RELIGION

Judaism

Judaism is the oldest of the world’s three major monotheistic religions and a forerunner of Christianity and Islam. Modern Judaism evolved from the ancient religion of the Hebrews, whose law, culture, and religious practices were influenced in turn by Mesopotamian and Babylonian culture.

Scripture

The Bible The Hebrew Bible consists of 24 books. These include the five books of the Torah, or Law (also known by the Greek Pentateuch, five books); the eight books of the Former and Latter Prophets (Nevi’im); and the eleven books of Writings (Ketuvim) (see Books of the Bible). Composed between the 10th and second centuries B.C. and based in part on oral traditions, the various books of the Hebrew Bible include the creation story, the laws and the history of the Jewish people, prophecies about the fate of God’s chosen people depending on their acceptance of God and his law, and stories, poems, and proverbs. (See below for a full description of the Bible.)

 

The Talmud The Talmud (“learning”) is a collection of rabbinical commentaries dating to about A.D. 200, when written scholarship began to replace or supplement oral rabbinical teachings. It consists of two main parts, the Mishna (“repeated studies”), a compendium of debates and opinions concerning oral law, and Gemara (“completion”), elaborations on the Mishna that often concern the legal basis for Jewish practices in daily life. The subjects considered in the Talmud are arranged under 63 headings in six categories, and include not only commentaries on the law (Halakha) but also explanations of Biblical incidents and stories, legends and parables that teach religious lessons, exegetical treatises concerning astronomy, geography, and the calendar, and a wide range of other subjects. The Talmud is second only to the Hebrew Bible as the basis for Jewish law, scholarship, and religious practice

 

Kabbalah Also of note is a body of Jewish mystical literature known as the Kabbalah (“tradition”). The Kabbalah movement arose in 11th-century France; it is, among other things, an esoteric system for understanding the Scriptures, based on the conviction that words, letters, and numbers in the Scriptures contain mysteries interpretable by the adept.

Belief and Practice

God Jews believe in a single, all-powerful God; in the Hebrew Bible he is referred to by the four-letter name YHWH (reconstructed as the modern name Yahweh). Because pronouncing this name aloud was considered taboo, in Scripture God is more frequently addressed as Adonai (“my great lord”) or referred to by generic names for God such as Elohim. Central to Jewish belief is the idea that the Hebrew people have a unique and privileged relationship with God, as demonstrated by God’s covenant with them, his law, and his direct intervention on numerous occasions in the history of the Jewish people.

 

Law Judaism is distinctive for its body of law, which offers an extensive system of guidance and regulation of religious practice as well as daily social conduct. Jews believe that although God guides human destiny, the humanity of mankind is defined by the ability of individuals to make ethical choices in keeping with God’s law. The failure to act according to God’s law is sin, and a basic tenet of Jewish faith is that sin is a willful act; so, too, is turning, or returning, to God. At the core of Jewish law are the Ten Commandments, given directly to Moses by God, and the large body of law contained in the Torah itself; these are supplemented by the teachings of the prophets as well as the centuries of oral law and biblical commentary codified in the Talmud.

 

Dietary Restrictions Devout Jews observe a detailed set of dietary rules and restrictions. The rules for kosher (“ritually correct”) food preparation and consumption include prohibitions against eating specific animals (including pork and shellfish); guidelines for the slaughter, butchering, and inspection of meat; and a prohibition against mixing meat and dairy products. Some scholars speculate that thousands of years ago many of these rules may have served a practical hygienic purpose, but their true significance may lie in the obligation of God’s chosen people to obey him in all things, however seemingly unimportant. Today the observance of dietary laws varies widely within the Jewish community. The ultra-Orthodox observe the restrictions with meticulous care; many Conservative Jews keep kosher but not always with strict attention to every detail. Reform Judaism regards the dietary laws as being mainly of symbolic significance and many Reform Jews observe the laws only in part or not at all.

 

Prayer and Worship Devout Jews generally pray at dawn, noon, and dusk; some also pray at bedtime. Among the more traditional sects of Judaism, individuals (mostly males) also make use of special objects and clothing in prayer. These include tefillin, small boxes containing handwritten passages of Scripture, which are strapped to the forehead and the upper left arm; talit, or prayer shawls, which cover the head and upper body during prayer to show humility before God; and kippah (more commonly known by the Yiddish term yarmulke), or skullcaps. The Jewish Sabbath (day of rest) is observed from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday; many religious Jews worship in a synagogue (Greek, “assembly”), where a rabbi (teacher or master) leads them in readings from Scripture, prayer, and singing.

 

Rites of Passage Jewish males are traditionally circumcised eight days after birth; the ceremony also marks the occasion at which they receive their name. At age 13, their official coming-of-age is marked with a ceremony known as a bar mitzvah (“son of the commandment”). Some branches of Judaism hold a similar ceremony for women, called a bat mitzvah, celebrated between age 12 and 18.

Schools and Sects

Orthodox Judaism is the most rigorous, and smallest branch of Judaism, with an estimated 1.8 million adherents worldwide (900,000 to 1 million in Israel, 550—650,000 in the United States). Orthodox Jews may keep entirely separate kitchens for milk and meat, refuse to operate electric and mechanical devices on the Sabbath, and often attend temple services or hold prayer sessions every day. Orthodox services are generally conducted entirely in Hebrew; men and women are required to pray separately, even when not in temple. Many orthodox (or so-called ultra-orthodox) communities, especially self-contained communities such as those of the Hasidic Jews (located in large numbers in New York and in Israel), impose strict dress codes. Hasidism emerged in late 18th-century Poland and Lithuania. The Hasidim (“the pious”) are strict observers of Jewish religious laws. Today there are several sects, all of which stress prayer and direct mystical experience of God.

 

Reform Judaism traces its origins to the 18th century; it was strongly influenced by the writings of Moses Mendelssohn (1729–86), who advocated a movement to integrate Judaism with mainstream European culture. Reform Judaism has a liberal interpretation of Jewish doctrine and ritual, and is especially prevalent in the United States. Men and women may worship together, and many worship services are conducted in local vernacular languages. Dietary and other laws (such as wearing tefillin or talit during prayer) are often not observed. Women can become rabbis in Reform Judaism.

 

Conservative Judaism combines elements of doctrinal reform with more traditional observance. Conservative Judaism rose in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century in response to the Reform movement, and sought to preserve more of the ancient observances of the old orthodoxy, but without losing touch with modern culture and behavior. Conservative Jews have been slower to question tradition than Reform Jews, but over time have come to accept many of the same changes, including the ordination of female rabbis. About one-third of affiliated Jews in the U.S. belong to Conservative institutions.

History

The Bible recounts the story of the Jewish people from the creation. (There is, however, relatively little archaeological and independent textual evidence corroborating the earliest history of the Jewish people, so that the historical reliability of the biblical account is uncertain.) In the historical narrative, the foundation of Jewish faith began with the exodus from Egypt and the transmission of the Ten Commandments (the Decalogue) from God to his people through Moses, probably sometime between 1450 and 1290 B.C. The people of Israel conquered and settled in Canaan—the promised land—and were governed by a succession of judges. The monarchical period under David and Solomon dates to the 11th and 10th centuries B.C. Then Israel (the Northern Kingdom) and Judah (the Southern Kingdom) continued under separate rulers until the fall of Israel in 722 B.C. Judah was conquered by Babylonians, and the First Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem destroyed in 586 B.C. The Babylonian captivity marks the start of the Jewish Diaspora, or dispersal. Exile lasted until 538 B.C., and the Second Temple was dedicated in 516 B.C. Under Seleucid rule, the Maccabees successfully resisted efforts to suppress Judaism (168–142 B.C.). Under Roman rule (63 B.C.—A.D. 135), there were several revolts, the first of which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple (A.D. 70). With the loss of the land and especially the temple, which had formerly been the center of Judaism, the Jewish religion was reconstructed and continued by the rabbinate.

The early Middle Ages saw the flourishing of the Talmudic tradition. Following the rise of Islam, Judaism evolved into two distinct strains, the Sephardim, centered in Spain, and the Ashkenazim, a term that applied to Jews from Northern France through Germany, Poland, and Russia. The long history of persecution of Jews in Europe includes expulsion from France (1306) and Spain (1492) and the pogroms of the 19th century in eastern Europe, culminating in the Nazi regime’s attempt to eradicate all Jews during the Holocaust.

Zionism was a European Jewish political movement of the late 19th century, expounded in works such as Theodor Herzl’s The Jewish State. A response to the Diaspora, the rise of European nationalism, and the growing problem of anti-Semitism, the Zionist search for a Jewish homeland led eventually to the birth of the state of Israel in 1948. Though Israel is a secular republic, religious parties play an active role in politics, and the Orthodox rabbinate has a role in defining civil status, such as marriage.

Holidays

The Jewish calendar is lunar, so the dates of Jewish holidays vary in relation to the standard solar calendar each year. Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, is celebrated on the first two days of the seventh lunar month. Ten days later is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, which is celebrated with fasting and prayers seeking God’s forgiveness. These two holidays are together referred to as the High Holy Days.

The festival of Sukkot, a celebration of the harvest, is celebrated from the 15th through the 22nd days of the seventh lunar month. Hanukkah is celebrated over an eight-day period in the ninth lunar month; it commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in 165 B.C. Purim, celebrated in the 12th lunar month, just before the beginning of spring, recalls events from the book of Esther (a Persian queen of Jewish origin who saved the Hebrews). Passover (Pesach) is celebrated for an entire week in the first lunar month; it commemorates the flight of the Hebrews from Egypt. Central to the Passover celebration is a meal called the Seder (“order”), which consists of a number of symbolic foods, and to which many Jews often invite non-Jews.

Geography and Numbers

There are an estimated 14 million Jews in 134 countries, the overwhelming majority of whom live in the United States (6.5 million) and Israel (5.6 million). There are an estimated 1.5 million Jews in Europe.

Christianity

Christianity was founded by followers of Jesus of Nazareth, who was born a Jew in Bethlehem ca. 4 B.C. Details of his life before about A.D. 26–28 are obscure. According to the four Gospels of the New Testament, Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, who recognized Jesus as the Messiah (Hebrew Mashiah, “anointed one”). Jesus’ ministry of teaching, healing and miracles, which lasted only a few years, was conducted primarily in Galilee in northwest Palestine. After a fateful journey to Jerusalem, he was tried and executed by the Roman authorities, who together with members of Jewish priestly circles were concerned with the civil and religious consequences of Jesus’ preaching of the Kingdom of God. According to Christian belief, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion, appeared to the disciples at various places, and then ascended bodily to heaven on the fortieth day after his resurrection. Christians believe that Jesus, the Son of God, died on the cross as an offering and sacrifice for the salvation of humankind, and that this sacrifice makes salvation available to all who believe in him.

Scripture

Christian Bibles consist of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Protestant Old Testament includes the text of the Hebrew Bible, with some books renamed and in a different order (see Books of the Bible); Roman Catholic and other Christian religions add some additional books from the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (third century B.C.). The New Testament of 27 books is accepted by both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. (See “The New Testament.”)

Belief and Practice

Although Christian churches and sects vary greatly in structure, practice, and certain points of faith, a few core beliefs and rituals are common to most.

 

The Trinity This fundamental Christian doctrine states that God has three natures, or exists equally in three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit. God the Father is the all-powerful creator of the world, who continues to govern his creation and judge mankind. Jesus, also called Christ (Greek for “anointed one”), is God in the flesh; Christians believe his crucifixion removed the stain of Adam’s original sin from mankind. The Holy Spirit is generally viewed as a distinct part or aspect of God that provides strength and guidance to followers of Christianity.

Each of these is properly viewed as only one aspect of a singular God. However, this concept is difficult to grasp even for many Christians, among whom it may be accepted as a mystery beyond human understanding; and some adherents of other religions view the doctrine of the Holy Trinity as evidence of polytheism in Christianity. The doctrine of the Trinity poses special difficulties for the rigorously monotheistic adherents of the other two religions of the tradition of Abraham—Judaism and Islam.

 

The Sacraments Central to the practice of most Christians are seven sacraments: baptism, the washing or immersion of persons in water (often soon after birth) to symbolically cleanse them of sin and welcome them to the Christian church; confirmation, the sacrament by which an adult Christian confirms the sacrament of baptism and enters into full church membership; marriage; ordination, or entry into the clergy; the sacrament of the sick, the anointing and absolution of the sick and dying; the confession of sins; and communion, or the ceremonial sharing of bread and wine in memory of Jesus’ Last Supper with his disciples.

 

The Afterlife Christians believe that each human possesses an eternal soul, which after the death of the body is judged by God and then rewarded (in heaven) or punished (in hell) according to that individual’s actions in life. Many Christians (particularly Roman Catholics and some Eastern Orthodox believers, but not most Protestants) also believe in purgatory, an intermediate state in which some less-pure souls are prepared for entry into heaven.

Schools and Sects

Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian denomination in the world, claiming more than 17 percent of the total world population. Worldwide, there are more than 1 billion Roman Catholics; in the U.S. there are 63.7 million, or 22 percent of the U.S. population

Early Christians based the organization of their church on the political structure of the Roman Empire and accepted the bishop of Rome (later known as the pope, from the Latin papa, “father”) as the leader of the worldwide Christian community. Christianity was granted legal toleration within the Roman Empire under the emperor Constantine (ruled 312–27), and was proclaimed the official religion of the empire in 380. The church flourished in the fourth and fifth centuries amid the political decline of Rome, and also found fertile ground in the empire’s new eastern capital, Constantinople. After the fall of the Roman Empire the church continued to embody its language, architecture and other cultural features.

The pope continues to lead the Catholic Church from Vatican City in Rome. Bishops (and, at a higher level of organization, archbishops) administer church affairs in a given region; certain bishops are elevated to the College of Cardinals, which advises the pope and comes together after his death to choose a successor. Priests are male and (except in a few splinter organizations within the Catholic Church that have rejected the authority of Rome) must be and remain unmarried. Orders of nuns and monks, most of whom take lifelong vows of charity, chastity, poverty, and obedience, provide educational and charitable services. Local churches operate parochial elementary schools, and regional bodies and religious orders operate high schools and administer seminaries and church-related colleges.

 

Eastern Catholicism The various churches of Eastern Catholicism hold doctrinal beliefs and liturgical practices that are generally similar to those of the Roman Catholic Church, but they regard themselves as co-equal with what they call the “Roman Rite” church, and do not recognize the primacy of the Roman church and its pope. In general, Eastern Catholic Churches exist in areas where Eastern Orthodox Churches are dominant; the Eastern Catholic churches in those countries and regions have chosen Roman forms of belief and practice without uniting with the Roman Church.

There are 22 Eastern Catholic Churches, divided into several broad categories, as follows: Byzantine Rite Churches: Albanian, Bulgarian, Belarussian, Croatian, Georgian, Greek, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, Melkite, Romanian, Russian, Ruthenian, Slovak, and Ukrainian; Armenian Rite Church; Alexandrian Rite Churches: Coptic and Ethiopic; Antiochene Rite Churches: Maronite, Syrian, Syro-Malankar; Chaldean Rite Churches: Chaldean, Syro-Malabar. The Maronite Church (which recognizes the primacy of the Roman pope) is centered in Lebanon, and has played an important political and social role in that country in the 20th century. The Chaldean Rite churches have historical roots in common with the Nestorian Church (see below); there is a large community of Chaldean Catholics (mostly of Iraqi origin) in the United States, particularly in the Detroit area.

With the resurgence of the Orthodox Church in Russia, Ukraine, and other areas following the fall of the Soviet Union, leaders of the Eastern Catholic Churches have complained of interference and repression at the hands of Orthodox authorities.

 

Roman Rite Churches The term Roman Rite Church is used by Eastern Catholic Churches to refer to Rome as one of (in their view) many co-equal Catholic Churches, each with its own rites and traditions. In modern parlance, however, the term is also used to denote former Roman Catholic Churches that have broken with the Vatican but still adhere to Roman Catholic rites and practices. Some of these split with Rome over doctrinal and political issues in the 19th century (for example, the Polish Roman Rite Church, established in Scranton, Pennsylvania, in the 1890’s by church leaders of Polish descent). Other Roman Rite churches broke with Rome over objections to the reforms and modernizations decreed by the Vatican II Council (1962–65); these churches tend to adhere to the Latin Mass rather than using vernacular language at worship.

 

Eastern Orthodox Church In 1054, the bishops of Rome (representing the Western church) and Constantinople (representing the Eastern church) excommunicated each other, creating a major schism that remains to this day. The word orthodox means “correct belief” and is applied to the Eastern church because it has attempted to keep its beliefs and practices unchanged. Monasticism is of great importance in the Orthodox tradition; monasteries serve as focal points of Orthodox spirituality and as centers for the study and preservation of ancient beliefs, rituals, and practices.

Orthodox Churches are organized hierarchically, in a manner similar to the Roman Catholic churches, although the Orthodox community rejects the supreme authority of the Catholic pope and subscribes to a decentralized model of decision making in important church matters; archbishops and bishops possess special spiritual authority and administer church affairs. There are 15 independent churches within the Orthodox community. Four of them —those of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem—occupy a position of primacy because of their antiquity. They are ruled by patriarchs, of whom the patriarch of Constantinople (known as the Ecumenical Patriarch) is recognized as senior, though without any powers comparable to those of the pope in the Roman Catholic Church. The churches of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, and Serbia are also headed by patriarchs; the heads of the churches in Albania, Cyprus, Greece, Poland, Slovakia, and the U.S. are known as metropolitans.

Orthodox religious observances tend to be solemn and elaborate, and ancient liturgies have been carefully preserved in their original languages such as Greek, Slavonic, Armenian, and Georgian. The display and veneration of religious images known as icons is a distinctive feature of Orthodox Churches. Orthodox clergy are male, and in most churches they are allowed to marry. Because Orthodox churches continue to use the Julian calendar, and also because of differences in the methods for calculating feast days, Christmas, Easter, and other feasts often occur on different dates in the Orthodox Church than in Western churches.

In the U.S., many Orthodox Churches have served as cultural centers for immigrants seeking to preserve their own ethnic heritage. At the same time, however, many denominations are active members of ecumenical groups such as the National Council of Churches. The two largest Orthodox Churches in the U.S. today are Greek and Russian, respectively. The next largest represent Armenians and Syrians.

 

The Coptic Church The Coptic Church is the indigenous and independent Christian church of Egypt. It broke from the Orthodox Church in A.D. 450 after theological disputes over how to define the human and divine natures in Christ; the Coptic Monophysite position rejects the idea of the duality of Christ’s nature. The Coptic Church thereafter was headed by its own leader, known as the pope of Alexandria and patriarch of the See of St. Mark, rivaled by the Orthodox patriarch of Alexandria (who continued to lead those Egyptian Christians who remained within the Orthodox community).

The Coptic Church uses the Coptic language (descended from the ancient language of Pharonic Egypt) in its liturgies, but has tended increasingly to employ vernacular Arabic in other church activities. As in Orthodox Christianity, monasticism plays an important role in church life; monks must be celibate, but married men may be ordained to the clergy (though single clergymen may not marry). Coptic Christians make up 9.4 percent of the population of Egypt, and have suffered persecution in the late 20th century at the hands of Islamic militants. There is also a Coptic community among Egyptian immigrants in the United States.

 

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church Despite its name, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is affiliated, not with the Orthodox community, but with the Coptic Church of Egypt. The ancient Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum converted to Christianity in the fourth century and sided with the Coptic Church at Alexandria in the disputes over Monophysitism in the mid-fifth century. The Ethiopian Church is independent, but is similar in beliefs and practices to the Coptic Church. Its liturgical language is Amharic. About half the population of Ethiopia is Christian, the overwhelming majority of them adherents of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church; church members are also a presence in Ethiopian overseas communities in Europe and the United States.

 

The Nestorian Church Nestorianism takes its name from Nestorius (d. A.D. 451), an influential monk and bishop of Constantinople who denied that Mary could be the “mother of God” (as she had become popularly known) because the complete Trinity had always existed. He was condemned as a heretic in 431; some communities of Syrian Christians rejected his condemnation and followed his teachings. The Nestorian Church, which used Syriac as its liturgical language, was the most prominent form of Christianity in Central Asia between the sixth and 14th centuries, with communities as far east as Mongolia and China. However, it lost ground to Islam thereafter and declined to relative insignificance, with remnant communities surviving into modern times in India, Iraq, and the United States. Since the 16th century some Nestorian Churches, such as the one in Malabar in southwest India, have reunited with the Syro-Malabar Eastern Catholic Church.

