Some words with Latin roots ending in a vowel and an x may change to —ices when the plural is formed.
appendix/appendices, index/indices (math), vortex/vortices
But —es is the preferred ending for the plurals of these words.
appendixes, indexes (book), vortexes
A few English words with Latin roots ending in –us form their plurals by changing the –us to –i.
alumnus/alumni, tumulus/tumuli, cumulus/cumuli, hippopotamus/hippopotami or hippopotamuses, calculus/calculi, cactus/cacti
Even fewer words with Latin roots ending in —a form their plurals by changing the —a to –ae.
alumna/alumnae
Homophones
The source of many spelling problems are homophones, words that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings and different spellings.
| affect, effect | foreword, forward |
| all, awl | hear, here |
| complement, compliment | its, it’s |
| council, counsel | lead, led |
| discreet, discrete | lightening, lightning |
| made, maid | sea, see |
| pail, pale | stationary, stationery |
| pair, pare | straight, strait |
| plain, plane | vain, vane, vein |
| principal, principle | way, weigh |
| rain, reign, rein | who’s, whose |
a: Use a when the next word begins with a consonant sound.
a book
an: Use an when the next word begins with a vowel sound.
an urgent request
Hint: It is the sound that counts, not the actual letter.
an hour
a usual routine
accept: to receive, to agree to, to answer affirmatively
I accepted the parcel from the mail carrier.
except: excluding (when used as a preposition), to exclude (when used as a verb)
I liked everything about the concert except the music.
I except you from my criticism.
Hint: Except is usually used as a preposition.
adapt: change or adjust in order to make more suitable or in order to deal with new conditions
The dinosaur was unable to adapt to changes in its environment.
adept: skillful, handy, good at
Bill has always been adept at carpentry.
adopt: take or use as one’s own, endorse
The Senate adopted the new resolution.
adolescence: refers to the teenage years
My adolescence was marked by religious questioning, parental snooping, and skin problems.
adolescents: teenagers
Adolescents pay outrageous rates for car insurance.
adverse: hostile, difficult, unfavorable
Adverse weather conditions have tormented farmers for the past decade.
averse to: someone’s being unwilling or relunctant
John has always been averse to accepting other people’s ideas.
advice: a noun
My advice to you is to leave well enough alone.
advise: a verb
I advise you to leave well enough alone.
affect: when used as a verb means to impress or influence; noun form is generally restricted to technical discussions of psychology, meaning an emotion
This song always affects me powerfully.
Pete’s affect was always sullen and perverse.
effect: a noun meaning result; verb meaning to accomplish or produce is comparatively uncommon
Many of our welfare programs have not had beneficial effects.
We hope this new program will effect a whole new atmosphere on campus.
Ain’t ain’t: is slang and used only in written English for humor or dialogue. Use of the phrase ain’t I, when asking a question in conversational English is undesirable; as is the seemingly stylish but ungrammatical aren’t I. Am I not is grammatically correct, but clumsy and stuffy.
all ready: all set, prepared
The meal was all ready by six o’clock.
already: previously, by the designated time
Professor Willis has already told us that twice.
Alright is nonstandard. All right is the preferred spelling.
all together: joined in a group
For once, the citizens are all together on an important issue.
altogether: thoroughly, totally
The character’s motivations are altogether obscure.
allusion: an indirect mention or reference. The verb form is allude.
The nominating speech alluded to every American hero from Jack Armstrong to Neil Armstrong.
illusion: an idea not in accord with reality
The patient suffered from the illusion that he was Napoleon.
A lot of a lot of: okay to use in conversation, but not usually in written English. A lot is two words. Do not confuse it with allot, meaning to give out or apportion. Do not use lots to mean “many” in writing.
among: use when dealing with more than two units
between: use when dealing with only two units
Not: The company president had to make an arbitrary decision among the two outstanding candidates for promotion, but: The company president had to make an arbitrary decision between the two outstanding candidates for promotion.
