woe 139):
• Before certain adverbs that come between complete thoughts—accordingly, besides, hence, however, indeed, then, therefore, and thus
Correct: I gave it to her yesterday; besides, she already knew about it.
Incorrect: I gave it to her yesterday, besides, she already knew about it.
• Between parts of a sentence that are especially long or complex, even if they're connected with a conjunction
Correct: He arrived suddenly with a mountain of luggage, a cockatoo, and a cat; but I was delighted to see him, and the animals, too.
Not quite as clear: He arrived suddenly with a mountain of luggage, a cockatoo, and a cat, but I was delighted to see him, and the animals, too.
• In a series with elements that have other punctuation
Correct: The designer chose blue, the color of the sky; green, the color of the trees; and yellow, the color of the sun.
Incorrect: The designer chose blue, the color of the sky, green, the color of the trees, and yellow, the color of the sun.
When used correctly, semicolons add clarity, a bit of subtlety, and a grown-up air to any writing. Now, about that terrified tree...
These upright little fellows serve a pretty serious function, so you'd expect them to dress a bit differently. Commas can wear jeans, semicolons look fine in business casual, but colons need more proper attire. Their task is formal introductions. You'll see them most often (CMS 6.63–69; Garner 653–54; Woe 140–41):
• Before an explanation
Correct: I told him my requirements: perfect weather and two weeks off.
• Before a list (either horizontal or vertical), especially with as follows, the following, and similar phrases
Correct: He wanted three things from the store: milk, eggs, and sardines.
Correct: He wanted three things from the store, as follows:
• Milk
• Eggs
• Sardines
But there are places where a colon is just too much, like a tux at a barbecue. Don't use a colon:
• After namely, for example, or similar introductory terms (they're already doing the colon's job)
Correct: Our task was clear, namely, to find the leak and fix it.
Incorrect: Our task was clear, namely: to find the leak and fix it.
• When a series is introduced by a verb or a preposition
Correct: Her talk will cover planning, logistics, and funding.
Incorrect: Her talk will cover: planning, logistics, and funding.
Correct: Henry showed up with tools, a truck, and a huge grin.
Incorrect: Henry showed up with: tools, a truck, and a huge grin.
Colons and Capitals. In text, should you capitalize the first word that follows a colon? It all depends. If what the colon introduces is less than a complete sentence (and doesn't start with a proper noun), then no.
Correct: The house was three colors : teal, mauve, and gray.
If what follows is a complete sentence, but just one, you can either cap the first word or not (but whichever way you choose, stick with it).
Correct: Tom gave his opinion : he thought we should start fresh.
Also correct: Tom gave his opinion: He thought we should start fresh.
If it's more than one sentence, then it's caps for all.
Correct: The quandary was this: Should we go ahead without asking him?Or get his opinion but spoil the surprise?
Certain words cause more than their share of confusion. We've collared eight prominent pairs of these perps, lined them up, and given you what you need to straighten them out. For more miscreants, see "Words Most Often Confused," at the end of this chapter.
In American English, use a if you pronounce the h, an if you don't. So it's a hotel, but an hour. And with an abbreviation, acronym, or number, the article you choose depends on how the short form is pronounced—an * symbol, a URL, an 11-hour drive (CMS 7.46; Garner 1; Woe 131).
This choice trips nearly everyone. That's probably because you hear these two words used incorrectly so often that wrong starts sounding like right. But it's actually easy to keep them straight. Here's how:
The word you choose depends on whether you're describing the condition of the subject or the action itself (CMS 5.158; Garner 81; WC 101–2; Woe 92–93).
Adjectives describe nouns, and subjects are nouns (or pronouns). So if you want to describe the subject, you need an adjective. Bad is an adjective, in this case describing how the subject (I) feels.
Correct: I feel bad that I forgot your birthday.
Incorrect: I feel badly that I forgot your birthday.
Adverbs describe verbs (actions), not nouns. So if you want to describe how an action is performed, you need an adverb. Badly is an adverb, in this case describing the manner in which the subject (he) feels.
Correct: With thick gloves on, he feels badly.
Incorrect (for same meaning): With thick gloves on, he feels bad.
There. We hope you feel better.
We don't know if anyone's keeping score, but if they were, we'd bet these are the most misused and confused little words in the language. We think that's understandable and that it's all the apostrophe's fault.
First you learn that apostrophes show ownership. Here it's just the opposite. Now you need to omit the apostrophe to show ownership. Because now you're dealing with a pronoun, not a noun. The book, desk, inkwell, what have you may be Mother's, Fred's, the Grangers', this family's, or the school's, but when you replace all those nouns with pronouns, the thing becomes hers, his, theirs, ours, or its. No apostrophe in any of them. Ever.