 

Protestant Churches Protestant denominations number in the hundreds. There is no single governing authority for all of them, and they vary widely in organization and in forms of worship. Most, however, teach that Christian belief and worship should follow the simple model outlined in the New Testament, without the pageantry and ritual added by later generations. The term protestant is now commonly understood as referring to the churches that developed from the objections of Martin Luther and other reformers to Catholic practices; the specific early use of the term (1529) referred to protests against an edict of the Holy Roman Empire prohibiting cities and principalities from choosing their own religion. The belief in Scripture as the sole definitive source of Christian wisdom and guidance (rather than the creeds and doctrines of the Catholic Church) is often referred to as the Protestant Principle. Martin Luther’s expansion of the New Testament injunction that “the just shall live by faith” (to which Luther added, “alone”) implies the rejection of a separate priesthood in favor of “the priesthood of all believers.” Most Protestant denominations also stress the singular importance of Jesus as a connection between man and God, and reject or downplay the veneration of Mary and the saints. Some Protestant denominations are described as evangelical, meaning that they emphasize Scriptural authority, the responsibility of believers for the personal acknowledgment of sin and the experience of salvation, and the obligation of believers to spread the message of Christian salvation to others.

Adventist Churches sprang up in the U.S. in the 1840’s, a time of fervent religious revival and widespread prophecies of the end of the world. Adventists anticipate and prepare for the world’s end and the second coming of Jesus Christ. The largest Adventist group, the Seventh-day Adventists, is one of the most dynamic religious groups in the world today, claiming a worldwide membership of 12 million. As their name suggests, they worship on Saturday rather than Sunday. They operate parochial schools, colleges, medical schools, and hospitals.

Anabaptist Churches Anabaptist, which means “re-baptizers,” refers to a group of radical churches and sects that arose during the Reformation and embraced the doctrine of adult baptism for believers. The first group was the Swiss Brethren (1525); other well-known groups include the Mennonites (followers of Menno Simons, 1496–1561, the Netherlands); the Hutterites (followers of Jacob Hutter, d. 1536, Moravia); and Melchiorites (followers of Melchior Hoffman ca. 1500–ca. 1543, Germany); the Amish originated (late 17th century) as a sect of the Swiss Brethren. Beliefs include the need to separate from civil authority, and pacifism; hence members would not swear oaths and would not bear arms in the service of temporal leaders. These groups were persecuted in Europe by both Protestants and Catholics, and many believers emigrated to North America, especially to Pennsylvania and the Great Plains of the U.S. and Canada; there are also groups in other countries. The groups differ in some matters of doctrine and the extent to which they interact with the larger community. In the United States the Old Order Amish in Pennsylvania, for example, remain deeply committed to traditional ways, including the use of horses and buggies and distinctive plain dress.

Baptist Churches are collectively the largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Baptists trace their theological roots back to radical reformers in Europe in the 1500’s, but the number of Baptists in the world was tiny until the 1800’s, when Baptist faith and practice became predominant in the American South (both for whites and for African Americans). Baptists are still most heavily represented in the southern and border states.

Local Baptist congregations have great independence, determining many of their own policies. At the same time, these churches share many practices. They agree that the rite of baptism should be administered only to those who have reached an age of independent judgment. Consequently, Baptist children are not included in membership totals until after baptism (which usually occurs no earlier than age six or seven).

Most Baptists take a strong stand on the authority of the Bible, and many (though not all) believe that it should be interpreted literally. Baptists have traditionally been strong supporters of separation of church and state; and Baptist denominations have mounted energetic international missionary campaigns.

The Southern Baptist Convention, a predominantly white church, is the largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Three similarly-named rival organizations, the National Baptist Convention of America, the National Baptist Convention USA, and the Progressive National Baptist Convention, are predominately African-American churches. Together they account for the religious affiliation of more African Americans than any other family of churches.

Christian Churches and Churches of Christ trace their origins to a great religious awakening in 1800 on the Pennsylvania and Kentucky frontiers. Discouraged by sectarian competition among Methodists, Presbyterians, and others, leaders of the revival did not seek to form a denomination but to reestablish a single nondenominational Christian Church. In time they became a denomination themselves. In the 1870’s the Churches of Christ and the Christian Church (Disciples) split over questions of using musical instruments in worship and over the issue of centralizing some church functions. The Churches of Christ opposed both instrumental music and national organization. The Disciples allowed instrumental music and established a central missionary board to coordinate mission work; they also have a long history of cooperation and discussion with other denominations. A third group, the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ, split from the Disciples in the 1920’s–30’s. They allow instrumental music but are theologically more conservative than the Disciples.

Church of Christ, Scientist Christian Scientists, as adherents are often known, follow the teaching of Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), who founded the church in 1879 in Boston and wrote Science and Health with a Key to the Scriptures, which remains a major source of the church’s basic doctrines. Christian Science asserts that sickness and other adversities exist only in the mind and that disciplined spiritual thinking can correct them. Thus, Christian Scientists refuse most or all medical treatment. Christian Science practitioners help adherents deal with illness but do not serve as clergy. The church publishes the influential newspaper The Christian Science Monitor (which has been Web-based, rather than printed, since 2009), and operates many reading rooms open to the public. Christian Science has had declining membership since the 1970’s.

Episcopal Churches are descendants of the Church of England, which was established as a separate church by King Henry VIII in 1534. Churches descending from the English church make up the worldwide Anglican Communion. The American church takes its name from the Latin episcopus, bishop; this suggests its hierarchical organization. In colonial times the Church of England was established in the southern colonies and had some influence in the middle colonies, but was less welcome in New England, where Reformed churches were predominant. During the American Revolution, many Church of England members and clergy remained loyal to England, and thousands migrated to Canada. Those who remained were under suspicion, and some were persecuted. After the Revolution, a small group of Anglicans loyal to the United States gradually revived the church, and it gained considerable influence—in eastern cities, many families of wealth and power were Episcopalian. The Episcopal Church accommodates a wide spectrum of belief and practice. It shares much with Protestant denominations, yet its worship services retain strong elements of pre-Reformation Catholic tradition, especially in the “high church” wing of the denomination.

The Religious Society of Friends was established by the English mystic George Fox (1624–91) in the mid-1600’s. Known popularly as Quakers, Friends were persecuted in England for refusing to take oaths or to serve as combatants in war, but under the protection of William Penn (1644–1718), many settled in Pennsylvania. According to Fox, they were called Quakers because they were admonished to “tremble at the word of the Lord.” In Pennsylvania the Quakers set themselves apart, dressing plainly and avoiding worldly amusements. In Philadelphia many became influential businesspeople, known for “doing well by doing good.”

The most distinctive doctrine of the Friends is that of the Inner Light, the spark of God in each individual. Traditionally the Friends have had no church buildings (services are held in Meeting Houses) and no clergy; leadership is granted to certain individuals by common consent. Worship meetings are characterized by silent meditation, which might be interrupted from time to time by spontaneous statements by any member of the group who feels “moved by the Spirit” to speak. Some Quaker groups in America have moved away from this original austerity, and have adopted clergy, sermons, and singing at worship services. Friends have organized remarkable world relief and peace organizations, by which they are perhaps best known to outsiders.

Holiness Churches grew from a religious revival in the late 1800’s, primarily in Methodist congregations. The originators of the movement objected to the excessive bureaucracy of established denominations and sought to refocus attention on the need for deep personal change. They placed great emphasis on the teachings of Methodism’s founder, John Wesley, that those who are saved may aspire to the gift of complete sanctification, or holiness. Around 1900, groups of especially intense Holiness worshipers began experiencing further “gifts of the Spirit.” From these experiences grew the first Pentecostal Churches with their emphasis on speaking in tongues. Many who began as adherents of Holiness Churches became Pentacostalists, but the Holiness Churches rejected Pentecostal worship as extremist.

Jehovah’s Witnesses are an active sect whose members are under a strong obligation to undertake personal missionary activities. Jehovah’s Witnesses displaying the magazine The Watchtower on street corners, or speading their message through door-to-door encounters, have made the sect a familiar part of American life. They have no clergy (all members are considered ministers and missionaries), and meet not in churches but in plain buildings that always are called Kingdom Hall. They were founded by Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916) in western Pennsylvania in the 1870’s. The Witnesses preach a slightly unorthodox form of the Christian message, holding that events of Armageddon and the Second Coming of Christ have already begun, and that the end of the world (which they regard as imminent) will bring one final opportunity for believers to be saved. They refuse blood transfusions and some other forms of medicine on biblical grounds, and, considering human government to be illegitimate, refuse to perform military service, pledge alliegance to the flag, or take oaths; these positions have often resulted in the sect’s persecution. They claim more than 6 million members worldwide, of whom about a quarter live in the U.S.

Lutheran Churches trace their churches back to the German reformer Martin Luther (1483–1546), who sought to reform the doctrine and practice of the Roman Christian Church in Europe. In a set of 95 theses that he nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517, he detailed his complaints against the Roman Church and his proposals for addressing them. He stressed a Scripture-based faith and a redemptive Christ; he complained about corruption among the clergy and advocated worship in the language of the people rather than in Latin. He also came to favor a married, rather than a celibate, clergy. The Church of Rome considered Luther disloyal and eventually drove him out; he then helped establish independent churches in northern Germany.

Immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia brought the Lutheran faith to North America, concentrating first in Pennsylvania. Later immigrants settled in the upper Midwest. Most Lutheran churches retain the altar and vestments of the Roman Church, and emphasize preaching and congregational participation in worship services.

Methodist Churches trace their origins to John Wesley (1703–91), a minister in the Church of England who sought to bring a new sense of warmth and commitment to individuals’ religious life. He urged his followers to set aside regular times to study the Bible and pray together, earning his followers the then-pejorative title “Methodists” because of their discipline and seriousness. Wesley himself remained in the Church of England his whole life, but his followers began to develop independent organizations both in England and the United States. On the American frontier, Methodist “circuit riders” traveled from settlement to settlement, ministering to pioneer families. By 1820 Methodism was the largest religious denomination in the United States, and it remained the largest Protestant church until the 1920’s.

The United Methodist Church accounts for nearly two-thirds of the Methodists in America. This denomination is made up of not only traditional Methodists but also several churches of German origin whose beliefs and spirit accorded well with Methodism. The two “African” churches (the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church) and the Christian Methodist Church are predominantly African-American churches, and they account for nearly all of the remaining third of the Methodist group.

Pentecostal Churches share a belief that God grants believers special spiritual gifts—especially the experience called “speaking in tongues,” a common feature of Pentecostal services. (“Speaking in tongues” refers to speaking words, not necessarily of any known language, under direct divine inspiration.) Pentecostal Churches trace their origin to the day of Pentecost (from the Greek meaning “50th day,” i.e. the seventh Sunday after Easter), described in the New Testament book, Acts of the Apostles, when early Christians received ecstatic or mystical powers. Modern Pentecostalism began in the early 1900’s, when members of some Holiness churches received the gift of tongues (see “Holiness Churches”).

Pentecostal congregations tend to be small, yet the Pentecostal faith experienced rapid growth in the later decades of the 20th century, and Pentecostal beliefs had an impact on Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Episcopal, and other denominations, who reported a growth among adherents of “charismatic renewal,” a movement based on spiritual gifts. The two Churches of God in Christ and the United Pentecostal Church are predominantly African-American denominations. The Assemblies of God is the largest predominantly white denomination. Many Pentecostal organizations are regional or purely local. Because of this loose organization, there are likely to be many thousands of Pentecostal believers not included in national membership counts because their local congregations are not affiliated with a regional or national group.

Reformed Churches, including the closely related Congregational and Presbyterian Churches, trace their descent to the French-born reformer John Calvin (1509—64). Differences among denominations within this group reflect primarily national origins rather than doctrinal differences; the various Reformed denominations share many points of belief and practice.

Central to Calvinist theology is the idea of predestination: because all things past, present and future already exist in the mind of God, those who will be saved—the elect—have already been saved. Salvation cannot be earned, but comes entirely from God’s grace. However, it is assumed that only the godly are among the elect, and so, unsure of one’s standing in the sight of god, it is imperative to live a godly life.

Calvin established a Christian theocracy in Geneva in the early 16th century, populated mainly by Huguenots (French Protestants). Other Calvinist churches took root in various European countries. The Pilgrims and Puritans who settled in New England established there the Congregational Church (today the major component of the United Church of Christ), reflecting the English Reformed tradition in which congregations are largely self-governing. Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (later New York) brought with them the Dutch Reformed Church, now (after several schisms and amalgamations, and the incorporation of the Huguenot Reformed Church) the Reformed Church in America. The German Reformed Church and the Evangelical Reformed Church are both largely of German descent. Scottish and Scots-Irish settlers established the Presbyterian Church. The Presbyterian Church, established in Scotland by John Knox (1510–72), takes its name from its form of church governance by assemblies of delegates (presbyters). The Presbyterian Church (U.S.) unites several Presbyterian bodies that had been separated by regional and minor doctrinal differences.

Reformed Church buildings are generally simple and sparsely adorned. Similarly, worship in these churches tends to be austere and simple. Reformed churches have traditionally valued a highly-educated clergy and have been instrumental in the founding of numerous colleges and universities, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.

 

The Presbyterian Church (U.S.) is the result of several mergers between smaller churches that had been separated by regional and doctrinal differences. The United Church of Christ includes, in addition to Congregational Churches, descendants of German Reformed Churches and of the Evangelical and Reformed Church (also of German descent). The Reformed Church in America and the Christian Reformed Church are both of Dutch descent.

The Salvation Army, a religious and charitable organization founded in England in 1865 by William and Catherine Booth (and took the name Salvation Army in 1878), shares the core beliefs of other evangelical churches. It is most familiar to outsiders through its work among the homeless and the poor and its fundraising on the streets, especially before Christmas. As its name suggests, the Salvation Army is organized on military lines (symbolizing the organization’s “warfare against evil”). Full-time uniformed personnel, organized in military ranks, are expected to devote their lives to its service and to accept a regime of poverty, austerity, and chastity (or marital fidelity; the organization encourages marriage within its ranks). The religious services do not follow a set form, although music and singing are often emphasized.

Unitarian Universalist Association Unitarianism was an outgrowth of New England Congregationalism in the late 1700’s and early 1800’s. Unitarians assert God’s unity and repudiate the doctrine of the Trinity. They also interpret other Christian beliefs in a liberal, figurative manner. Universalism was a separate movement emphasizing the availability of God’s care to all people, not only to a small chosen group. In 1961 Unitarian and Universalist organizations merged. Many traditional Christians do not acknowledge Unitarian Universalists as Christians, and many adherents would agree with that judgment.

 

Other Christian Churches Among other denominations there is a wide variety of religious belief and practice. Some are large, such as the Mormons (below), and others are very small, perhaps a single local congregation that reports as a separate and independent church body. Many groups do not recognize any organizational or doctrinal authority beyond the individual congregation, thereby making it difficult to generalize about them. Some groups are heterodox offshoots from the Pentecostal family. (See also “Folk Religions” and “New Religions,” below.)

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, known popularly as the Mormon Church, was “established anew,” according to Mormon doctrine, on April 6, 1830, by a 19th-century American prophet named Joseph Smith (1805–44). Smith, who grew up in western New York State, reported direct revelations from God. The Book of Mormon, which Smith said was given to him as a set of golden tablets by the Angel Moroni, and which he translated, tells of a visit by the resurrected Jesus Christ to pre-Columbian America. Smith assembled a community of believers that settled first in western New York and later in Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois. Wherever they went, the Mormons aroused the antagonism of neighboring non-Mormons, in part because Mormons allowed men to take more than one wife. Persecution peaked with the murder of Smith himself in 1844.

The next great leader of the church was Brigham Young (1801–77), who led the majority of Mormons westward to settle in the then-uninhabited basin by the Great Salt Lake. There the church grew and prospered. To this day, the majority of religiously affiliated people in Utah are Mormons. There are also many adherents in surrounding states, especially Colorado and Idaho.

About half of the church’s 12.8 million members live in the United States, but the Mormons’ missionary work goes on around the globe. Since about 1900, the church has encouraged converts to stay in their own countries and organize congregations there. The Community of Christ, formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is the largest of the groups that did not make the trek to the Great Salt Lake. Its headquarters are in Independence, Missouri, which Smith had designated as the site of a great future temple. Members of the Community of Christ (Reorganized Church) recognize their organizational and spiritual descent from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints but do not consider themselves Mormons.

History

At the time of his death, Jesus had a small handful of followers among Jews, but his teachings were not widely accepted among the larger Jewish community. Christianity began to outgrow its origins as a Jewish sect when the disciples of Jesus, particularly under the leadership of the Apostle Paul, preached to non-Jewish gentiles throughout the Roman Empire. Jesus’ teachings were remembered in oral tradition and recorded and amplified in many writings. The 27 books recognized as the canonical New Testament were written in Greek from about A.D. 50 to the early second century A.D. (see “Books of the Bible.”) The New Testament includes the four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the letters of Paul and others, and Revelations.

Christians were widely persecuted by Roman authorities, because they refused to accept either the secular authority or the civic religion of the empire, until the emperor Constantine legalized the religion in 313; in 380 Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire by proclamation of the Emperor Theodosius. Christianity also spread beyond the Roman Empire to parts of Central Asia, India, and northern Ethiopia.

Disputes over theological issues such as the nature of the Trinity and the person of Christ were resolved at a series of Ecumenical (“universal”) Councils, convened by the pope and attended by bishops of most or all of the leading Christian communities. The first four of these councils—at Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431), and Chalcedon (451) were of particular importance in establishing certain Christian beliefs as orthodox and casting out others as heretical. The consolidation of Christian doctrine is reflected in the Athanasian Creed, an extended statement of faith formerly widely used in western churches (fourth or fifth century A.D., after the time of St. Athanasius himself); and in the Nicene Creed, widely used today in liturgies (it was known in the fifth century, i.e. later than the Council of Nicaea).

In 1054 the Eastern and Western churches split over differences of theology, politics, geography, and language. The issues ranged from debates over the nature and form of the sacrament of the Eucharist (the Christian sacrificial ceremony of bread and wine) and debates about clerical celibacy to the pope’s objections to the patriarch of Constantinople taking the title Ecumenical Patriarch and the patriarch’s objections to the crowning of emperors of the Holy Roman Empire by the pope, in contradistinction to the Roman emperor at Constantinople. The division between Catholic and Orthodox grew steadily in complexity, bitterness, and intransigence, and only recently have leaders on both sides shown a sustained willingness to enter into dialogue to heal the breach.

Meanwhile, the papacy in Rome acquired the nature of a civil authority; and within the Western church ascetic and spiritual traditions competed with secular ones. In the 16th century, papal authority was challenged by such reform-minded priests as Martin Luther and John Calvin, abetted by England’s King Henry VIII, who transferred authority over the church in England from the pope to himself. Sectarian wars engulfed Europe for more than a century as Catholics and Protestants vied for temporal and spiritual power.

European explorers and colonists spread Christianity to the Americas, as well as to Asia and Africa. (In some places in both Asia and Africa, the Europeans encountered well-established indigenous Christian communities adhering to older rites such as Nestorianism or Syrian Orthodoxy.) The Spanish and Portuguese brought Catholicism to Latin America, while North America became a haven for Protestant denominations from northern Europe. Since the mid-1800’s, Protestant and Catholic evangelists have carried out energetic missionary programs to Africa and East Asia.

Geography and Numbers

Christianity is the most populous and most widespread religion in the world, with more than 2 billion adherents in 260 countries. Europe is home to more than 530 million Christians (70 percent of the region’s population), but Latin America has proportionally the highest number of Christian adherents—93 percent of the population. The fastest growing Christian population is in Africa, increasing 2.4 percent from 380 million in 2000 to 389 million in 2005.

Islam

The precepts of Islam were revealed through the prophet Muhammad, who was born ca. 570 at Mecca in western Saudi Arabia and died in 632 in the city of Medina. Muslims trace their descent from Abraham; but unlike Jews, who trace their descent through Isaac, the son of Abraham’s wife, Sarah, Muslims trace their decent through Ishmael, Abraham’s son by his servant Hagar. The word Islam, Arabic “surrender” or “submission,” suggests an adherent’s (known as a Muslim) total obedience to the will of God.

Scripture

The Koran (Arabic Qur’an, “recitation”) is the sacred scripture of Islam, understood by believers to be the authentic and verbatim word of God spoken to the Prophet Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel in a series of revelations beginning in A.D. 610 and continuing throughout the Prophet’s lifetime. They were recited by Muhammad to his companions, preserved in writing during or soon after the Prophet’s death in 632 (year 10 of the Islamic calendar), and subsequently collected. The Koran in its present form contains 114 chapters or sections called suras.