And the apostrophe that appears in its almost-twin has nothing to do with possession. It's just a placeholder for what isn't there. It's is short for it is or it has. In this shortened form (a contraction), the apostrophe stands in for the missing i or ha (CMS 5.202; Garner 471; Woe 39–40). So, with that in mind:
Correct: It's a wonder we made that deadline.
Incorrect: Its a wonder we made that deadline.
Correct: The tree shed its leaves.
Incorrect: The tree shed it's leaves.
Correct: The idea was hers.
Incorrect: The idea was her's.
Got it? Good. Assert yourself over pesky apostrophes.
Tip
If you just can't remember the difference between two similar words, here's a trick to simplify your life: memorize how to use just one of them, then use the other in all other situations.
Everything you need to know to make this choice you learned in kindergarten. Really. If you can count, you'll know which word to use where.
It's as simple as this: Use less if what's diminished doesn't come in countable units. Use fewer if it does (CMS 5.202; Garner 491–92; WC 193–94; Woe 100). For example:
Correct: People eat less beef than they once did.
Correct: People eat fewer hamburgers than they once did.
Correct: This line is for five items or fewer.
Incorrect: This line is for five items or less.
We consider ourselves fairly progressive sorts, but we're about to sound positively stuffy. We concede that in casual speech, like is steadily gaining ground as the word of choice when comparing two things. (It's also gaining ground as a meaningless noise and a stand-in for about half the verbs on the planet, but we won't, like, go there.)
In good writing, however, there's still a place for as. Join us on the barricades and help preserve a distinction that's worth making (CMS 5.173; Garner 496; WC 160–61; Woe 104).
To compare two things, use like before nouns that appear without verbs.
Correct: He entered the room like a conquering hero.
Incorrect (for same meaning): He entered the room as a conquering hero.
In the preceding example, changing like to as changes the meaning entirely. In the second sentence, he actually is a conquering hero, fresh from his achievement. In the first, he just struts around like one.
To compare two things when a verb is involved, use as.
Correct: She went there at noon, just as he had done.
Incorrect: She went there at noon, just like he had done.
Is it If I was or If I were? If doesn't automatically make it were. The choice depends on the circumstances. If something really was or could have been the case, then was is correct. If you're discussing anything other than fact (like a suggestion, wish, or what-if), then it's were you want (CMS 5.114, 5.130; Garner 756; Woe 56–57).
Correct: If I was in charge that week, I don't remember it.
Correct: If I were in charge, I'd make some changes.
Incorrect: If I was in charge, I'd make some changes.
The choice between which and that is the choice between information that's nice and information that's necessary. In American English, that introduces information (never set off by commas) necessary to the meaning of the sentence (CMS 5.60; Garner 782–83; WC 112–17; Woe 3–4).
Correct: The report that he filed yesterday went unnoticed. (But the one he filed the day before got lots of attention. The clause starting with that specifies one of several possible reports.)
Incorrect: The report, that he filed yesterday, went unnoticed.
Which introduces information (always set off by commas) that's supplementary and not necessary to the meaning of the sentence. You could leave the which section out and still get the right point across.
Correct: The report, which he filed yesterday, went unnoticed. (There's only one report, so no need to specify which one. The clause starting with which is just extra information.)
Incorrect: The report which he filed yesterday went unnoticed.
Note: Of course, which and that both have other uses, too; you don't need to break out the commas every time you see a which or banish them every time you see a that. Just stay on your toes when you see them at the start of clauses like these.
In casual speech, whom is used less and less these days. When was the last time someone asked you "Whom are you here to see?" But in writing, to be correct, whom still has its place. And that's not so difficult to locate.
Who and whom are pronouns, so you choose between them the same way you choose between he and him: subject or object? Who is a subject, so that means who does something. Whom is an object, so that means whom is the one it's done to or for, with, about, from, on, etc. (CMS 5.56; Garner 834–36; WC 136–38; Woe 6–10).
Correct: You're the person for whom I brought it.
Incorrect: You're the person who I brought it for.
Correct: You're the person who I thought would do it.
Incorrect: You're the person whom I thought would do it.
Correct: Whom do you mean?
Incorrect: Who do you mean?
The terms here perplex nearly everyone from time to time. Many sound similar but mean very different things. This list will help you keep them straight.
The following common words send people to the dictionary time and again. Save yourself the trip with a glance at this list.
There's a lot to keep track of as you seek editorial accuracy; more than you might imagine. The following checklist will remind you of what we've covered in this chapter, and a few bonus items, too. Keep it at hand as you work, to make sure you've looked for error everywhere.
Note: For a complete, three-part checklist that covers all aspects of editing, and for a professional-level eight-stage proofreading checklist, see Appendix B.