The Koran is the ultimate source of authority in Islam. Other sources of authority exist, such as hadith (traditions concerning the Prophet), ijma (consensus of Muslim jurists), and qiyas (analogy, e.g. the banning of intoxicating drugs by analogy with the Koranic ban on alcohol); but nothing can be held to be true that conflicts with or contradicts the Koran.

The Koran is considered to be the fountainhead of Arabic and Islamic scholarship; it is said that there does not exist anything in the world that is outside its purview. As its title suggests, the Koran was revealed to Muhammad by oral recitation, and it is still regarded primarily as a recited rather than a read text. (In its written form the Koran is often referred to as al-Kitab, “the Book.”) All Muslims memorize at least parts of the Koran for use in daily prayers. Memorization of the entire work is a prerequisite to further training as a Muslim religious scholar or jurist. Many special fields of Koranic scholarship investigate not only its meaning but also its grammar, punctuation, rhymes, and metrical structure. Recitation of the Koran is not only a religious duty but an art, and there are a number of different schools or styles of recitation. The Koran has been translated into many different languages, but because it is considered, word-for-word, the actual and authentic word of God recited by the Angel Gabriel to Muhammad in Arabic, no translation of the Koran may be considered to possess religious authority. It is widely held in the Islamic world that the Koran may properly be read and recited only in Arabic.

The standard account of the Koran’s compilation holds that shortly after the death of the Prophet the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, fearing that the individuals who had heard the recitation of the Koran directly from Muhammad would soon grow old and pass away, ordered that the suras be written down and arranged in the order that had already been revealed to the Prophet. (Except for Sura 1, a brief invocation, the suras are arranged approximately, but not strictly, by order of length, longest to shortest.) Several years later the third Caliph, ‘Uthman, ordered copies of this Koran to be made and distributed throughout the Islamic world to ensure its preservation. Because there is no highly developed scholarly tradition in the Islamic world equivalent to the “Biblical Criticism” movement of the Christian world, which challenged received ideas about the age, composition, and authenticity of the Scriptures, the traditional account of the Koran’s compilation has persisted generally without challenge or critical enquiry within the Muslim world. Some modern scholars, both within and from outside the Muslim community, have suggested that the true picture may have been more complicated than the traditional account suggests, and that the Koran may have been compiled in stages over several decades after the death of the Prophet, reaching final form only in the late 7th century (or, in the view of some scholars, even later than that).

The Contents of the Koran The Arab people regard themselves as descendants of the Biblical patriarch Abraham, through Ishmael, Abraham’s son with his servant Hagar. The Koran is very much a work in the Abrahamic tradition. It includes versions of episodes from the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, including the stories of Adam and Eve, Abraham, Moses, and David, and assumes that these stories will be familiar to the hearer. But the Koran focuses on the significance of these events rather than on their historical details. It recounts the virgin birth of Jesus, but does not portray him as the son of God. In light of the common origins of the Abrahamic religions in the tradition of Biblical monotheism, Islam accords to Jews and Christians a special status as dhimmi or “people of the Book,” a status explicitly and repeatedly confirmed in the Koran.

Generally speaking the focus of the Koran is on the life of the Islamic community, with its commitment to justice, equality of believers before God, humility, and piety. Many suras refer to specific instances or circumstances in the life of Muhammad as he struggled to make his prophesy understood and accepted by his community; for example, Sura 8, “Battle Gains,” refers at length to the great Muslim victory in the Battle of Badr (year 2/624); Sura 48, “Triumph,” relates to an agreement reached between the Prophet and his Meccan opponents about access to Mecca for believers. Muhammad’s mission is to warn the people of God’s plan for the salvation of believers and assure the people that disbelievers will be condemned to eternal punishment on the day of judgement. Many suras emphasize the torments of hell that await those who do evil or deny God. God is merciful; but those who hear his word and do not believe will be condemned. The emphasis of God’s warning, delivered by Muhammad, is on disbelievers rather than unbelievers—those who hear and reject the word of God, rather than those who have not heard the revelations. In the suras God provides Muhammad with arguments to use to reassure believers and to persuade disbelievers to change their minds; and Muhammad himself is often counseled to be patient in delivering his message, and not to lose heart.

Each sura (except, for reasons that are unclear, Sura 9) begins with the formula, “In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy.” The titles of the suras reinforce the Koran’s status as primarily an oral document for recitation rather than a written book for silent reading. They are more mnemonic devices than descriptions of the contents of the sura. For example, the title of Sura 2, “The Cow,” is not about cows; the title serves as a brief reminder to the reader that this is the sura that makes a reference to a cow. Many suras are rather diverse in content, and brief summaries can give only a general idea of what each sura is about.

The 114 Suras

1. The Opening This is a brief summary of the entire content of the Koran, memorized in Arabic by Muslims and recited as part of the obligatory daily prayers. It reads, in its entirety (in the translation of M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, 2004):

“In the name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy! Praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy, Master of the Day of Judgement. It is You we worship; it is You we ask for help. Guide us to the straight path: the path of those You have blessed, those who incur no anger and who have not gone astray.”

2. The Cow By a significant margin the longest of the suras, “The Cow” speaks of the fates of believers, disbelievers, and hypocrites. The sura recapitulates many Biblical stories of Adam, Moses, Abraham, and Jesus and Mary, including God’s commandment given through Moses to the Israelites that they sacrifice a cow. It also tells of Iblis, an angel who refused to obey God’s commandments and became the enemy of God. Muslims, Jews, Christians, and other monotheistic followers of the Abrahamic tradition, who believe in God, in the day of judgement, and who do good, will all be rewarded by God. But Jews and Christians should not dispute with each other, nor claim that they exclusively are God’s chosen people.

This sura reaffirms the validity of the received Scriptures; gives assurance of the truth of the revelations granted to Muhammad which completed the process of divine revelation; and specifies many rules (such as rules for prayer, dietary laws, principles governing ritual cleanliness, marital laws, and prohibition of intoxicants and gambling) for the conduct of believers.

3. The Family of ‘Imran This sura asserts firmly that believers will be saved and disbelievers condemned. It recounts stories of the prophet Zachariah, and Mary and the birth of Jesus. People of the Book who deny God’s final revelations are condemned. It draws lessons from the Battles of Badr and Uhud: those who reject or disobey the Prophet will be defeated, but People of the Book who accept God’s revelations will be saved.

4. Women This sura defines the role of women in Islam, with emphasis on their protection by inheritance and marital laws, and discusses many specific rules relating to women. It enjoins Muslims to defend the weak and to restrain themselves from fighting. It describes tensions between Muslims and People of the Book, and warns the latter not to oppose the revelations given by God to Muhammad.

5. The Feast Here we find a detailed discussion of dietary laws and laws governing cleanliness. Muslims are prohibited only from eating carrion, blood, pork, or meat over which the name of a false god has been invoked. The sura reaffirms the Hebrew scriptures and the teachings of Jesus, but asserts that Jesus did not claim to be God.

6. Livestock The principal subject of this sura is a refutation of idolatry and a warning against the worship of false gods. God alone has created the universe, controls it, and is omniscient and omnipotent.

7. The Heights This sura reaffirms to Muhammad the validity of the revelations made to him and his obligation to recite them. It warns disbelievers of their fate, and of the barrier that will separate believers and disbelievers on the day of judgement.

8. Battle Gains Muslims are reminded in this sura that their victory at Badr (year 2/624) against overwhelming odds was due to God alone. It denounces hypocrites and disbelievers, and urges mutual loyalty and support among believers.

9. Repentance This sura opens with a condemnation of idolaters who repeatedly broke faith with the Muslims; believers are enjoined to kill them for their treachery. The sura then describes the preparations and recruitment of troops for Muhammad’s expedition to Tabuk in year 9/631; hypocrites who claimed to support the Prophet but lent no help to the expedition are criticized. This is the only sura that does not begin with the invocation “In the Name of God, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy,” leading some scholars to believe that Sura 9 should be considered a continuation of Sura 8.

10. Jonah This contains a powerful reaffirmation of the truth of God’s revelations to Muhammad, and of God’s anger at those who reject those revelations; all those who hear and disobey will be condemned on the day of judgement. But Muhammad is counseled to be patient: No one can be forced to accept the truth.

11. Hud Muhammad has been sent both to warn of God’s anger with disbelievers and to give the good news of his revelation. God watches everywhere and sees everything. The revelations granted to Muhammad follow in a long line of prophetic tradition; Muhammad is asked to take heart from the stories of prophets past.

12. Joseph This sura retells the Biblical story of Joseph and his brothers, and again affirms that Muhammad is heir to a long tradition of prophesy.

13. Thunder This sura evokes the power and majesty of God; even the thunder praises Him. Like the earlier prophets, Muhammad’s only role is to convey God’s message to his people. On the day of judgement God will hold every person accountable for his or her actions.

14. Abraham The Biblical patriarch Abraham asks that the city (Mecca) be made safe for believers, and that his descendants be protected against idolatry. Muhammad is addressed directly by God, who assures him that He is all-powerful; believers will be saved, and disbelievers condemned.

15. Al-Hijr The sura takes its name from a town of disbelievers destroyed by God. It warns against the power of Satan to deceive, and reminds the prophets to be patient: all disbelievers surely will be punished in a time of God’s choosing, and believers will have their reward.

16. The Bee God sends down all good things, such as the fruit and flowers from which bees make honey; why do the disbelievers reject God’s gifts? God through Muhammad has sent his message to the people; Muslims should follow the example of Abraham in submitting to God’s will.

17. The Night Journey This sura alludes briefly to Muhammad’s night journey across the sky from Mecca to Jerusalem, from whence he ascended to Heaven before returning to Mecca again. But the sura’s main subject is the nature of the Koran and the meaning of prophecy: Muhammad’s task is to convey God’s message to the world; he is not a seer or a miracle-worker. The sura also gives a series of commandments, not unlike the Ten Commandments: Avoid idolatry; honor your parents; be generous to the needy; avoid adultery; do not kill; do not be arrogant; have no other god but God.

18. The Cave A sura of parables, including a story about how God aided a group of young men who sought refuge in a cave by putting them to sleep for two years until they were out of danger. God will protect his people; but evildoers will be cast into a fire.

19. Mary This sura affirms the story of Mary and the virgin birth of Jesus, but denies that Jesus was the son of God; rather God ordained his birth and it was so. Mary and Jesus are both in the lineage of the prophets. The sura also tells stories from the lives of Abraham and Moses. It reiterates that God has no children, neither Jesus nor the pagan gods of Mecca nor the angels.

20. Ta Ha The title of the sura consists of two letters of the Arabic alphabet, of uncertain significance. The sura itself speaks of the Koran and Muhammad’s role in transmitting it to the people; he should take encouragement from the example of Moses. Disbelievers will be destroyed.

21. The Prophets This sura locates Muhammad in the long line of prophets from Abraham and Moses to Job and Zachariah. Muhammad’s mission is to warn of the unity and omnipotence of God; disbelievers will be destroyed on the final day of judgement.

22. The Pilgrimage Affirms that the site of the Holy Mosque was revealed to Abraham himself, and that pilgrimage is a duty of believers. Warns that disbelievers and idolaters will suffer torments after the final judgement, and reassures the faithful that they will be rewarded. Repeats dietary laws relating to cattle and camels and other religious laws.

23. The Believers Assures believers that they will be rewarded and disbelievers and idolaters will be destroyed; affirms the unity and power of God, and the reality of resurrection for believers.

24. Light God’s light is likened to a lamp glowing as brightly as a star. Believers walk in light, disbelievers in darkness. Rules for the conduct of the faithful, especially relating to the status and chastity of women, are reiterated and clarified.

25. The Differentiator Idolaters and polytheists are contrasted with believers, and warned to abandon their stubbornness and ignorance. Believers are faithful, honest, dignified, and enjoy the favor of God.

26. The Poets The Holy Koran is not poetry, nor magic, but the true revelation of God’s will. Examples are given of prophets throughout history whose message was not heeded by the people, who then suffered the fate of disbelievers.

27. The Ants Tells the story of King Solomon, who in his wisdom had authority even over animals and birds, and the Queen of Sheba, who through Solomon’s influence submitted to God. Invites the people of the Torah to accept the Koran as God’s joyful final revelation.

28. The Story Recounts the story of Moses and Pharaoh, and reiterates the destruction that awaits disbelievers and those who reject God’s word. Muhammad is comforted in his struggles against the disbelievers of Mecca, and advised to be patient.

29. The Spider Those who put their trust in false gods are like spiders, building flimsy shelters for themselves. But things are not easy for believers, whose faith will be tested by the arguments of disbelievers; they must remain steadfast and remember the examples of the prophets of old who did not waver even when they were rejected by the people.

30. The Byzantines Takes note of the Persian victory over the Byzantine Empire in 613-14 and predicts that Byzantium will defeat the Persians in a year to come. God brings life to the desert and blessings to believers; but on the day of judgement idolaters and evildoers will have no excuse.

31. Luqman Luqman the Wise counsels his son against ascribing partners to God, and teaches him that God is all-powerful. Those who would lead believers away from the truth are warned of the destruction that awaits them. Believers should be patient; God alone knows when the day of judgment will come.

32. Bowing Down in Worship The Koran is God’s true revelation; believers bow down to worship him. Muhammad is assured that he is in the true line of prophesy; he should ignore those who reject God’s revelations. Their fate awaits them on the day of judgement.

33. The Joint Forces This sura describes the Battle of the Trench in year 5/627, at which an army of disbelievers unsuccessfully tried to capture Medina from the Muslims. The sura goes on to emphasize God’s protection of believers, and to reiterate various points relating to family law, including an injunction to women to dress modestly.

34. Sheba The people of Sheba were blessed, but ungrateful for their blessings; they suffered God’s punishment. Muhammad should take courage from the examples of David and Solomon. Those who reject him or, worse, accuse him of being mad, will be punished by God.

35. The Creator God alone created the world; God has no partners and is all-powerful. Disbelievers and idolaters are warned of the fate that awaits them; Muhammad is comforted that older prophets too were rejected by some of the people. Believers will be richly rewarded.

36. Ya Sin This sura takes its name from two letters of the Arabic alphabet, of unclear significance. The Koran is affirmed to be God’s true revelation, not poetry composed by a man. God truly created the world; He truly will reward believers on the day of resurrection.

37. Arrayed in Rows God is one, and has no partners and no children; the angels are not his daughters and must not be worshipped. The life hereafter is real, and awaits believers; the line of prophesy ending with Muhammad is true.

 

38. Sad As with Ta Ha (sura 20) and Ya Sin (sura 36), this sura takes its name from a letter of the Arabic alphabet. It praises the truth and beauty of the Koran, assures Muhammad that he is in the true line of prophesy, and likens disbelievers to Iblis, an angel who rebelled against God.

39. The Throngs God gives people a choice: to believe or not to believe. Those who believe will be blessed; idolaters and polytheists who ascribe partners to God will be condemned. On the day of judgement throngs of disbelievers will be sent to Hell.

40. The Forgiver God forgives those who turn to Him, but is severe in punishment of disbelievers, as shown in God’s favor toward Moses and his punishment of Pharaoh. Muhammad should take heart and pay no attention to the arguments of disbelievers.

41. Verses Made Distinct The message of the Koran is clear and available to all, but disbelievers close off their senses and reject the truth. They will be condemned on the day of judgement by their own testimony; but the Koran is true, God is One, and believers will be raised from the dead on the last day.

42. Consultation Harmony and consensus should characterize the community of believers. But religion is often a cause for strife because people reject the clear message of God’s unity and power. God reminds Muhammad that no one can be compelled to believe; but believers will hear God’s message and be judged according to their acceptance of the truth.

43. Ornaments of Gold God rewards his prophets not with mere riches, but with an assured place in the life hereafter. God is One. God has no partners; neither angels nor Jesus are children of God. Jesus himself understood that he was a prophet of God.

44. Smoke The smoke of the day of judgement will envelop the world; then it will be too late to repent. God will punish disbelievers and idolaters as he punished Pharaoh. The Koran’s message is one of mercy, but those who reject it will be condemned.

45. Kneeling All will kneel before God on the day of judgement. The visible signs of his greatness should be sufficient to convince doubters and disbelievers, but they who persist in unbelief will be condemned by their own arrogance.

46. The Sand Dunes Sand dunes mark the former dwelling-place of the tribe of ‘Ad, destroyed when they rejected the prophesy granted to them. Similar destruction awaits even the most powerful of those who deny the truth of the word of God, and of the resurrection.

47. Muhammad This sura describes some of the military and political conflicts that Muhammad faced dealing with the people of Mecca. It condemns those who expelled the Prophet from the city, along with all those who would obstruct others from accepting the word of God. Muslims should submit to God in all things; their reward is certain.

48. Triumph This sura refers to political events in Muhammad’s relations with Mecca after he had been expelled from the city. A ten-year truce enabled the Muslims to consolidate their gains, and their return to Mecca is depicted as a certainty; God will reward believers.

49. The Private Rooms Believers should deal respectfully with Muhammad in his private quarters, and generously and with mutual regard toward one another; it is God’s will that people live in the harmony brought about by submission to Him.

50. Qaf The title is a syllable of the Arabic alphabet. God created the world; he no less will bring believers back to life on the day of judgement. The Koran gives true warning to disbelievers.

51. Scattering Winds As the winds come from the sky, so will the day of judgement surely come. Abraham and Moses are invoked to encourage Muhammad to persevere in warning the people: God created people so that they would worship Him.

52. The Mountain Muhammad warns disbelievers: The day of judgement will surely come, as God has promised; the bliss of paradise awaits believers, but disbelievers will suffer the torments of hell.

53. The Star The truth of Muhammad’s Night Journey is reaffirmed: who can doubt what the Prophet experienced with his own senses? This sura gives one of the Koran’s most succinct summaries of Islamic teachings: God is the lord of Creation, and the source of all benefits for those who believe.

54. The Moon Demonstrates that God has punished those in the past who rebelled against his will: the people of Noah, of ‘Ad, of Thamud, of Lot, of Pharaoh, and others. On the day of judgement believers will receive their reward of bliss, but disbelievers will be punished.

55. The Lord of Mercy This sura portrays God as having created both humans and spirits (jinn) and given them endless benefits; as each blessing, on earth or in paradise, is described the sura adds a refrain: “Which then of your Lord’s blessings do you both [men and spirits] deny?” The world is divided into the best of believers, ordinary believers, and disbelievers; blessings await the former, but the disbelievers will suffer everlasting punishment.

56. That Which is Coming A promise of bliss for believers and punishment for disbelievers; the day of judgement is surely coming.

57. Iron God is all-powerful and all-knowing. Those who aid God’s work, like the prophets of old, such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus, are like iron. People of the Book (Jews and Christians) are urged to submit to God’s true revelation.

58. The Dispute This sura repudiates an unjust pre-Islamic form of divorce, and reaffirms Islam’s commitment to fair treatment of women. Those who repudiate God and oppose his will shall surely perish, while those on the side of God will be rewarded.

59. The Gathering of Forces This sura describes a victory over those who have warred with Islam; it is taken as a reference to the Jewish clan of the Banu al-Nadir, who repeatedly broke promises to Muhammad and his allies, and eventually were expelled from Medina. The victory belongs to God, not to any human agency.

60. Women Tested On the day of judgement everyone will be judged on his own merits; neither kin nor clan will matter. Wives of unbelievers who join the Muslims, if their faith is genuine, are divorced from their husbands and not sent back to them, but the bride-price must be repaid to the ex-husband by any believer who then marries such a woman. If the wife of a Muslim deserts to the unbelievers she is divorced and her assets paid over to her ex-husband.

61. Solid Lines Both Moses and Jesus were prophets; Jesus predicted that God’s messenger, Muhammad, would follow him. But their communities were divided: some rebelled against God, while some followed God.

62. The Day of Congregation God has given the people a true revelation, but some reject it. The Jews err in saying that they alone of all people are friends of God; God will judge them. Believers should be faithful in gathering for Friday prayers.

63. The Hypocrites Hypocrites profess to believe but do not; God will not forgive them. They refuse the obligation of charity; true believers therefore must strive to give even more.

64. Mutual Neglect God has punished disbelievers in the past and will do so again on the day of judgement. Those who deny the day of judgement are deeply in error. Muslims must take care not to be influenced by doubters even in their own families, but also must pardon their faults and encourage them. God is merciful.

65. Divorce This sura lays down laws for divorce, and specifically for the waiting period before a divorce can take effect; women who are being divorced must be treated fairly and with dignity.

66. Prohibition Two of the Prophet’s wives are criticized for betraying a confidence. Believers must guard themselves against wrongdoing. But God will forgive those who repent. The wives of Noah and Lot are examples of bad wives; Pharaoh’s righteous wife, and Mary, are examples of devout and pious women.

67. Control God has total control over the world and everything in it. Disbelievers and those who deny God will regret their errors on the day of judgement, but it will be too late.

68. The Pen The angels record everything. Some people claim that Muhammad is not the messenger of God, but a madman; some feel secure in their worldly wealth and power and do not need God. Muhammad is urged to be steadfast; mockers and disbelievers will perish.

69. The Inevitable Hour God in the past has punished those who rejected or disobeyed Him; how much more will he do so on the day of judgement! The righteous will be rewarded by a life of bliss in a pleasant garden; disbelievers will burn in hell. The Koran is in every respect a true revelation of the word of God.

70. Ways of Ascent Mockers challenge God to punish them now rather than in the hereafter; they will receive their punishment on the terrible day of judgement, but the faithful will be richly rewarded.

71. Noah Noah was a prophet who told the people to ask forgiveness of God, but they rejected his word; they all perished in the great flood.

72. The Jinn A group of jinn heard the recitation of the Koran and submitted to God. God is all-powerful, and Muhammad’s role is to deliver his revelation. Those who reject it will themselves be rejected on the day of judgement.

73. Enfolded Muhammad, enfolded in his cloak, pursued a regimen of austerity to prepare for his work as a prophet, and later was relieved of his austerities by God so that he could more effectively reach the people. As God punished Pharaoh in this life, so will he punish disbelievers on the day of judgement.

74. Wrapped in His Cloak After receiving God’s first message as revealed by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad returned home and tried to conceal himself in his cloak. But God calls him to his duty to warn the world: disbelievers will be cast into hell on the day of judgement.

75. The Resurrection God has infinite power; he surely will raise the dead and restore them to their natural form. Muhammad should be patient so as to deliver God’s entire revelation to the people. People are warned to think, not of this life, but of the next.

76. Man Man is created to worship and serve God, and will be tested on the day of judgement; believers will live blissfully in the garden, but disbelievers will suffer the torments of hell.

77. The Day of Decision On the day of judgement all will be sorted into groups according to their deeds. Horrible torments of fire await the disbelievers.

78. The Announcement Many refuse to believe in the reality of the coming day of judgement. Its inevitability is affirmed, along with the fates awaiting believers and disbelievers.

79. The Forceful Chargers The day of judgement will come like chargers rushing to battle. Moses warned Pharaoh; Pharaoh paid no heed and was destroyed; likewise disbelievers will be punished when the dead are brought back to life on the day of judgement.

80. He Frowned Muhammad is reproached by God for frowning at a blind man who sought wisdom, when Muhammad was distracted by disputation with disbelievers. He is told to ignore the disbelievers. The world of God is precious, and the Koran must be written down by men who are pure and holy; but mankind is ungrateful and too many forget the grace and mercy of God.

81. Shrouded in Darkness When the sun is shrouded in darkness on the last day, all will be judged according to their deeds.

82. Torn Apart The sky will be torn apart on the day of judgement; then it will be too late for the disbelievers.

83. Those Who Give Short Measure The practice of commercial cheating is strongly condemned. Those who cheat others will be punished on the last day, but those whose names are on the list of the righteous will enjoy paradise.

84. Ripped Apart When the sky is ripped apart all will be judged. Heaven and Earth obey God’s will; but humans who disobey or disbelieve will perish.

85. The Towering Constellations The sky with its constellations will witness that those who persecuted believers will suffer the wrath of God.

86. The Night-Comer As man originates in a drop of semen, as a baby comes from the womb, as plants grow from the earth, so will all humans rise again on the day of resurrection.

87. The Most High Muhammad is encouraged to persist in his mission to teach the revelations of the Koran. The world lasts only a short time; the day of judgement is coming.

88. The Overwhelming Event Muhammad cannot control what happens to people; his only mission is to warn them. The day of judgement will surely come, for disbelievers and believers alike.

89. Daybreak God promises that tyrants and disbelievers in the present time will be dealt with as he dealt in the past with those who rejected the prophets; wealth and power will avail them nothing.

90. The City Man’s life on earth is one of toil and hardship, and all will be judged on the last day; it is best to do good works and avoid evil.

91. The Sun Sun and moon, day and night, witness that toto purify the soul leads to life, to corrupt it leads to death, as God punished the wicked people of Thamud.

92. The Night Some people choose a path of goodness, some one of evil. God guides and warns them: the pious will be spared, the wicked will burn.

93. The Morning Brightness God reassures Muhammad about his mission, and tells him not to feel forsaken.

94. Relief Muhammad should persevere through hardships; God will guide him. He should turn to the Lord for everything.

95. The Fig God has given man a world rich with good things; those who believe in God and are faithful will be richly rewarded. How can the day of judgement be denied?

96. The Clinging Form The first paragraph of this sura was the first revelation entrusted to Muhammad, in the Cave of Hira near Mecca. After the ritual invocation of Allah, Muhammad receives the command: “Read.” The sura then states that God made man from a clump of matter in the womb. The second paragraph warns humans not to think themselves self-sufficient and thus turn away from God.

97. The Night of Glory This short sura celebrates the Night of Glory when Muhammad received his first revelation.

98. Clear Evidence Disbelievers demand clear evidence of God before they will believe; but true believers sincerely devote themselves to God through faith. They will be rewarded.

99. The Earthquake On the day of judgement the earth will shake as the good and the evil are separated into groups on the evidence of their own deeds.

100. The Charging Steeds Those who take too much pleasure in wealth are ungrateful to God, from whom all blessings come. The hearts of those who reject God will be revealed on the last day.

101. The Crashing Blow The day of judgement will fall like a crashing blow on those whose evil deeds outweigh the good; they will be cast down into hell.

102. Striving for More Striving for wealth distracts people until they die, when it is too late for them to do good. They doubted God; now their punishment is certain.

103. The Declining Day All are lost except those who believe, who do good, who help the community of the faithful.

104. The Backbiter Backbiters, motivated by greed, prepare themselves to be crushed by the fires of hell.

105. The Elephant Refers to an incident in 570, when a Christian king of Yemen tried to capture and destroy Mecca; he was defeated by God, who sent birds to confuse and panic the Yemeni war elephants.

106. Quraysh The Quraysh tribe (keepers of the Holy Ka’ba at Mecca) enjoyed God’s protection after the battle referred to in sura 105. With that protection they can accompany their trading caravans without fear of being attacked.

107. Common Kindnesses Those who reject God are evident from their lack of common kindness toward others, especially the poor and needy.

108. Abundance God tells Muhammad that he has been blessed with abundance (although he has no surviving direct heir); those who doubt will see their lineages cut off.

109. The Disbelievers A repudiation of disbelievers and all they stand for, but also an affirmation of religious toleration. The Muslim tells disbelievers: You have your religion, and I have mine.

110. Help Praise God and repent; he is always ready to forgive.

111. Palm Fiber A curse on Muhammad’s fierce opponent Abu Lahab, and his wife: may she wear a halter of palm-fiber rope.

112 Purity of Faith A formula of faith: “He is God the One, God the eternal. He begot no one nor was he begotten. No one is comparable to Him.”

113. Daybreak A formula to ward off evil and seek refuge in the Lord.

114. People A formula against doubt, seeking refuge in the Lord.

Belief and Practice

Allah The very definition of a Muslim is one who submits to God. God is referred to as Allah, although this word—a contraction of al (the) and ilah (God)—merely means “the God.” It is not the name of God, who is often said to have “99 names,” such as The Merciful, The Just, and The Compassionate. Muhammad viewed himself and was seen by his followers not as a divine figure, but as the last in a line of prophets, following Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

 

Five Pillars of Islam A Muslim’s relations with God are regulated by the Five Pillars of Islam:

Profession of Faith (Shahadah) This is a single sentence that essentially makes a person a Muslim: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.” These are the first words spoken to a newborn Muslim, and they are recited daily throughout a person’s life.

Prayer (Salat) Most Muslims pray five times daily: before dawn, midday, midafternoon, sunset, and nighttime; some Shiite Muslims combine these into three prayers. Prayers are announced by a muezzin who calls from the top of a minaret. The call begins with “Allahu akbar” (“God is supreme”) and continues, “I witness that there is no God but God; I witness that Muhammad is the messenger of God; hasten to prayer.” Muslims are expected to perform ritual purification before prayer, washing their hands, arms, face, neck, and feet. Prayer is performed facing qiblah, the direction of Mecca; inside a mosque this is indicated by an arched niche known as a mihrab. Prayer typically consists of passages from the Koran recited in Arabic from memory, in standing, bowing, prostrate, and sitting postures. Friday is a day of public prayer, but not necessarily a day of rest, and services in a mosque will usually include a sermon by religious leader.

Charity (Zakat) Devout Muslims are obligated to give a portion of their wealth to the poor. The actual percentage varies, but is usually about 2.5 percent yearly—and this is based on all of a Muslim’s possessions, not only their annual income. They are also expected to provide other forms of charity whenever the opportunity arises.

Fasting during Ramadan (Sawm) Muslims are required to abstain from food, liquid, tobacco, and sex between dawn and dusk during the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, Ramadan, in remembrance of the time of Muhammad’s first revelations. Due to the lunar Muslim calendar, the month begins 11 days earlier each year.

Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) Every Muslim is expected to visit Mecca once in his or her lifetime, unless prevented by poverty or illness, and only Muslims may enter the city. About 2 million people make the journey each year: either the “lesser pilgrimage,” which is simply a visit to Mecca to worship in the great mosque and visit nearby holy sites, or a “greater pilgrimage” which involves several ritual visits to the Kabah (below) over a period of several days, interspersed with reenactments of events from the lives of Abraham, Hagar, and Muhammad. Completing the pilgrimage gives a Muslim the status of hajji or hajjiyah (male or female pilgrim).

Schools and Sects

Sunni Islam The Islamic world is divided into two main sects (each with several sub-sects), Sunni and Shiite. Sunnah means “tradition” and refers to the Sunni reliance on the Koran and the supplementary sayings attributed to Muhammad (Hadiths) as the source of all legitimate knowledge. There are four major sub-sects of Sunni Islam, differing in particulars of interpretation of the texts.

The split between Sunni and Shiite Islam initially involved a dispute about the succession to Muhammad. Sunnis believe that succession passed through a series of caliphs (“successors”) beginning with Abu Bakr, of which the fourth was Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad. Shiites hold that Ali was the first legitimate successor, the first in a series of divinely appointed imams (“guides”) descended from the Prophet himself. The succession dispute, marked by the assassination of Ali and then of his son and successor Husayn, led to a civil war within Islam and the cementing of the Sunni-Shiite split. Subsequently these two main branches of Islam have developed a number of differences in beliefs, practices, holidays, and other features.

The overwhelming majority of Muslims are Sunnis (83 percent, or nearly 1 billion people), spread widely throughout the Islamic world but a minority in both Iraq and Iran. Saudi Arabia and Egypt are the main power centers in the Sunni world.

 

Shiite Islam “Shiite” means “partisans,” emphasizing Shiite loyalty to Ali and his descendants as the legitimate successors to Muhammad. Shiites accept hadiths attributed to Ali and his eleven successors—the first twelve imams—as religiously authoritative. Shiite Islam is divided into three main sub-sects, the most prominent of which holds that the twelfth imam did not die but is “hidden” and will return to guide the world in anticipation of the Last Judgment. The Ismaili branch, led by the Agha Khan, follows a different interpretation of the succession of imams. Shiism, as compared to Sunni Islam, places greater emphasis on acts of piety and personal faith; on a personal level, many Shiites venerate one of a number of Islamic saints.

Shiites comprise about 16 percent of Muslims (about 180 million people). Iran is the center of Shiite power, but there are significant Shiite communities in parts of Iraq, Syria, and non-Arab countries such as Pakistan and India.

 

Sufism Sufism is essentially Islamic mysticism, a branch of the religion that promotes a simple existence and seeks a direct experience of God. It emerged in response to a perceived “worldliness” overtaking Islam in its early years of development. A traditional Sufi disciple (fakir in Arabic, darwish in Persian) pursues spiritual studies with a Sufi leader, or shaykh. Throughout their history, Sufi orders (tariqah) have incorporated a variety of techniques to produce a mystical state of sana (“extinction” or loss of self), including breathing techniques, counting on rosaries, playing music, and spinning or dancing (the English phrase whirling dervish comes from the circular dance of the Mawlawiya order). Because many orthodox Muslims view Sufism as a folk religion, on a lower order than “true” Islam, it is not practiced openly in many parts of the world.

 

Islamism refers to a highly politicized version of Islam that arose in various parts of the Middle East in the postcolonial era. Islamism stresses that Islam is a political system as well as a religion. The goals of individual Islamists vary, but they may include adopting Islam as the defining characteristic of personal identity; defending Islam against enemies (real or imagined); the restoration of the caliphate to unify the Islamic world; the return to Islam of areas once part of the Islamic world (e.g., Israel and Spain); the adoption of sharia religious law in Muslim countries; severe restrictions on women’s dress and public activities; and the importance of personal and collective jihad (“struggle”). Islamism is sometimes associated with, but is not identical to, Islamic political terrorism; many Islamists, though espousing ideals regarded as extreme in the non-Muslim world, reject the use of indiscriminate violence in pursuit of their goals.

History

Muhammad, the founder and first prophet of Islam, was born ca. A.D. 570 in Mecca. The city was already a holy place for a variety of local religious practices, and the home of the Kabah (“cube”), which housed hundreds of images of tribal gods, as well as a black meteorite believed to have been sent by heaven (and still the central focus of a Muslim’s pilgrimage to the city). Muhammad was raised by his uncle and became a trader, traveling throughout the Arabian Peninsula and gaining exposure to a variety of religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. At the age of 25 he married his employer, the widow Khadija.

At age 40, in a cave at Mount Hira, Muhammad claimed he received his first visitation from the angel Gabriel, who ordered him to recite the word of God to others. The first people Muhammad shared these messages with were his wife, his cousin Ali, and his friend Abu Bakr, known now as the first Muslims. Most of Muhammad’s “recitations” promoted compassion, kindness, honesty, and charity. Others, however, promoting monotheism, prohibiting statues and images, and railing against unfair contracts and usury, provoked resistance from powerful businesspeople in Mecca. In 615 some of Muhammad’s followers fled to Ethiopia; in 619 Khadija died, and a year later Muhammad experienced the Night Journey (or Night of Ascent), a vision of being guided by Gabriel through Heaven into the presence of God.

In 622 Muhammad and his followers were invited by the city of Yathrib (now Medina; in Arabic, madinat an-nabi, “city of the prophet”) to leave Mecca. Their journey is called the Hegira (“flight” or “migration”) and marks year 1 in the Muslim calendar. In Yathrib, Muhammad fought against and ultimately banished or executed his Jewish opponents and their political allies, took control of Yathrib, and built the first Islamic mosque (masjid). In 624 citizens of Yathrib defeated opponents from Mecca at Badr, and Muhammad returned to Mecca to rule. His followers destroyed the images of tribal gods in the Kabah and marketplace, and began the institutionalization of Islam. Muhammad continued to extend Islamic control in Arabia until his death in Yathrib in 632.

Under a succession of secular and theocratic caliphates, Islam swept east and west from Arabia. Muslims reached the Indus River in 713, and most of North Africa was Muslim by the end of the seventh century. Islam’s advance in France was stopped in 733 at the Battle of Tours; Muslims remained in Spain until 1492. Islamic armies captured the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, and controlled much of southeastern Europe until the 19th century. In the east, Muslims swept through India at the end of the 10th century and reached the East Indies in the 15th century.

The arts, architecture, and technology flourished in the golden age of Islam and Islamic learning and culture was responsible for the transmission of much of classical philosophy and science to the West. From the 18th to 20th centuries, many traditionally Islamic countries came under Western cultural and political influence. In the 20th century, some traditionally Islamic countries such as Turkey opted for a secular state; others such as Saudi Arabia and Iran came under strict fundamentalist rule.

Holidays

Id al-Adha (Day of Sacrifice) recalls Abraham’s sacrifice of a ram in place of his son; celebrated during 12th lunar month, the month of the Hajj. Id al-Fitr (Day of Breaking the Fast) is observed after the end of Ramadan. Muharram (first month of Muslim year) commemorates Muhammad’s migration to Yathrib (Medina); in the Shiite branch, it also commemorates of death of Husayn, son of Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali. Muhammad’s birthday is celebrated on the 12th day of the third month of the year.

Geography and Numbers

With 1.1 billion adherents in 184 countries, Islam is the second-largest religion in the world. It is the dominant religion throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Indonesia, the country with the largest number of adherents (172 million people). There are 104 million Muslims in India—11 percent of that country’s population.

Hinduism

Modern Hinduism evolved over the course of many centuries from ancient Vedism, a religion of Indo-European origin dating from the second millennium B.C. if not earlier. The term Hinduism, however, is of relatively recent origin, having been introduced by British scholars in the early 19th century as a way of providing a conceptual framework for thinking about the widely diverse indigenous religious beliefs and practices of India. The term is now widely accepted in India itself to describe India’s complex polytheistic religion and philosophy during approximately the past 2000 years. The term also informs the ideology of Hindutva, a modern political concept that regards Hinduism as wholly indigenous to India, and as India’s only valid religion and culture.

Scripture

The earliest sacred books of Hinduism are the Vedas, which preserve in written form the chants of the priestly class of the Aryan (“noble”) people, who, in the view of most scholars, brought Vedism to the Indian subcontinent some 4,000 years ago. The Vedas, which date to about 1500 B.C., are revered by Hindus as the authoritative source of religious truth, even though they are not widely read by practitioners and are not a common source of guidance in daily life or in religious practice. The four central texts are: the Rig Veda (“hymn knowledge”), the oldest and most important of the Vedas, consisting of chants to the Aryan gods; the Yajur Veda (“ceremonial knowledge”), chants to be performed in conjunction with religious ceremonies and sacrifices; the Sama Veda (“chant knowledge”), musical elaborations of chants; and the Atharva Veda (“knowledge from Atharva,” a Vedic teacher), practical and protective charms and chants. In addition to the four core texts, the collective term Vedas also commonly encompasses the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, ceremonial rules appended in later centuries to each of the earlier collections.

Separate from the Vedas are the Upanishads, a collection of approximately 100 works in prose and poetry written over hundreds of years during the first millennium B.C. Most of the Upanishads are in dialogue form and constitute an exploration of basic Hindu philosophical and spiritual concepts, such as karma and samsara. In contrast to the oldest Vedic texts, which were traditionally restricted to the priestly class, the Upanishads insist that spiritual mastery is not limited by hereditary caste status, but is available to all who practice sufficient discipline and meditation. Hinduism evolved from Vedism largely through the influence of the Upanishads, which also provided some of the inspiration for the emergence at around the same time of other religions (such as Jainism and Buddhism) with Vedic roots.

Other key Hindu texts include epic mythological poems such as the Ramayana (ca. 300 B.C.) and the Mahabharata (ca. 200 B.C.). The Bhagavad Gita, probably originally an independent text, was incorporated into the Mahabharata at an early date, but it is of such great importance it is often printed and studied on its own. Written in dialogue form, it is a key source of teachings on the important questions of action and duty in accordance with one’s station in life.

Belief and Practice

Hindu worship is largely an individual or family matter, stressing individual devotions rather than collective worship (except for festivals, in which tens of thousands of people might participate). There are striking regional differences in the relative importance of Hindu gods, the ways in which they are worshipped, and in various other Hindu practices. Still, some basic concepts are common to most Hindu schools and sects, many of which are articulated in the Upanishads:

Atman and Brahman are often defined as “soul” and “divine spirit,” but in the Upanishads they carry deeper meanings. Brahman is both the source and substance of all existence. Manifested as the individually differentiated “self” of a living being, brahman is referred to as atman. The ultimate spiritual goal of Hinduism is understanding and experiencing that there is no difference between atman and brahman, between one’s self and the rest of the universe.

Maya is frequently used to describe nature of the world in the Upanishads. It is commonly translated as “illusion,” but, being derived from a root with the dual connotation of “magic” and “matter,” the word’s meaning is more complex. The connotation of maya is that the world is real and substantial, but that the apparent separation of substance into individual things is illusory. Maya implies that the world is of a singular spiritual nature in a constant state of fluctuation and change.

Karma refers to the moral consequences of every act done by an individual in life. Karma as such is not inherently good or bad, but on an individual level the experience of the consequences of karma might be perceived as good or bad.

Samsara is the Hindu cycle of birth and rebirth in life; a person’s path through and rebirth into this cycle is determined by their karma.

Dharma refers to one’s duty as determined by life circumstances (such as caste status, wealth, and power), and the actions that proceed from that duty. A person’s dharma might also include devotion to a particular manifestation of a god, or to a particular religious goal. The concept of dharma forms the core teaching of the Bhagavad Gita, expressed in a dialogue between Prince Arjuna and his charioteer/adviser, Krishna, on the battlefield of a civil war. Arjuna is reluctant to fight against his rebellious cousins, who are threatening his family’s rule. Krishna reveals himself as an incarnation of the god Vishnu and advises Arjuna to act in accordance with his princely role and fight; the dialogue teaches that acting in accordance with one’s station in society is a form of worship, and a path to oneness with the universe.

Puja Many Hindus make daily offerings (puja, “reverence,” “worship”) to the gods particularly venerated by the family. A home puja typically involves an offering, in front of the home shrine, of lamp- or candle-light, water, incense, and fruit. The word puja also refers to more elaborate offerings made at temples, or on special occasions such as beginning a new business venture.

Moksha means “freedom” or “liberation”; breaking free of the endless cycle of samsara. One achieves moksha by freeing oneself from such selfish traits as egotism and anger, and even losing all sense of one’s individuality. moksha is the ultimate goal of Hindu practice, achieving the recognition that ones self is inseparable and indistinguishable from brahman.

In addition to the spiritual goal of moksha, Hindus also believe in the pursuit of worldly goals, including dharma, or social and religious duty; arrha, or economic security and power; and kama, or pleasure.

Caste The traditional Hindu caste system provides a framework for the unfolding of one’s dharma. The system divides society into four primary, and hundreds of subsidiary, castes defined by occupation and social standing: brahmins are the highest, priestly class; kshatnyas are warrior-aristocrats who serve as protectors of society; vaishyas are merchants, landowners, moneylenders, and some artisans; and shudras are laborers. Beyond the caste system are the dalit, untouchables or outcasts. India’s modern constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of caste and has abolished the concept of untouchability. This legal disestablishment of the caste system, together with modern trends such as urbanization and social mobility, has accelerated the intermingling and intermarriage of castes. Nevertheless the system is still of great importance in Indian society (for example, many arranged marriages are based in part on considerations of caste) and is particularly important in rural areas and the conservative southern parts of India.

Yoga A yoga is an active path to spiritual perfection. The appropriateness of a yoga for any individual depends upon life circumstances, including caste and personality type. A yoga may also be referred to as a marga (“way”). Three are spoken of in the Upanishads: jnana yoga (“knowledge yoga”), meditation and systematic study of Hindu texts and the teaching of gurus; karma yoga (“action yoga”), the unselfish performance of social duties; and bhakti yoga (“devotion yoga”), devotion to an external entity, which may be a god, a guru, or even (more rarely) a spouse or parent. A vast number of other yogic traditions have been developed over the centuries, among them hatha Yoga (“force yoga”) and its many schools, which utilize stretching, breathing, and balancing exercises to achieve spiritual perfection.

Hindu Deities Hinduism has three primary theistic traditions revolving around the cults of anthropomorphic gods. Vishnu is the god embodying the force of preservation; Shiva is the god of destruction; and Brahma represents the creative force. These three are often linked together in the trimurti, or “triple form.” Hindus also pay tribute to different incarnations of the gods, such as Rama or Krishna, both incarnations of Vishnu. Many (mostly male) Hindu gods also have animal companions and female consorts who represent different forces and may be worshipped in their own right.

Hinduism teaches a deep respect for all living things. Hindu spiritual life includes honoring many animals as manifestations of particular deities, and many Hindus are vegetarians, avoiding the consumption of all meat and meat products. The most revered animal is the cow. The fact that Islam permits the slaughter and eating of cows is often cited as one of the reasons (or at least as providing the occasion) for conflict between Hindus and Muslims. Today, however, many Hindus also eat beef as part of a modern lifestyle.

Schools and Sects

Hinduism comprises myriad religious cults and various schools of philosophy, with no central authoritative body or hierarchy. Schools are differentiated by their adherence to different practices (such as types of yoga), or in the case of the devotional Hinduism practiced by the majority of Hindus, by the god or gods to which they pay primary respect. In India today various Hindu nationalist parties and the Hindutva movement are often intolerant of other religions. Many individual Hindus, however, adhere to a principle of religious toleration, not only of the various forms of Hindu religious practice but for other religions as well. In that view, Christianity, Islam, and other religions can offer alternative paths to the same goal of spiritual cultivation, and at worst they are simply inadequate, rather than wrong or evil.

History

The oldest Hindu writings are Vedic texts associated with a group of invaders (probably from southeastern Europe or somewhere in the region between the Black and Caspian Seas) known as the Aryans, who conquered much of India early in the second millennium B.C. (Hindu fundamentalists associated with the Hindutva movement regard Vedic civilization as wholly indigenous to India, and deny that any invasion took place, despite significant archaeological and linguistic evidence to the contrary.) The invaders also brought with them the caste system, the Sanskrit language, and a family of gods with obvious ties to other European deities (the Aryan father of the gods, Dyaus Pitr, was clearly the same figure as the Roman Jupiter or the Greek Zeus). Over many centuries, the Vedic religion assimilated local customs and folk religions, including the ideas of karma and reincarnation.

The mid- to late first millennium B.C.—the time when many of the Upanishads, along with the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita were composed—marked a major transformation in Vedism, as ascetics challenged the religion and the power of the priests. Prominent among these reformers were Vardhamana, the founder of Jainism, and Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha. During this volatile period some Brahman priests propounded the doctrine that there is a dharma (duty) for each stage of a person’s life. This was an argument, in effect, for social responsibility; among other things it inveighed against the increasingly widespread phenomenon of men abandoning society for a life of religious rigor and austerity. Eremitism, in this view, was contrary to dharma unless the person had reached an “appropriate” stage of life.

Between the second century B.C. and the fourth century A.D., the classic epics (probably initially composed for oral performance) became stabilized and standardized in written form; cults of Vishnu and Shiva grew in power; and Hinduism spread to southeast Asia. From the fourth to the ninth century, devotional (bhakti) Hinduism grew rapidly in popularity as religious leaders adapted their practices to vernacular languages, such as Tamil, rather than the traditional Sanskrit. Beginning with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, a succession of Muslim regimes dominated northern India, and many Hindus in areas that are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Kashmir, as well as in northern India itself, willingly or forcibly converted to Islam. Christianity, which had existed in India since the early centuries A.D., became more widespread in the subcontinent in the 19th century, especially under the influence of the British East India Company.

The 19th and 20th centuries also brought the struggle for Indian independence. Many major new leaders and reformers linked the struggle for independence to a revival of Hindu religion and culture. The best known of these leaders was Mohandas Gandhi, the founder of modern India, who brought the Hindu ascetic tradition and the principle of passive resistance (satyagraha) to bear on the social and political reform movement in India.

After Independence and the separation of Pakistan from India in 1947, the gulf between the Hindu majority and the large Muslim minority in India widened. Violent clashes continued into the 21st century, especially in the disputed territory of Kashmir. In India, two contradictory trends exist at the same time. On the one hand, Hindu nationalism, inspired in part by fear of and opposition to Islam, has emphasized the links between Hinduism and Indian identity. On the other hand, secularization and urbanization have led to the decline (though by no means the disappearance) of many traditional Hindu practices, and a diminution in the importance of the traditionally privileged priestly class.

Holidays

Because of the vast number of Hindu gods and the variety of schools and practices, there are few holidays common to all Hindus. Some of the more important and widely celebrated festival days include Dipavali, “festival of lights,” sacred to Lakshmi, goddess of prosperity; Holi, a spring festival; and Dashara, a harvest festival.

Geography and Numbers

Hinduism has more than 850 million adherents worldwide. With deep roots in India, and lacking a missionary tradition and any widely recognized means of converting from another religion to Hinduism, it is found almost nowhere outside of India and neighboring countries except in expatriate Indian communities.

Buddhism

The central tenets of Buddhism were developed by Siddhartha Gautama, who was born into a royal Hindu family in present-day Nepal around 563 B.C. After observing the suffering of ordinary people in the world, he left home and embarked on a long period of travel, study, and meditation; he eventually experienced enlightenment, earning the name Buddha, or “awakened one.” He founded an order of monks and taught a philosophy of escape from life’s endless cycle of suffering through nonviolence, compassion, and moderate living, until his death in 483 B.C.

Scripture

Of primary importance to all Buddhists is the Tripitaka, the “three baskets” or collections of Buddhist thought. These are often treated as the exact words of the Buddha, although most of the texts were not written down by his companions until years after his death. The first “basket” is the sutras, teachings of the Buddha in the form of sermons or dialogues; the second is the vinaya, or rules of monastic life; and the third is the abhidharma, a more systematic presentation of the lessons of the randomly organized sutras. Some schools of Buddhism make use of additional texts: the Mahayana school utilizes new sutras written centuries after the Buddha’s death (though maintaining at least the pretense that these sutras represent “recovered” teachings of the Buddha), and Vajrayana Buddhism makes use of Tantric texts as well as the Tenjur, a collection of commentaries on a wide range of subjects such as medicine and grammar.

Belief and Practice

Because Buddhism emerged in the midst of Hindu culture, the two religions share many beliefs and concepts, such as ahimsa, or nonviolence, and samsara, the endless cycle of birth and rebirth. The Buddhist nirvana is roughly equivalent to the Hindu moksha, a break or escape from samsara (contrary to popular Western usage, it does not represent a spiritual or otherworldly paradise). A key difference between the religions is the Buddhist insistence that nothing is permanent, not even the universal spirit (Brahman) and self (Atman) of Hindu belief. The key Buddhist concept meaning “no permanent identity” is expressed in Sanskrit as anatman, or “no-Atman.” The Buddha taught that the universe is constantly changing, and all things will eventually decay and disappear; therefore desire is infinite and insatiable, because nothing can be held on to forever; as a result, peace and enlightenment are only possible through renouncing desire and accepting the impermanence of existence.

In further contrast to the overwhelming complexity and multiplicity of Hindu gods and beliefs, the central truths and teachings of Buddhism—those held in common by practically all schools and sects—are summarized quite simply in the Three Jewels, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path:

 

The Three Jewels Three things constitute the essential heart of Buddhism: the Buddha, the ideal model to which humans should aspire; the Dharma, or the overall Buddhist worldview and way of life; and the Sangha, or the Buddhist community of monks and nuns.

 

The Four Noble Truths The Buddhist worldview is summarized in four simple statements: (1) All life entails suffering; (2) Suffering is caused by desire; (3) Desire can be overcome; and (4) The means for overcoming desire is the Noble Eightfold Path.

 

The Noble Eightfold Path These eight steps are meant to be practiced simultaneously rather than consecutively, and together they constitute a systematic method for understanding the universe, living compassionately, and achieving peace and enlightenment. They are: right views, right intentions, right speech, right conduct, right work, right effort, right meditation, and right contemplation. The term right may also be interpreted as “true” or “correct” and implies a distinction between the teachings of the Buddha and those of other religions and philosophies.

A hallmark of Buddhist practice has always been the monastic order, although the importance of monastic life—and even the proper interaction of monks with society at large—differs substantially between schools and sects. Buddhist temples are primarily for individual meditation and other forms of individual prayer and worship. Collective rituals play a smaller part in the lives of most Buddhists than they do in the lives of Jews, Christians, Muslims, or Hindus, though the importance of collective rituals in Buddhism varies in different sects.

Schools and Sects

Theravada Buddhism This form of Buddhism (the name means “Doctrine of the Elders”) predominates today in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia and claims to adhere most closely to the tenets of the early Buddhist sects. Special importance is attached to monastic life, and followers maintain a conservative view of the Buddha’s teachings. The Theravada ideal is the arhat, a person who has achieved perfect enlightenment and cessation of desire, and so will enter nirvana upon his death. Theravada Buddhism thus places great emphasis on individual religious cultivation within the supportive environment of the monastic community. Theravada monks retain characteristics of Hindu sannyasins, or wandering ascetics, including their characteristic orange or burgundy robes. Because the monks must beg for food, their monasteries are often located in the center of towns instead of remote locations. Theraveda Buddhism is also called Hinayana, “Lesser Vehicle.”

 

Mahayana Buddhism A defining characteristic of the Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”) school is its focus on compassion for others rather than personal progress toward enlightenment. This is expressed most clearly by the Mahayana ideal of the bodhisattva, or “enlightenment being,” a person who, though having attained perfection of enlightenment and cessation of desire, consciously postpones entry into nirvana in order to help others. Mahayana Buddhism is also more liberal than Theravada in its approach to religious practice, which (much as in Hinduism) may include meditation, ritual, sacred objects, or even devotion to a deity, according to one’s personality and station in life. This school’s many sects account for the majority of Buddhists worldwide. It has been highly influential in China, Korea, and Japan. Many Mahayana schools were first developed in China, and some of those became dominant in the spectrum of Japanese Buddhism.

Among the more significant Mahayana schools to achieve particular prominence in Japan are Shingon (Chinese zhen’yan, “true word”), which emphasizes chanted mantras; Jodo (Chinese qingtu, “pure land”), a devotional Buddhism for laypeople that offers rebirth into the Western Paradise of Amitabha Buddha, a Bodhisattva of pure compassion; and the Nichiren School, named for its 13th-century founder, which focuses on the creation of a peaceful society on earth and which takes as its fundamental scripture the Lotus Sutra, a Mahayana scripture that predicts the eventual salvation of all sentient beings. Nichiren Buddhism is the basis for the New Religion (see below) known as Soka Gakkai which has succeeded in winning many converts in the West. Zen Buddhism is one of the most widely recognized Mahayana schools; it takes its name from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word chan (“meditation,” itself a transcription of the Sanskrit word dhyana), denoting the seventh step of the Noble Eightfold Path. Zen emphasizes meditation techniques as the most important path to satori, or enlightened experience.

 

Vajrayana Buddhism This school, also referred to as Tantric Buddhism, is regularly treated as the third major school of Buddhism, though it shares many features of Mahayana Buddhism and may also be considered a form of Mahayana. Vajrayana Buddhism places great emphasis on ritual, including the use of prayer wheels, mantras (chants), mudras (hand gestures), and mandalas (visible icons of the universe). Music and dance are also often included in Vajrayana ceremonies. Tibetan or Lamaistic Buddhism is a major, and probably the best-known, school of Vajrayana Buddhism; its most important sect is led by the Dalai Lama, who is believed to be the spiritual emanation of Avalokteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.

History

In its first few centuries of development, Buddhism benefited greatly from the support of rulers in northeast India, particularly King Asoka the Great of the Maurya dynasty (ruled 269–232 B.C.), who saw the new religion as a way to weaken the powerful Hindu priestly caste. From the second century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., however, Buddhism steadily declined in India as bhakti (devotional) Hinduism grew in popularity; in some cases Hinduism even assimilated Buddhism by portraying the Buddha as an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Meanwhile Buddhism, particularly in its Theravada form, had spread to Burma and Sri Lanka, and remains the dominant religion in those countries, as well as in Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.

Buddhism entered China in the first century A.D. and spread to Korea no later than the fourth century, achieving great prominence under the Unified Kingdom of Silla (668–935) and reaching its peak in the Koryo Dynasty (A.D. 918–1392). From Korea Buddhism spread to Japan in the mid-sixth century. Buddhist temples dominated the Japanese capital during the Nara Period (710–785), and Buddhism (augmented from time to time by new sects borrowed from China) became thoroughly assimilated to Japanese life in the ensuing Heian Period (795–1185); it remains an influentual part of Japanese culture. In India, Mahayana Buddhism experienced a tremendous revival under the Pala Kings (eighth to 12th century A.D.) but subsequently collapsed along with that dynasty; meanwhile it had spread under Pala influence to Sumatra and Java. Since 1900, however, there has been a resurgence of Buddhism in India, thanks to its adoption by many Indian intellectuals, an influx of displaced Tibetan Buddhists and the mass conversion of hundreds of thousands of Hindu untouchables.

Geography and Numbers

There are an estimated 375 million people in nearly 100 countries who adhere to Buddhist beliefs and practices. Mahayana Buddhists account for about 56 percent of all Buddhists (200 million), mostly in Japan, Korea, and China; Theravada Buddhists account for 38 percent (140 million), in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Lamaist Buddhists account for about 6 percent (20 million) in Tibet and Mongolia. Buddhist practice in Tibet is under threat from the Chinese government.

Other World Religions

Baha’i

Baha’i was founded in Iran in the mid-19th century by Husayn Ali (1817–92), known by followers as Baha’u’llah (“Glory of God”), a divine messenger prophesied by the earlier religion of Babism.

Husayn Ali was a devoted follower of Babism, an Iranian religion led by Siyyid Ali Muhammad (1819–50), also known as Bab (meaning “gate” or “door”). Bab claimed to be the last Imam, or hereditary successor of the prophet Muhammad’s son Ali; Muslim leaders considered this to be heresy and ultimately executed Bab and persecuted his followers. Husayn Ali was imprisoned and later exiled from Iran, but declared himself in 1863 to be a divine messenger whose coming was foretold by Bab. Baha’i was spread to Europe and North America by Baha’u’llah’s son, and expanded rapidly worldwide beginning in the 1960’s. Baha’i is still treated as a heretical sect by many Muslims, and persecution of its followers continues in Iran and elsewhere.

A central doctrine of Baha’i is that all of the religions of the world are in agreement and that their respective prophet-founders revealed the will of God in forms appropriate to their particular time and place in history. Baha’i believers advocate a single world government and are staunch supporters of organizations such as the United Nations. There is no priesthood in Baha’i, and worship is often performed at followers’ homes; however, there are organized Baha’i assemblies as well as large houses of prayer in several countries. The headquarters is in Haifa, Israel, Baha’u’llah’s home in the final years of his life.

Unique Baha’i scriptures include many collections of writings by Baha’u’llah, including the Kitab-i-Iqan (“Book of Certainty”), Kitab-I-Aqdas (“Book of Holiness”), and The Hidden Worlds, a collection of ethical teachings. In addition, Baha’i followers also read from the scriptures of other religions in their worship services.

The Baha’i calendar is unique, comprising 19 months of 19 days each (plus four extra days). The last month of the year is a period of fasting similar to Islam’s Ramadan (although it occurs at a fixed time each year, from March 2 through March 20). There are approximately 7 million members of the Baha’i faith in more than 200 countries.

Confucianism

Confucianism takes its name from the sixth-century B.C. scholar and civil servant Kong Qiu or Kongzi (“Master Kong”; sometimes written as Kung Fu-Tzu and Latinized as “Confucius” by 17th-century Jesuit missionaries in China), but he is not the “founder” of Confucianism in the same sense that the Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. Rather, Confucius was responsible for systematizing and teaching a scholarly tradition and code of ethical conduct that had roots hundreds of years in the past, particularly in China’s ancient cult of ancestor worship. The teachings of Confucius, as recorded in the Analects (the collected teachings of Confucius, written down by disciples over a long period after the Master’s death) advocate a humanitarian ethical system focused on five values: ren (reciprocal human-feeling); yi (righteousness); li (propriety, including ritually correct behavior); zhi (knowledge); and xin (trustworthiness). Collectively these values contribute to the paramount Confucian virtues xiao (filial piety); and wen (culture or civilization; also civil as opposed to military power).

Confucianism remained primarily a philosophical school of thought and a political ideology for many centuries, but began to develop into more of a religious system (complete with ceremonies, festivals, and temples) in the first century A.D., partially in response to the growing influence of Buddhism in China. Today it is widely viewed in China as an equal part of a religious triad with Buddhism and Taoism (below); Confucius is often portrayed in religious images next to Laozi and the Buddha. There are about 6.3 million self-identified Confucianists in various countries around the world, but in a sense anyone who is culturally Chinese is to some degree a Confucianist.

 

The Analects of Confucius The Analects is one of the 13 works that forms the Confucian canon of classical Chinese literature and philosophy. The Chinese title, Lunyü, can be translated as “Discussions and Conversations” or “Assessments and Conversations.” The term “Analects” (from the Greek, meaning “literary gleanings”) is now conventional; it was first used by Jesuit missionaries in China in the 17th century.

The 20 chapters of the Analects purport to record the conversations of the teacher and philosopher Confucius (Kongzi, 551–479 B.C.) with his disciples. Traditionally it was thought that these conversations and teachings were written down from memory by a group of disciples shortly after Confucius’s death. Recent scholarship has shown that the chapters are so diverse in both language and doctrine that they cannot have been composed in a short period of time by a small group of collaborators. The current view is that the chapters were composed over a period of more than two centuries, approximately 479–250 B.C., and that the present order of the chapters within the book does not reflect the order in which they were written.

The chapters of the Analects can be considered in groups, reflecting their approximate date of composition.

Chapters 4, 5, and 6 These are the work of Confucius’ original disciples, dating to about 479–460 B.C. They emphasize the cardinal virtue of ren (“reciprocal human feeling”), the dao (the “Way,” the natural order of things), the concept of the gentleman (junzi or “son of a prince,” but in Confucius’s radical reformulation, defined by conduct rather than by aristocratic birth), and the importance of putting one’s cultivation of virtue into practice by holding public office. These chapters begin to define Confucianism as a coherent “school” of teachings.

Chapters 7, 8, and 9 These derive from the disciples’ disciples, and date to the last half of the fifth century B.C. They continue to define the school’s doctrines and portray Confucius as a “transmitter, not an innovator,” guided by the enlightened example of the sage-rulers of antiquity and emphasizing the internalization of values and virtuous conduct.

Chapters 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, and 13 The mid-fourth century (roughly 380–320 B.C.) chapters introduce ritual (li, a word covering meanings from the correct conduct of religious rituals to ordinary social etiquette) as a key Confucian virtue, and speak, as the earlier chapters do not, about Heaven and the realm of spirits. Individual passages specifically engage in debate with other philosophical schools of the time.

Chapters 1, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 Dating to the late fourth to mid- third century B.C., these final chapters reflect a world of escalating warfare in which the Analects struggles to define the role of the public official. By the mid-third century B.C. it appeared that the Confucian school had been soundly defeated; but not much more than a century later, early in the early imperial era, Confucianism made a decisive recovery, becoming the basis for China’s official ideology for the next two millennia.

Druze Community

The Druze community (also called Muwahhiddun, “unitarians”) originated in Egypt in 1017, when Hamza ibn Ali, leader of a heretical sect of Ismaili Shiite Muslims, declared that the present Caliph, al-Hakim, was the sole, ubiquitous and timeless incarnation of God. After al-Hakim’s death Hamza developed the main doctrinal lines of the Druze faith in a series of letters to the community. Hamza also moved the main center of the community to Greater Syria and entrusted it to a series of five leaders (“missionaries”) who were considered embodiments of cosmic principles. The Druze believe in human reincarnation and in the return of al-Hakim in human form some time in the future, an event that will bring to a close the present age and inaugurate a new messianic era.

The Druze community remains a vital presence in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel, but in modern times its adherents have been subject to occasional persecution by both Muslims and Maronite Christians.

Jainism

Jainism is a polytheistic religion established in India by Nataputta Vardhamana (known as Mahavira, or “great man”) in the sixth century B.C. Jainism shares many features of Buddhism, including the principle of ahimsa (nonviolence), although its practitioners are generally committed to a more austere way of living than Buddhists. Important practices include devotional acts toward Jainist saints (tirthankaras), fasting, and pilgrimages to various temples. There are four major Jainist branches, each of which adheres to a different set of scriptures. Almost all of the world’s 4.2 million Jainists live in India.

Native American Religions

The Native American religions of North America have deep historical roots, with a wide range of beliefs about the natural and spirit worlds and highly developed ceremonial practices. Native American tribal religions practiced today include those of the Navajo, with chant complexes; the Lakota, with seven sacred ceremonies; the Iroquis Longhouse religion; and many others. Some beliefs and practices, such as the Sun Dances of the Great Plains, are shared by more than one tribe. The largest organized inter-tribal religion is the Native American Church (“peyote church”), dating to the 19th century. In Saturday all-night rituals incorporating prayer, singing and contemplation around an earth altar and fire, the psychoactive peyote cactus is used sacramentally; this religion includes both tribal and Christian elements. While many ancient Native American religious practices continue today, the lack of careful recording in the early days of European exploration means that the pre-contact forms of most Native American religions are difficult to retrieve completely.

Shintoism

Shinto (literally “way of the gods”) evolved from ancient Japanese religious traditions that focused on the worship of kami, spirits who created the world and continue to inhabit the islands of Japan. Many kami are identified with forces of nature, such as wind or fire, or with specific individual trees, mountains, lakes, and other natural features. Deceased people also become minor kami, and are venerated by their descendants. Although some Shinto texts date from the eighth century, none is considered authoritative; Shinto is largely a religion of practice rather than doctrine or scripture, and places particular emphasis on worshipping the gods in a state of physical and ritual purity. Shinto underlies many Japanese folk festivals, and is the spiritual basis of the national sport of sumo wrestling. Shintoism became a state religion during the reign of the Meiji emperor in the 19th century, and the emphasis of state Shinto on the divinity of the Japanese emperor contibuted to the country’s destructive imperialist nationalism before and during World War II. State Shinto was repudiated (along with the emperor’s claim to divine status) in the postwar period, but remains controversial in such manifestations as official visits to Tokyo’s Yasukuni Shrine, where the spirits of Japan’s war dead are venerated. Today Shrine Shinto is the dominant strain of Shinto practice in Japan, while Folk Shinto remains locally important in rural areas. There are also many sects and offshoots of Shinto, some of which are considered to fall within the family of New Religions (see below). Because Shinto is intimately associated with the Japanese nation itself, and contains no provisions for missionary activity or conversion, virtually all Shinto believers are Japanese, and almost all of them live in Japan.

Sikhism

The Sikh (“learner”) religion was founded by Guru Nanak in the early 16th century. A monotheistic religion that draws on both Hindu and Islamic beliefs, it advocates a search for eternal truth and, while believing in reincarnation, rejects the notion of divine incarnation. It was led by a succession of 10 gurus, the last of whom declared himself the last human guru. Sikhs now follow the sacred text known as Guru Granth Singh, or Collection of Sacred Wisdom. There are nearly 24 million Sikhs in the world; most of them live in the Punjab region of India, but there are significant Sikh immigrant communities in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain.

Taoism

The legendary founder of Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is Laozi (old spelling Lao Tzu; probably a wholly mythical figure but traditionally dated ca. 600 B.C.), whose name means “old master.” According to tradition, he is the sole author of the core Taoist text, the Daodejing (old spelling Tao Te Ching “The Way and its Power”). Modern scholarship has established, however, that the book is a work of anonymous, and probably multiple, authorship from the late fourth century B.C. The Daodejing, also known as the Book of Laozi, is a collection of 81 brief, poetic chapters that discuss, often through challenging paradoxes, the nature of the Dao (Tao), the source and essence of all being. An eponymous collection of writings by Zhuangzi (old spelling Chuang Tzu; ca. 300 B.C.) is another important Taoist text. From the beginning, Taoism included elements of both religion and philosophy. It advocated a political ideal of simplicity and austerity, with the state being ruled by a sage-king empowered by his complete oneness with the Dao itself to act with wu-wei, or nonintentionality: effortlessly effecting his actions while seeming to do nothing. Self-cultivation was central to early Daoist practice, with sagehood and immortality its religious goals.

Beginning in the third century A.D., undoubtedly under the influence of Buddhism, Taoism took on more of the overt trappings of organized religion and gave rise to various sects through divine revelations granted to their founders. The two most important sects, the Heavenly Masters Sect and the Highest Clarity Sect, organized networks of temples, ordained clergy and were governed by hereditary leaders. These sects remain a vital part of religious life in Taiwan and in many overseas Chinese communities, and are experiencing a dramatic revival in post-Mao China, and have thousands of active priests serving hundreds of temples.

Folk Religions

Worldwide, hundreds of millions of people believe in and participate in the rituals of what are known as “folk religions.” While the term is a loose and elastic one, it generally implies a faith that draws selectively on disparate traditions, has little or no formal organization beyond the level of individual communities or congregations, and lacks a highly developed written canon or formal theology. Some splinter groups of mainstream religions (such as Pentecostal snake-handling congregations) can be considered to fall into the category of folk religions.

 

Chinese folk religions consist of a blend of ancient ancestor worship with elements of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism and the worship of particular deities. One of the most important of these folk religions, widespread in the coastal provinces of southeastern China as well as on Taiwan and in overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, involves the worship of the Queen of Heaven (Tian Hou, also known as Mazu, “Mother Ancestor”), venerated as the protector goddess of mariners. There are many other Chinese folk religions, often devoted to a single deity or a particular type of religious practice; these sects range in size from single temples with a few hundred believers to large denominations with hundreds of temples and tens of thousands of believers. The vast majority of believers in Chinese folk religions live in China, the rest in scattered Chinese communities around the world.

 

New World folk religions African religious beliefs, especially those of the Yoruba people who now live in West Africa in Nigeria and Benin, were brought to the New World with the slave trade. These traditions mixed with Catholicism in various Caribbean and South American countries to produce new syncretic religions. Among these are Voodoo, developed in Haiti, which blends beliefs from Dahomey, the Yoruba people, and the Bakongo with French Catholicism; Santeria, developed in Cuba, synthesizing Yoruba traditions and Spanish Catholicism, and Candomblé, found in Brazil, melding Yoruba beliefs, Portuguese Catholicism, and native Brazilian religious elements.

New Religions

The term new religion applies to a variety of more or less organized religious systems that grew up in the 19th and 20th centuries. New religions are distinguished from folk religions in that they usually have a known founder and a written body of scripture. These religions are also often characterized by a synthesis of various Asian traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism) with modern Western religion, philosophy, mysticism, and spirituality. The number of adherents of new religions worldwide is unknown, but probably rises into the hundreds of millions. Some of the most widely known of these religions include:

 

Cao Dai Founded by Ngo Van Chieu (1878–1926) in Vietnam, Cao Dai followers believe that all religions teach essentially the same path to spiritual perfection, but that Cao Dai offers the clearest revelation of God’s truth. Cao Dai borrows many features from Buddhism (vegetarianism, avoidance of alcohol and drugs) and Confucianism (self-cultivation and learning), but also has a rigid power structure based on Catholicism, complete with a pope, cardinals, and a headquarters called the Holy See, located near Ho Chi Minh City. It is also unusual in that it includes Winston Churchill, Victor Hugo, and the Chinese leader Sun Yat-sen among its pantheon of saints.

 

Falun Gong Founded by Li Hongzhi (b. China 1951), and based on Qigong, exercises derived from Chinese martial arts, and meditation, it is part of a continuum of generally similar religious movements stretching back to the Yellow Turban and Five Pecks of Rice movements in the Latter Han Dynasty (second century A.D.) and the White Lotus sect that surfaced as an ideology of peasant rebellion from the 14th to the 19th centuries. The name means “law-wheel energy” and refers to the falun, a spiritual wheel in the abdomen that, when spinning in one direction, absorbs energy from the universe; when spinning in other direction, it releases energy to the practitioner and others. Li Hongzhi moved to the U.S. in 1996; Falun Gong is now practiced worldwide but is banned in China.

 

International Society for Krishna Consciousness (“Hari Krishnas”) A neo-Hindu religion founded in the United States in 1965 by the Indian Hindu missionary (itself an anomalous concept within Hinduism) Abhay Charan De (1896–1977). It has succeeded in winning many converts among young people in America and Europe; Hari Krishnas in their pink robes have become a familiar sight in public places throughout the Western world, drumming, dancing, and chanting in praise of Lord Krishna.

 

Neo-Paganism Refers to a variety of practices based on nature-based religions of early European cultures. One of the best-known is Wicca. Both male and female practitioners may refer to themselves as witches, but contrary to popular misconceptions, Wicca is not Satan worship. Other Neo-Pagan groups include the Druids, whose beliefs and practices represent a supposed revival of Celtic religion practiced in the British Isles and France two thousand years ago, and Goddess Worship, which attempts to revive the religion of the Mother Goddess of prehistoric times (exemplified by paleolithic so-called Venus statues). The cult of the Goddess aims at recovering an era of matriarchy prior to the development of aggressive, patriarchal societies.

 

Rastafarianism Refers to a group of related movements taking their name from Ethiopian nobleman Ras Tafari (1891–1975), later known as that country’s Emperor Haile Selassie and worshipped as a divine being. Rastafarians believe the Bible carries special messages for people of African descent, and encourages them to free themselves from any form of oppression. Because of its focus on the Bible, Rastafarian belief and practice shares many features of Christianity and Judaism: the Rastafarian God is known as Jah (related to Yahweh and Jehovah); the practice of allowing one’s hair to grow in dreadlocks is related to the biblical prohibition, followed by Orthodox Jews, against the cutting of hair on the side of a male’s head; and many Rastafarians follow dietary restrictions based on Hebrew law, including the avoidance of pork and shellfish. A unique component of Rastafarianism is the use of ganja (marijuana) as a sacramental herb.

 

Soka Gakkai “Value Creation Society” founded by Makiguchi Tsunesaburo as an organization to enhance the role of Buddhist values in Japanese society and associated from the beginning with the Nichiren School of Japanese Buddhism, it became an independent religious group in 1937. In Japan it became highly influential in the post–World War II period through its political arm, the Komeito (“Clean Government Party”). Under the leadership of Ikeda Daisaku (b. 1928), Soka Gakkai became an international movement, gaining converts in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere. Its principal devotional practice is chanting the mantra namu myoho renge kyo (“praise to the wonderful law of the lotus”).

 

Theosophy This ancient Greek Christian term (“divine wisdom”) was revived in the 19th century by Mme. Helena Blavatsky (1831–91) and others for a new religion (the Theosophical Society, 1875) based on mysticism, spiritualism, and an eclectic mix of philosophies. Theosophy teaches that established religions exemplify the enduring truths of Theosophy, but in attenuated form; that there is an enduring spiritual realm beyond the manifest world, which can with appropriate practices be called upon directly; and that it is possible for practitioners to attain extraordinary spiritual gifts. Theosophy in the 20th century became increasingly associated with Indian philosophy, religious beliefs, and practices such as yoga.

 

Unification Church (Korean Tongilgyo) is a new religion founded in Korea by the Reverend Sun-myung Moon (b. 1920). Unification Church is largely based on Christianity, but modified by new interpretations of the Bible divinely revealed to Rev. Moon. Members of the Unification Church are expected to live highly disciplined lives within the organization and to be obedient in all things to the founder and members of the church hierarchy; mass weddings of couples selected for each other by the church are perhaps the most conspicuous practice of the sect in the eyes of the outside world. The Unification Church’s cultlike aspects have given rise to the derisive nickname “Moonies” for its adherents.

Atheism

An estimated 85 percent of the world’s population claims to be adherents of an organized religion. Of the remaining 15 percent, about 12 percent (816 million people) are either agnostic—i.e. they are not sure God exists—or are simply indifferent to religion, while 156 million people (2.3 percent of the world population) are declared atheists who do not believe in God or gods. In the United States roughly 16 percent of adults either profess no religion or directly claim that they are atheists.

Throughout history anyone making a public declaration that they do not believe God or the gods exist have been treated harshly and often violently. Even today in most Western countries, but especially in the United States, anyone interested in running for public office who claims to be an atheist will never gain any meaningful support. And yet the Western intellectual traditions that question the existence of powerful gods who interject themselves into earthly activities and even the fates of men and women date back some 2,500 years to ancient Greece. In the 6th century B.C. the pre-Socratic philosophers, including Thales and Anaximander, viewed the natural world, our world, as the only basis for examining everything from the properties of water to how the heavens change. This approach to learning and understanding the world is known as rationalism which is based on inductive reasoning, or reaching conclusions from observation of nature or of human behavior.

In the 5th century B.C., Thucydides, a prominent military commander in the Peloponnesian War, wrote a history of that war in which he specifically denied the gods any power over the men and events during that conflict. This approach was so radically different from the work of Herodotus that a new form of history based on reason as opposed to myth was created, one that would eventually become the norm. In the 4th century B.C. Plato described how his mentor, Socrates, denied that our understanding of what is good or moral depended on the gods, that humans in fact know what is moral behavior from their own experiences. Epicurus would follow later in the century and over his long life develop a thoroughly materialistic view of the world that would become highly influential in both the Hellenistic period and later during the Roman Empire. Although he never publicly denied the existence of the gods he raised questions about the fears they caused humans, producing anxiety about death. He was also among the first to raise the question of evil in the world despite the existence of gods. He concluded that the gods might exist but surely they had no concern for human affairs.

Although the Greek tradition of learning and thinking would remain influential during the long rule of the Roman Empire, paying homage to the gods was periodically demanded, especially as Christianity grew popular. More than a thousand years would pass from the time of Plato and Aristotle until a rebirth in learning led to the beginning of a reason-based scientific revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Middle Ages the rise of the Roman Catholic Church to absolute control over what constituted acceptable religious belief stymied western initiatives in both philosophy and scientific inquiry. Ironically the first serious challenge to orthodox religious teaching about the nature of the heavens came from Copernicus, a Polish cleric and scholar who claimed that the Sun was the center of our universe, not the Earth. His treatise was dedicated to the pope but not published until he was on his deathbed in 1543, at the height of the Protestant revolt against the Roman Church. This work had a profound influence on the three founders of modern astronomy, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and most of all Galileo Galilei. In 1610 Galileo’s newly invented telescope allowed him to confirm the Copernican view of a heliocentric universe and he enthusiastically published his findings. But Galileo was silenced by Church authorities in 1633 and forced to recant his views, at least in public.

Nevertheless the scientific method of inquiry was now firmly established and no religious prohibition could stop the forward movement toward greater knowledge of the universe, the Earth, and human life itself. The influence of the Protestant Reformation in this development cannot be overestimated since during the 16th and 17th centuries the intellectual struggle between faith and reason became more clearly defined. England’s renowned scholar Sir Francis Bacon argued for empiricism—learning by observation of the world. The French mathematician René Descartes, countered that since our senses often deceive us it was necessary to start from within ourselves to discover truth. His famous dictum, “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”) became the basis for the Cartesian school of philosophy which would be influential for over two centuries. Descartes’s rigorous arguments to prove that God exists have remained critical for intellectual believers even today.

From the end of the 17th century and beyond, however, the secular challenges to religion as a source of knowledge never ceased. Isaac Newton, a devout Christian believer, brought a vastly deeper understanding of how the universe functions while the Scots philosopher David Hume studied human knowledge from a distinctly rational viewpoint and in England, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke did the same for human behavior under a variety of government structures. In France the 18th century movement we call The Enlightenment was also rooted in rationalist thinking. In Paris a group of intellectuals led by Voltaire and Denis Diderot produced the first encyclopedia which they claimed was based on rational and secular values. The Encyclopédie consisting at first of 28 volumes was published in 1772 and was an immediate success. Many of these philosophes were atheists, although not all of them professed their non-belief in public; some were deists who believed a supreme being existed but took no part in human affairs.

Toward the end of the French Revolution the negative influence of the philosophes would be seen in the establishment of atheism as a principle all citizens were forced to embrace. During the so-called “Terror” phase when thousands of innocent people were executed, the denial of God’s existence was seen as a cause of the slaughter. A half-century later the famous Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky would have one of the Karamazov brothers declare that “without God anything is permitted.” This argument for God’s existence remains prominent even today as the atrocities committed under godless Nazism can never be erased. Non-believers, however, respond that the many wars fought by Christians, Muslims, and Hindus over 2,000 years or more indicate that religious people are capable of bringing death and destruction to the world.

With the coming of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century the patterns of everyday life were transformed in a matter of decades. As people left farms and villages and started working in factories and mines their lives became totally dependent on the owners, the people with abundant financial resources. Ethereal arguments such as Kant’s about the nature of morality or of Hegel’s study of Mind soon became irrelevant to a wide circle of thinkers whose focus was firmly on how people were forced to live under the new emerging economic system. Radicals such as the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who famously wrote in 1840 that “Property is theft,” and the German Ludwig Feuerbach, had far greater influence during their lifetimes than Kant, Hegel, or Kierkegaard.

The young Karl Marx was strongly influenced by Feuerbach’s idea that civilization was crippled by religion, especially Christianity. As he developed his own beliefs about the material nature of life, Marx claimed that organized religion’s concept of God was an “opiate” that kept ordinary people from facing the hard facts about their lives. Of course Marx would go on to construct a philosophy of history and a penetrating analysis of how the capitalist system works that would have worldwide influence.. At the core of his thinking, however, was the denial of the existence of any outside divine power that shaped history and human lives. Marx was not alone in this viewpoint and soon gathered thousands of followers who worked to achieve worker solidarity against what they regarded as capitalist oppression.

Less militant but still extremely influential, John Stuart Mill wrote several works that are read more today than at any other time. In both On Liberty (1859) and The Subjection of Women (1869) he argued for a freer more equitable society based on the utilitarian view that human actions should aim to foster happiness. This empirical view of the world was revealed after his death when his Three Essays on Religion was published. Here he criticized religion for promulgating the idea that God is benevolent and all-powerful when the evidence of human suffering is so manifest in the world. He also proposed a new religion, “The Religion of Humanity.”

By the end of the 19th century, philosophical thinking had clearly moved strongly into the empiricist’s camp. The many successful scientists of this period, whose basic method of inquiry was empiricism, could not avoid being dragged into the debate over God’s existence. The most famous of them was Charles Darwin whose theory of evolution (first published in 1859) presented a formidable challenge to the teachings of the Bible concerning the creation of human life and the age of planet Earth. Darwin himself was a devout Christian schooled in the traditions of biblical scholarship but he eventually claimed not to believe in the divinity of Christ. In his later life he called himself an agnostic, not an atheist.

The immediate impact of Darwin’s book, On the Origins of Species, put religious belief on the defensive forcing believers to scrutinize the evidence that made their faith in the Bible seem preposterous. The long-term consequence was the emergence of empiricism as the dominant mode of inquiry, a position it has not relinquished.

Friederich Nietzsche’s proclamation that “God is Dead” reverberated throughout the 20th century since his death in 1900. A continuous critic of Christianity, his declaration was meant to be about the death of belief and its consequences. Nietzsche’s atheism was partly based on his conviction that people wanted power and riches and not the humble good citizens’ religion taught as the model. He urged people to seek new beginnings and to use their will to achieve their goals. Although his influence was widespread at the turn of the century, much of his thought was easily seized on by the Nazis 30 years after his death and for decades thereafter his work was either ignored or misconstrued.

In the early 20th century, however, Sigmund Freud and the great mathematician, Bertrand Russell, acknowledged their debt to Nietzsche and both publicly declared their disbelief in God: according to Russell, “Religion is something left over from the infancy of our intelligence, it will fade away as we adopt reason and science as our guidelines;” Freud called religion “the universal obsessional neurosis of humanity.” They would be joined in later years by famous writers, philosophers and scientists including Virginia Woolf, Albert Camus, John Paul Sartre, and Richard Feynman.

In recent years the staying power of the conflict between believers and atheists has been demonstrated numerous times. In the United States several school boards have outlawed the teaching of evolution in public schools or promulgated the “intelligent design” theory and the statements in the Bible that God created the world in seven days about 10,000 years ago. More dramatically, the famous writer, Salman Rushdie was condemned for expressing his atheism by the religious leaders of Iran who issued a fatwa allowing any Muslim to kill him. And the mastermind of the 9/11 attacks, Osama bin Laden declared war on atheism and its primary home, the United States.

Despite such violent threats the intellectual underpinnings of atheism continued to develop. Several well-known and respected scientists have written attacks on religion that have sold extremely well, including Richard Dawkins (The God Delusion, 2006), Daniel C. Dennett (Breaking the Spell, 2006), and Sam Harris (The End of Faith, 2005; and Letter to a Christian Nation, 2006). The polemicist, Christopher Hitchens, led the attack from a humanist perspective in God Is Not Great (2007) in which he argues in part that the unspeakable violence committed by forces of religion in the name of God reveals the hollowness of belief.

Glossary of Religious Terms

adhan call to prayer (Isl.)

 

agnosticism belief that the existence of God can be neither proved nor disproved

 

ahimsa nonviolence to living things (Hind., Bud., Jain.)

 

animism belief that animals and other common objects possess souls, or are inhabited by other supernatural entities

 

Annatta/Anatman “no-Atman” (see Hinduism); the nonexistence of an individual soul (Bud.)

 

arhat “perfect being,” or one who has attained nirvana (Bud.)

 

ashram religious retreat (Hind.)

 

atheism absence of belief in God

 

Atman divine spirit common to all living things (Hind., Bud.)

 

avatar earthly manifestation of Hindu deity (Hind.)

 

Ayatollah leader of Shiite sect; teacher and judge (Isl.)

 

baptism immersion in water to symbolize cleansing of sins, admission into church (Chr.)

 

bhakti acts of devotion (esp. to deity) (Hind.)

 

bodhi enlightenment (Bud.)

 

Brahman source and substance of universe (Hind.) bushido spiritual code of samurai class

 

caliph literally, “successor”; a religious and political leader claiming succession from Muhammad (Isl.)

 

canon religious doctrine; authoritative religious texts

 

caste social and religious division of hindu society (Hind.)

 

dharma spiritual and social obligations (Hind., Bud.)

 

dhyana meditation (Hind., Bud.)

 

ecumenical pertaining to Christian church as a whole

 

Eucharist Holy Communion, the Christian ceremony of sharing bread and wine, variously understood as representing, or as being transformed into, the body and blood of Christ

 

fatwa an authoritative judgement in Islamic law (Isl.)

 

hadith an authoritative “recollection” of Muhammad’s teachings (Isl.)

 

hajj pilgrimage to Mecca (Isl.)

 

Imam leader of the Muslim community; may also be used as honorary title for prayer leader in mosque (Isl.)

 

jihad “struggle,” both as a personal struggle to lead a faithful and pure life, and the collective struggle to defend and expand the world of Islam. (Isl.)

 

karma law of moral cause-and-effect, determining one’s path through cycle of rebirth (Hind., Bud.)

 

koan mysterious or paradoxical story or question intended to spark enlightened thought by disrupting flow of everyday, logical thought (Bud.)

 

kosher “ritually correct,” pertaining to dietary laws of Judaism (Jud.)

 

Lama monk or priest (Bud.)

 

mandala complex, ritually powerful design used in temples and other Buddhist art (Bud.)

 

mantra word or sound used to facilitate meditation (Hind., Bud.)

 

midrash nonliteral explanation of Jewish scripture

 

moksha “liberation” or release from cycle of rebirth and everyday suffering (Hind.)

 

muezzin person who calls Muslims to prayer (Isl.)

 

Mullah title for teacher of religious law (Isl.)

 

nirvana escape from cycle of rebirth (Bud.)

 

pantheism worship of all gods; belief that God exists in all things in the universe

 

polytheism worship of more than one god

 

sacrament religious rite that confers divine grace on the practitioner

 

samadhi transcendental union of individual with the object of their meditation (Bud.)

 

samsara cycle of birth and rebirth (Hind., Bud.)

 

sangha worldwide community of Buddhists; also monastic order founded by the Buddha (Bud.)

 

satori enlightenment (Bud.)

 

shari’ah Koranic law and regulations (Isl.)

 

Shiite smaller of two branches of Islam; defining belief is that succession of Islamic leaders should descend from Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad (Isl.)

 

Sunni larger of the two main branches of Islam; invests the Koran and the hadiths with exclusive religious authority (Isl.)

 

sura a chapter of the Koran (Isl.)

 

Tao the “Way” of spiritual awareness and enlightenment

 

Ummah the entire community of believers in Islam

 

Yin and Yang two opposite but complementary forms of cosmic energy, present in different proportions in all things

 

yoga spiritual practice or discipline, involving any number of different techniques (physical, philosophical, or devotional) to achieve higher awareness (Hind.)

The Bible

The Bible (Greek biblia, books) contains the fundamental texts of the Jewish and Christian religions. The product of a long history of oral and written tradition reaching back to the second millennium B.C., the Bible has been one of the most influential books in history, shaping the religion, literature, and politics of much of the world for two millennia. It has been translated into numerous languages and has been a source of history, religion, and guidance for hundreds of millions of people.

Since the rise of Christianity in the early first millennium A.D., the Bible has been divided into two parts to reflect the Christian belief that humankind’s relationship to God was changed by Jesus Christ. The Old Testament, which contains the Jewish scriptures, tells the story of the creation of the world and how the first man and woman disobeyed God and were cast out of the Garden of Eden; it describes the history of the Hebrew people and their relation to God over more than a thousand years. The New Testament includes narratives of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus, stories about his followers, and letters to young churches. It emphasizes Jesus’ message of justice and love, and asserts his divinity as the Son of God.

 

The Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible dates, in its earliest parts, to before 1000 B.C. and includes material composed as late as the second century B.C. It contains the holy writings of the Jewish people, who developed a monotheistic religion in which they are the chosen people of God who has made a covenant with them. The Hebrew Bible consists of 24 books divided into three sections: the Law (Torah), the first 5 books; the Prophets (Nevi’im); and Writings (Ketuvim). (See World Religions.) In their present form the scriptures are believed to have passed through a long history of oral tradition before being written down in Hebrew with a few passages in Aramaic. The standard Hebrew Bible is called the Masoretic or “transmitted,” text (MT).

 

The Septuagint Beginning in the third century B.C., the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek to serve the extensive communities of Greek-speaking Jews in the Eastern Mediterranean. Known as the Septuagint, Greek for “seventy,” a reference to the number of writers said to have been engaged in its translation, it is referred to by the Latin number seventy, LXX. Differing from the standard Hebrew bible, it includes additional books and sections of books and is partly based on alternative textual sources.

 

The Old Testament The Septuagint was not only the bible of Greek-speaking Jews, it was also the bible used in the early Christian church. After the Hebrew Bible became standardized about 100 A.D., Jews turned away from the Septuagint; its preservation in various versions resulted largely from its use by the Christian church. The Septuagint was translated into Latin and other languages and it is often the text to which the New Testament writers refer in connecting the story of Jesus’ life to earlier events. The Old Testament of the Roman Catholic Church is based on its books and their order. The Septuagint was first referred to as the Old Testament (by contrast with the New Testament) by Tertullian (ca. 160–230 A.D.) and Origen (ca. 185–254 A.D.) The books in the Septuagint not included in the standard Hebrew Bible are referred to as the Apocrypha (Greek, “hidden”) or as the deuterocanonical books, i.e. those added secondarily, or later, to the canon.

At the time of the Reformation, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others decided that the proper Old Testament was not the entire book derived from the Septuagint, but rather the shorter and older Hebrew Bible. The Protestant Old Testament now contains, in translation, the text of the Hebrew Bible, but the order of the books is that of the Septuagint. The deuterocanonical books and parts of books in the Roman Catholic Old Testament were dropped from the Protestant Old Testament; these are reprinted in many (but not all) Protestant Bibles as the Apocrypha. The Apocrypha are deemed by many Protestants to be worthy of consideration, but of less authority than the books in the Hebrew Bible.

 

The New Testament The New Testament consists of 27 books, all written in Greek in the first and second centuries (even though Jesus and his early followers spoke Aramaic); the books were first listed as the New Testament by Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria in A.D. 367. The canonical order of the books is that of the Council of Carthage, A.D. 397. Both Protestant and Roman Catholic churches accept the same books of the New Testament, although Martin Luther and others held some of the New Testament books to be less authoritative. The four Gospels (meaning “good news”), each attributed to one of Christ’s earliest followers, tell stories of Jesus’ birth, baptism, teaching, death, and resurrection. The story of the spread of Christianity in the first century is told in the Acts of the Apostles and the epistles (letters) of St. Paul and other followers of Jesus. These writings also present early statements of Christian belief.

 

English Translations of the Bible The Bible has been the subject of numerous translations into English and many other languages. In the late fourth and early fifth centuries A.D. St. Jerome, translating the Old Testament from the Hebrew, provided a standard Latin text of the Bible called the Vulgate or “common text.” The earliest complete English Bible was that of John Wycliffe (1324–1384) in 1382. In 1526 the New Testament of William Tyndale (1484–1536) was published. (Both Wycliffe and Tyndale were executed for their efforts to make the Bible available to the common people.) The most famous of English Bibles is the King James Version. In 1604 James I of England approved a new translation of the Bible to replace two others in use, the Geneva Bible and the Bishops’ Bible. Fifty-four translators were organized into six groups: three for the Old Testament, two for the New Testament, and one for the Apocrypha. Rules were drawn up to guide the work, and the entire new translation was ready in 1611; for the New Testament especially it draws heavily on Tyndale’s translation. The King James Version, noted for its powerful language, has remained in use, although replaced in many churches by newer versions, since its publication.

In modern times, many new translations have appeared. A revision of the King James Version was published in England in 1885, with an American version in 1901. The Revised Standard Version was published 1946–1957. The New English Bible, a new translation rather than a revision of previous translations, was published 1970. The first Roman Catholic Bible in English completely translated from original Hebrew and Greek sources, the New American Bible, was published in 1970. The Good News Bible (American Bible Society) appeared in 1970, the New Revised Standard Version in 1990, and the evangelical New Living Translation in 1996. It can be expected that new translations will continue to appear because of the availability of new early manuscripts, because of the changing English language, and for doctrinal reasons.

The Bibles used today have elements to ease their use that are not in older Bibles and original manuscripts. The present chapter divisions are attributed to Cardinal Hugo de San Caro, 1248; verse divisions in the New Testament are attributed to Robert Estienne (Stephanus), 1551. Most of the punctuation and some paragraphing is modern.

The Bible as it is known today represents only a small proportion of the religious literature produced during Old and New Testament times. There is a vast sea of extra-canonical writings and different versions of canonical books, some known for centuries, some discovered more recently, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls (discovered 1947–1956 and shedding light on Judaism, the languages of Palestine and the transmission of Old Testament texts), and no doubt others yet to be discovered. For the New Testament there are noncanonical (apocryphal) writings of many types, generally of a later date then the New Testament books, such as gospels (The Gospels of Judas, Mary, Paul, Peter, Philip, and others), acts (The Acts of Andrew and others), letters, and apocalypses. Among the manuscripts studied extensively that provide information on the piety and practices of early Christians is the Gospel of Thomas, found at Nag Hammadi, Egypt, in 1945; this is a collection of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus.

Some texts contain apcryphal stories of Jesus’ childhood. In one tale, the young Jesus is playing with other children on a rooftop, when one boy falls from the roof and dies. Jesus raises his playmate from the dead. In another story, Jesus makes clay sculptures of birds. He speaks to them, and the the birds become alive and fly away.

The Books of the Bible

Old Testament The Old Testament includes narrative histories, law, prayers, proverbs, poems, and wisdom literature. Some of this probably dates to before 1000 B.C. in written form; the latest material, part of Daniel, dates from the second century B.C. Much of the Old Testament is based on oral traditions, which takes the timeline even further back. Most of the books are of uncertain authorship, although they are by tradition attributed to Moses, the prophets, kings and other authors. The books went through a long series of redactions and often date in their canonical forms from long after the times of their presumed authors. Moreover, there is relatively little archaeological and independent textual evidence corroborating the historical narratives in the Old Testament for the earliest times, so that the historical reliability of these is uncertain. Nonetheless, the Old Testament has for Jewish, Christian, and many other readers, even those who do not accept it as the literal word of God, an essential religious unity

Genesis The Bible’s first book describes God’s creation of the world and its creatures in six days; on the seventh day God rests. He sees the disobedience of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the downward spiral of human events, and provides a new beginning with a destructive flood and the salvation of Noah. The second part of the book tells the stories of Abraham and Sarah, blessed by God and sent to find a new land, and the generations that follow: Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph in Egypt.

Exodus Tells the story of the Israelites’ escape from slavery in Egypt. Moses is saved from Pharaoh’s edict to kill Jewish male infants; his mother sets him afloat in the Nile and he is discovered and adopted by a princess. God commands Moses to ask Pharaoh for the Jews’ freedom, but Pharaoh refuses; God sends plagues upon Egypt, ending with the slaughter of the first-born. (Passover was instituted to celebrate God’s passing over the houses of the Israelites during this event.) The Israelites leave Egypt and are saved from pursuing Egyptians by the miraculous parting of the Red Sea. At Mt. Sinai Moses receives God’s ten commandments, laws for society and civil life, and ceremonial laws. There God and Israel enter into a covenant: God promises to protect Israel and the Israelites promise to obey God’s laws. At God’s command a tabernacle is built to accompany the Israelites.

Leviticus Sets out detailed rules to govern Israelite life: the forms of sacrifices; the laws of purity (such as which animals may be eaten); the Day of Atonement; and the code of holiness, including teachings on sexual relations, festivals, ritual objects, and social matters. All of these laws were given to Moses by God. Leviticus explains the woes that have befallen Israel as a result of the people’s sins, and stresses atonement.

Numbers Describes Moses’ census of the Israelites; laws and cultic matters, including the priestly and temple duties of the Aaronites and Levites; travel from Sinai to Kadesh (south of Canaan); an abortive rebellion against Moses’ leadership; travel from Kadesh to the plains of Moab east of the Jordan; and the preparations for conquest of Canaan, including a second census, the appointment of Joshua as leader, and detailed laws for the promised land.

Deuteronomy Composed of discourses or sermons of Moses. The first is a summary of events at Sinai and the camp at Moab, with a call for faithfulness: the people should live their lives in relation to the one true God revealed to them. The second tells of the Ten Commandments and gives an explanation of the first commandment; urges Israel to remain faithful, and presents detailed instructions for communal life. A third section recapitulates the first two, calls for faithfulness (equated to goodness and life) and warns of disobedience (equated to wickedness and death). Deuteronomy concludes with the final words and instructions of Moses linking the people to God, their past, and their future in the new land.

Joshua The Lord appointed Joshua to lead the Israelites across the Jordan; Joshua relays God’s commands to the people. In a long series of battles the Israelites conquer Jericho, other cities, and much but not all of the land of Canaan that had been promised to them. The land is divided among the tribes, including tribes east of the Jordan, and cities of refuge and cities for the Levites are designated. Joshua’s farewell address, prior to his death in old age, implores the Israelites to follow God.

Judges Describes the history of the Jewish people from the conquests of Joshua to the time of Samuel and the beginning of the monarchy (late 11th century B.C.) The most important judges were military leaders as well as administrators. The Israelites lived among pagan peoples in the parts of Canaan that they had conquered. In a repetitive historical pattern, the Israelites were idolatrous and worshiped the gods of their neighbors; God oppressed them with defeats and slavery but then sent a judge to save the penitent and bring peace. The thankless Israelites would then fall back into their faithless ways. Ultimately the land became completely lawless; the disasters concluded with a civil war against the Benjaminites.

Ruth Naomi and her husband leave Bethlehem during a famine for the Moabite country, where their two sons marry. After the deaths of her husband and sons, Naomi vows to return to her own land. Ruth, one of her Moabite daughters-in-law, demonstrates her loyalty and love by returning with Naomi to Judah. There, she marries her kinsman Boaz, to whom she bears a son, Obed, the grandfather of David.

1 Samuel and 2 Samuel Samuel, dedicated from birth to God’s service, was the last person to rule in Israel before the monarchy. At the request of the people for a king, Samuel first anointed Saul. He, however, was disobedient to God, and so Samuel secretly anointed David, a young shepherd; the life and kingship of David, the ideal ruler, are the focus of the books. The events recounted include the combat with Goliath; David’s rise to power in conflict with Saul and his family (in which his innocence of wrongdoing is stressed); various battles and revolts; David’s conquest of Jerusalem, the city in which God has chosen to be worshiped by his people; the prophecy of perpetual rule for David’s line; and his infidelity with Bathsheba.

1 Kings and 2 Kings These two books relate the history of the 400 years of the Jewish monarchy, beginning with the death of David and the start of the reign of Solomon (about 965 B.C.). The narrative also describes the period of the dual monarchy (Israel and Judah) and ends with the destruction of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity in 586 B.C. The faithfulness of each of the kings to the law of God as given to Moses is judged. Most of the kings (and all of those of Israel, which broke away from the House of David) fall short, and their repeated failures to keep the covenant of God are used to explain such disasters as the fall of Jerusalem.

1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles 1 and 2 Chronicles cover genealogies from Adam to Saul; the reign of David, including his preparations for building the temple; the reign of Solomon (the beginning of 2 Chronicles), including the building and dedication of the temple; and the Davidic kings ending with the Babylonian conquest and exile. The main focus is on David as the founder of worship at the temple, and Solomon as its builder; the later kings of the southern kingdom are evaluated primarily on their loyalty to the temple and temple worship.

Ezra The first part of Ezra deals with the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the temple according to the decree of the Persian ruler Cyrus (late 6th century B.C.), by which Jews were permitted to return from exile. There is local opposition to reconstruction, but after confirmation from the later Persian ruler Darius the rebuilding is completed with the encouragement of Haggai and Zechariah. The second part of the book concerns Ezra’s mission from Babylon to Jerusalem in the mid fifth (or early fourth) century B.C. He goes to renew and reform the temple and its rites. The Jews had been guilty of idolatry and had mixed with the local population and taken foreign wives, a practice forbidden by Ezra. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were originally one in the Hebrew bible.

Nehemiah Nehemiah, a cupbearer to Persian King Artaxerxes, asks permission to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the walls (ca. 455 B.C.). He is allowed to go with other Jews; arriving in Jerusalem, he surveys the walls and plans their reconstruction, succeeding brilliantly in the face of opposition from neighboring communities and even from within Jerusalem. The covenant is renewed; Nehemiah institutes legal and religious reforms and remains as governor for many years, later returning for a second term.

Esther Tells the story of Esther, the foster-child of Mordecai, who becomes Queen to Ahasuerus, King of Persia. Through her beauty and courage, she foils a plot of the courtier Haman to kill all the Jews, her people, in the Kingdom. Instead, Haman is executed, the Jews are saved and avenge themselves on their enemies, and Mordecai becomes great at court. The days of salvation are to be celebrated always as the feast of Purim.

Job Examines the questions of God’s nature and his relationship to humans. In particular, Job raises the question of why the righteous should suffer; he has been visited by dreadful calamities which imply that he is wicked. Yet according to the covenant calculation of righteousness equals salvation, this should not be, since he is a righteous man. So perhaps God is not a benevolent creator after all, although Job continues to engage with him. The book contains Job’s laments, dialogues with friends, God’s direct speeches to Job from the tempest (whirlwind) and Job’s response, in which he says that he is comforted and has reached a new understanding.

Psalms The Psalms are a varied collection of songs and prayers that have long played an important liturgical role in synagogues and churches. The Psalter, as the book is called, was well known in medieval times. The psalms are of various types: some are spoken or sung by individuals, and some by groups; some celebrate and praise God, and others are petitions for divine help. The psalter includes some discernible subcollections, as indicated by the repetition of some psalms (e.g. 14 and 53) and the titles of certain psalms. Until the 19th century the psalms were taken to be personal lyrics of King David, but it is now known that they were composed over a long period.

Proverbs Traditionally called the Proverbs of Solomon although their collection dates to no earlier than the sixth century B.C. It is a compilation of collections of poems and sayings such as “Sayings of the Wise” and “The Words of King Lemuel” offering advice on an enormous range of matters, usually with a moral point, relevant to the ancient world. There is also a poem about the capable (or virtuous) wife. A key theme of Proverbs is the virtue of wisdom, personified by a woman (equated with righteousness), as opposed to folly (equated to evil).

Ecclesiastes The “Speaker,” who describes himself as king (perhaps administrator) over Jerusalem, seeks to grasp the elusive meaning of human existence, and expresses his lifelong search of wisdom in a series of insightful maxims.

Song of Solomon The “Song of Songs,” attributed to Solomon, but probably compiled after mid-sixth century B.C., is a book of love poems between a man and a woman, with a chorus of daughters of Jerusalem; the poems are filled with powerful erotic imagery. The book is traditionally interpreted as an allegory of the relation of God to his people.

Isaiah This book is usually regarded as three distinct but related works: First Isaiah deals with the period of Isaiah’s prophecies in Judah in the second half of the eighth century B.C. (chs. 1–39); Second Isaiah (chs. 40–55), deals with the sixth to fifth centuries B.C.; and Third Isaiah (chs. 56–66) with the period after the exile. First Isaiah is concerned with the political and military developments in the world of Judah. Isaiah interprets events concerning Jerusalem and the continuity of the House of David in terms of sin, and military defeat as the form of God’s punishments. But punishments are not final: justice can be restored and the people purified. Second Isaiah’s author is concerned with the Babylonian captivity and exiles’ feeling that God is neglectful or absent; Isaiah gives hope for the future. The victories of Cyrus the Persian, who permitted the exiles to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple, are seen as ordained by God. Third Isaiah, reflecting conditions in the Holy Land after the return from exile, deals with ritual matters, repentance, and promises of final salvation.

Jeremiah Born about 645–640 B.C., Jeremiah is one of the greatest prophets. His book contains long personal confessions and laments, prophecies against the nations, and restoration prophecies; the core message includes a sternly moral call to true repentance: outward ceremonies and confessions are inadequate in God’s sight. After the rise of Babylon Jeremiah prophesied accommodation rather than revolt but his message went unheeded and Jerusalem was destroyed; the prophet at first remained in Jerusalem but was later taken to Egypt. Jeremiah made enemies throughout his career with his harsh prophecies; he was imprisoned and efforts were made to kill him.

Lamentations Attributed to the prophet Jeremiah but of uncertain authorship, Lamentations contains five elegies for Jerusalem and the temple, destroyed by the Babylonians 586 B.C. The fall of the city and the extreme suffering of the people are attributed to the Israelites’ failure to be true to God, but the book expresses the ultimate hope of regaining God’s favor. In poetic form, four of the book’s chapters have 22 verses (three are acrostics with lines beginning with each of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet).

Ezekiel Ezekiel (sixth century B.C.) was taken to Babylon after the capture of Jerusalem (597 B.C.) by Nebuchadnezzar; in exile he felt the call to prophesy. His book has three parts. The first includes oracles of judgment against Jerusalem and Judah before the final destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. In the second part, there are oracles against foreign nations, including Judah’s neighbors, Egypt and Tyre. But the God who acts in history gives salvation as well as judgment; his desire is to bring the nations to righteousness. In the third part, after the destruction of Jerusalem and the fulfillment of his oracles, Ezekiel’s prophecies, such as the story of the valley of dry bones coming to life, focus on restoration and redemption: the return of Israel to the promised land. Ezekiel also has visions of the restoration of the temple, its regulations, the priestly order, and the distribution of land.

Daniel The first section includes narratives set in the Babylonian and Persian courts, the best known of which is Daniel in the lions’ den, thrown in by the ahistorical Darius the Mede for his piety but saved by an angel of the lord. The second part is an apocalypse, in which God’s visions to Daniel, interpreted by an angel, provide a prophecy of history and offer comfort: the pious martyrs will shine in the resurrection. The “son of man” who appears in one vision is used in the New Testament as a title for Jesus.

 

The Minor Prophets (“The Twelve”)

 

Hosea Active from middle eighth century B.C. to the fall of the Northern Kingdom (721 B.C.), Hosea describes symbolically and historically the relationship of God to his faithless people, who are idolatrous sinners. The awful punishment of God is prophesied, but God will forgive the repentant.

Joel Describes the devastation of a locust plague, characterizing the locusts as an army; there is also drought. But for a repentant Israel the Lord will reverse this agricultural devastation and in the ideal future time will redeem Israel and defeat all its enemies.

Amos A herdsman of Tekoa in Judah, Amos was the earliest of the prophets (ca. 750 B.C.) whose words were collected and later written down. Proclaiming God’s judgment on Israel and its neighbors for grievous religious and social sins, he foresees God’s punishment of Israel with drought, plagues, military defeat and exile.

Obadiah Obadiah prophesies the total and final destruction of Edom for its participation in the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem: the Edomites, held to be the descendants of Jacob’s brother Esau, are kin who betrayed Judah. The book, the shortest in the Old Testament (21 verses), is in poetry except for the final three verses.

Jonah God tells Jonah to go to the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, and denounce its wickedness. Instead Jonah sails to Tarshish; en route the ship is threatened by a God-sent storm. As propitiation, Jonah is thrown into the water and swallowed by a great fish. Freed by God, he goes to Nineveh, where he preaches with success but protests God’s forgiveness of the repentant Ninevites; God instructs him on the need for mercy.

Micah Punishments for evil-doing in the cities of Samaria and Jerusalem (capitals of Israel and Judah) are prophesied and a future reign of God’s peace centered on Mt. Zion in Jerusalem is foreseen. The rupture between God and his people because of their wickedness is described; it will be followed by ultimate reconciliation.

Nahum Describes the wrath and power of God and vividly prophesies the destruction of Nineveh. Its aim may have been to encourage the Judean king to join in revolt against Assyria through faith in God’s purpose to destroy it.

Habakkuk Laments the success of the wicked and God’s use of the Babylonians to wreak punishments; but God assures him that the righteous will triumph. The book concludes with a prayer, perhaps used liturgically in the temple, depicting God as a powerful warrior.

Zephaniah Zephaniah (seventh century B.C.) prophesies against idolatry and other sins of Judah and Jerusalem; the Israelites and foreign peoples will all be laid waste by God on the awful Day of the Lord. Only repentance can save; God will leave a small remnant of the humble and righteous in Jerusalem and he will establish his kingdom over the earth.

Haggai The Lord, through his prophet Haggai, tells the leaders of Judah of his wrath because the temple has not been rebuilt. In his anger God damages Israel’s harvests, but once the people begin rebuilding the temple, they have God’s blessing and his temple will again be glorious.

Zechariah Zechariah reports the word of the Lord in seven visions, said to have occured in 519 B.C., that represent the Jewish community and a rebuilt temple. God is angry with his people for their failures, but is ready to forgive the repentant builders. The two last sections of Zechariah, oracles of Judah’s triumph and the Day of the Lord, are later additions.

Malachi Attacks inferior and inadequate sacrifices, faithlessness, and marrying foreign wives. A “messenger of the covenant” (also identified as Elijah) will come to clear a path for the Lord who will cast down evildoers while the righteous will rejoice; this prophecy in the last book of the Old Testament greatly influenced later Jewish and Christian messianic thought.

 

New Testament The New Testament includes 27 books: four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, 21 letters (epistles), and Revelation; these are accepted as canonical by the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, although some scholars and a few churches argue for a smaller canon. The New Testament books were written in Greek during the years from about A.D. 50 to the first half of the second century A.D. The arrangement of the books, adopted in the fourth century A.D., is roughly in chronological order of subject, rather than date of writing: the story of Jesus (gospels), the beginning of the church (Acts), advice to churches and the beginnings of Christian theology (letters), and the future vision of hope (Revelation). Aside from the genuine letters of Paul, little is known about the actual authors of the New Testament books; the traditional attributions result from the custom of writers assigning works to revered predecessors or from later decisions by church fathers.

 

The Gospels The earliest gospel (“good news”) is that of Mark, about A.D. 70 (the time of the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans); Luke wrote about A.D. 80–85, Matthew, about A.D. 90, and John during the late first century A.D. Mark gathered sayings of Jesus and stories of his life and ministry from the oral traditions of the early church. Later, Matthew and Luke wrote their gospels using Mark and a collection of Jesus’ sayings as sources. The first three gospels, similar in contents and in order, are called the synoptic (“seen together”) gospels. John, by contrast, may not have known of the synoptics when he wrote; in any event his gospel is different in tone and focus from the other three. The four canonical gospels were collected about the mid-second century A.D., and the Acts of the Apostles, originally part of Luke, was treated as a distinct work.

The unique authority of the four gospels emerged during this period, based on liturgical usage in regional churches and the arguments of church authorities such as Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 185 A.D.). However, it was not until the late 4th century A.D. that the canonicity of these gospels and the rest of the New Testament as it is known today was recognized by the Catholic Church in the West. Much later, in response to the challenges of the Reformation, the Council of Trent (mid-16th century A.D.) declared the entire Catholic Bible, including the Old Testament apocrypha and all of the books of the New Testament, to be canonical.

Matthew Begins by saying that Jesus, descended from Abraham, is the Messiah. The story of his birth in Bethlehem is described: the adoration of the Magi, the wrath of Herod, and the flight of Mary, Joseph, and Jesus to Egypt. Jesus’ baptism by John is followed by his ministry: the Sermon on the Mount, miracles, and the recognition of Jesus as the Messiah by his disciples. His journey to Jerusalem and conflict with the priestly elite is followed by his death, resurrection, and appearance to the disciples. Matthew contrasts the Old Testament time of prophecy with the era of God’s fulfillment in Jesus; the believer needs to receive Jesus to be part of God’s eternal kingdom.

Mark Starts with John’s baptism of Jesus, then tells of Jesus’ ministry: his preaching, teaching, and healing, and the activities of his disciples. The miracles of calming the waters, of feeding the multitudes with loaves and fishes, and others are described. Mark then focuses on Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem, death, and resurrection. In Mark’s rendering, those who hear Jesus, even his disciples, do not fully understand who he is; it is only with the crucifixion that Jesus and his mission are fully understood and he is recognized as the son of God.

Luke Luke begins with the birth of John the Baptist and continues with the story of Jesus’ birth, including the annunciation, the manger, and the shepherds. Jesus’ ministry begins after his baptism by John. Luke describes the conflicts with the Pharisees (an observant Jewish group), the journey to Jerusalem, Jesus’ death, resurrection and appearances to the disciples, and his ascension. Luke emphasizes Jesus’ concern with the poor and the duties of the rich to the poor. Several gospel incidents and parables are found only in Luke, such as the boy Jesus in the temple, the appearance to two disciples on the road to Emmaus, and the stories of the Good Samaritan and the prodigal son.

John John starts with the assertion that the eternal Word is embodied in Jesus. The focus is not on the everyday moral and religious implications of Jesus’ teaching, but rather on his claims to be the Messiah, the Light of the World, the Son of God. While including miracles and healing, John omits parables, the Sermon on the Mount, the instruction to pray the Lord’s Prayer, and the institution of the Last Supper. The gospel emphasizes the conflict of Jesus with the Pharisees, and more broadly Jesus versus the Jews, a focus that may reflect the writer’s era, when clearer distinctions between Jews and Christians had developed. The gospel ends with Jesus’ death, resurrection, and appearances to the disciples, including his appearance by the Sea of Galilee to Peter and others.

Acts of the Apostles Written about A.D. 80–85, Acts is by the same author as Luke. It begins where Luke ends, with the Ascension of Jesus, and recalls his words that the disciples will bear witness in Jerusalem, to Judah and Samaria, and thence to the “ends of the earth.” The book describes the earliest years of the church: its rapid growth among the Jews, the conversion of Paul, outreach to the Gentiles, and doctrinal controversies. Paul’s missions in Asia Minor and Greece, and his trials in Jerusalem and Caesarea are detailed; the book ends with his final preaching and imprisonment in Rome.

 

Letters Letters are the dominant form of literature in the New Testament: they provide early statements of Christian theology as well as advice and counsel to churches and individuals. Collections of Pauline letters were circulated among congregations by about A.D. 100. Of the 21 letters, 13 attributed to Paul are listed first: nine to churches (ordered by descending length), and four to individuals. Then come Hebrews and the seven “general” or “catholic” letters, either written to general audiences or to unidentified individuals. Today only nine letters are widely regarded as genuinely Paul’s: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. The “pastorals” (1 & 2 Timothy and Titus) are usually regarded as non-Pauline; opinions vary on 2 Thessalonians, Ephesians, and Colossians.

Romans Written to the church in Rome probably between A.D. 55 and 58. Paul defends his gospel to the Gentiles, answering questions and challenges raised by Jewish Christians in Rome. He writes that Jesus’ obedience benefits all groups, not just Jews: through the first Adam all became sinners, through the last Adam (Jesus) all were granted grace. The law that God gave to the Israelites was not wrong; rather the lack was in sinful humans, whose sin is forgiven by God’s grace that now supersedes the law. Gentiles can become righteous, and in the end Jews and Gentiles will be one. Those with gifts should use them to the benefit of the church, and all should respect the state for preserving order and providing a frame for witness. In closing, Paul tells the Roman congregation that he will visit them on his way to a projected (unrealized) mission to Spain.

1 Corinthians Paul founded the congregation at Corinth, on the isthmus between mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus, about A.D. 50/51; he wrote them at least five letters. This second letter (the first is lost) was written about A.D. 54 from Ephesus. Paul gives advice on problems that were endangering the congregation’s communal life. Some people claimed special status because of supposed religious wisdom; a man had an incestuous relationship; there were disorders at the Lord’s Supper; and Paul has received an inquiry from the congregation about his ideas on sexuality and marriage. Paul responds that God’s revealed wisdom sets aside individual claims to status. Worldly matters are transient, but not unimportant, and Christians must behave in a worthy manner; he says that whatever is done should be done in love, with an awareness of the grace bestowed on Christians by their faith both in the present and for eternity.

2 Corinthians This letter is thought to be a composite of at least two letters by Paul to the church in Corinth, one (chs.1–9) written in A.D.55,and a second (chs.10–13) about a year later. Paul first refers to a “tearful letter,” now lost, assailing the congregation for not disciplining a member with whom Paul had been in conflict. But Paul assures the Corinthians of his care and devotion, and writes of the Christian message and the Christian ministry, including his own struggles, and the need for generosity in supporting other congregations. He attacks rival missionaries and their false claims, asserts the truth of the faith he preached, and promises the Corinthians another visit.

Galatians Written by Paul between A.D. 50 and 55 to the churches in Galatia (central or southern Anatolia). Paul admonishes these Christians not to stray from the gospel of faith in favor of a return to circumcision and the Mosaic law advocated by competing Jewish-Christian missionaries. Paul says that the new faith in Jesus Christ completely supersedes the old covenant: it is by faith that Christians are saved, not by the law. In this argument Paul provides the earliest statement of gentile Christian theology as distinct from Judaism.

Ephesians Probably written by a disciple of Paul intent on continuing his teaching, in A.D. 80–90, the destination is traditionally regarded as Ephesus, a port city in western Asia Minor where Paul had lived and preached. The author writes that God’s plan from eternity will be accomplished through Christ, who is Lord not only of humanity but the whole universe. Within the church members must behave in godly fashion, speak the truth, love one another, and stand firm against the superhuman powers of evil. Some elements of this book may have been used in early liturgies.

Philippians Written by Paul from prison (probably in Ephesus, about A.D. 55). Paul rejoices in the faith of the congregation at Philippi (a city in northeastern Greece), urges on them conduct worthy of the gospel, and thanks them for their generosity. The letter as it now exists may be a composite (probably edited before A.D. 90) of several of Paul’s letters to the Christians at Philippi.

Colossians Probably written by a follower of Paul to the church at Colossae (in Asia Minor), this letter gives thanks for the faith of the Colossians, reminds them that Christ embodies all wisdom, urges them therefore to reject concerns with planets, stars, and dietary laws, and commands them to embody Christian virtues.

1 Thessalonians This letter of Paul to the church in Thessalonica (present-day Thessaloniki in northeastern Greece) was composed about A.D. 50; it is the earliest book in the New Testament. Writing probably from Corinth, Paul and his colleagues Timothy and Sylvanus assure the church in Thessalonica, where Paul had earlier preached, of their affection and urge the members to be steadfast in faith, love, and hope. Paul emphasizes final (eschatological) things, and affirms that Christians who die prior to the Second Coming of Christ, as well as those who are then alive, will share in the new life in Christ.

2 Thessalonians Christians at Thessalonica are told that those who cause them to suffer will be punished at the last day and the faithful will rest; that the coming of Christ is not necessarily imminent—the wicked one whom Jesus will destroy must come first; and that Christians must not be idle, but should work in order to eat.

1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus These three letters deal with similar congregational matters and are often grouped as the “pastoral letters.” Sharply admonitory in tone, they urge godly church officers and leaders to demonstrate exemplary moral and religious purity, as compared to the unacceptable social, religious, and sexual behavior of heretics; they instruct congregants, men and women, old and young, on their duties. The unknown author, writing perhaps early second century A.D., attempts to convey the continuity of Paul’s teachings and message, thereby stabilizing and strengthening the church in the generations following the fervor of the apostolic age.

Philemon Paul’s letter to Philemon (probably in Colossae) is the shortest (25 verses) of his letters. Paul writes on behalf of Philemon’s slave Onesimus (Greek, “useful”), who fled to Paul after wronging his master in some way. Paul, in his imprisonment in Ephesus about A.D. 55, converts Onesimus and appeals to Philemon to receive him as a member of the new fellowship of Jesus.

Hebrews This anonymous work, in the form of a sermon rather than a letter, was apparently aimed at encouraging Christians after the first generation. It presents a carefully developed series of comparisons between the Old Testament and Christianity to show the nature and purpose of the new faith. The author says that before, God spoke through the prophets, but now he has spoken through his son; the old faith had an earthly temple and sacrifices; the new is transcendent and eternal, with a single sacrifice for the world. Christians must be firm in their hope, and confident of their salvation.

James Traditionally ascribed to James the brother of Jesus, this general (“catholic”) letter is intended for the guidance of the whole church. James emphasizes keeping the commandment to love one’s neighbor, which entails especially caring for the poor and the oppressed; warns the rich; and emphasizes the importance of works as well as faith.

1 Peter Attributed to Peter but probably written late first century A.D. by another author, this letter affirms the truth of the faith and proclaims a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection. Christians may suffer from the loss of old attachments, but all, including the marginalized, are full members of the new community of believers and should aspire to live worthily in the faith.