Not: Tension has always existed between my mother, my father, and me, but: Tension has always existed among my mother, my father, and me.
anxious: suggests worry or fear
I waited anxiously for the telephone to bring me news of Joan’s safe arrival.
eager: suggests enthusiasm
The whole town waited eagerly to greet the triumphant hockey team.
anymore: refers to time
I don’t eat apples anymore.
any more: use in phrases
I haven’t any more apples.
anyone: means anybody at all
Anyone can learn how to do simple electrical wiring.
any one: singles out each person or thing within a group
Any one of these paintings is worth a small fortune.
Anyways anyways: not standard written English. Use anyway.
As as: do not use as a substitute for because or since
Not: I was late for my appointment as I missed the bus, but: I was late for my appointment because I missed the bus.
Awfully awfully: does not mean “very”
Not: He’s an awfully nice person, but: He’s a very nice person.
a while: a noun
I thought I saw her a while ago.
awhile: an adverb
Success comes only to those who are prepared to wait awhile.
bad: an adjective
I feel bad. She looks bad.
badly: an adverb
I play badly.
Hint: In some sentences, the verbs look, feel, and seem function as linking verbs and must be followed by the adjectival form.
Not standard written English. Use because or since.
beside: alongside of; other than or aside from
He pulled in beside the Buick.
Your last statement is beside the point.
besides: in addition to, moreover
I’m starting to discover that I’ll need something besides a big smile to get ahead.
Besides, I’m not sure I really liked the dress in the first place.
can: in formal English questions, asks if the ability is there
Can your baby speak yet?
may: in formal English questions, asks if the permission is there
May I intrude on your conversation?
(not can—anyone with a voice has the ability to intrude).
Hint: Outside of formal contexts, few people worry about the distinction.
Can’t hardly can’t hardly: a double negative. Use can hardly.
Can’t help but can’t help but: wordy and repetitious. Avoid this phrase in written English.
Not: I can’t help but worry about what winter will do to my old car, but: I can’t help worrying about what winter will do to my old car.
capital: refers to money, uppercase letters, and cities that are seats of government.
Highly speculative investments can offer excellent opportunities for capital gains.
The poet e.e. cummings had an aversion to capital letters. Madison is the capital of Wisconsin.
capitol: a building in which major legislative bodies meet. With an uppercase C, Capitol refers to the building in Washington, D.C.
Madison’s capitol closely resembles the Capitol in Washington, D.C.
casual: informal, unplanned
Bill is entirely too casual about his financial future.
causal: having to do with a cause
Karen understands the causal connection between cigarettes and lung disease is unmistakable.
censor: as a verb means to examine mail, art, etc., to see if it should be made public, or to cut out, ban. As a noun, means a person engaged in censoring.
The school authorities censored parts of the movie.
The prison censor examines all mail.
censure: can be a verb or a noun meaning condemn, or
condemnation; criticize adversely, or adverse criticism.
The Citizens Committee recently censured the mayor. Critics have singled out Dickens’s deathbed scenes for
censure.
Center around center around: since a center is a single point in the middle of something, center around is an illogical phrase. Use center on instead.
The discussion centered on ways to increase productivity in the coming year.
cite: a verb meaning to mention
He cited many examples to prove his point.
site: a noun meaning location
The site of a new housing project has been debated for more than a year.
sight: a noun meaning something viewed, the ability to see, or the foreseeable future
In her feather hat and seashell earrings she was quite a sight!
climactic: the adjectival form of climax
The hero’s death is the climactic moment of the story.
climatic: the adjectival form of climate
Climatic conditions in the Dakotas go from one extreme to the other.
Complected complected: not standard English. Complexioned is preferable, but it’s better to reword your sentence so you can avoid using either term.
Not: He was a light-complexioned man, but: He had very fair skin.
complement: a verb meaning to complete or bring to perfection
Cheese and wine complement each other.
compliment: praise, noun or verb
I don’t appreciate insincere compliments.
compose: to make up, to constitute
Thirteen separate colonies composed the original United States.
comprise: to be made up of, to encompass
The original United States comprised thirteen separate colonies.
Hint: Never write “comprised of.” The whole comprises the parts.
conscience: the inner voice that tells us right from wrong
No one should ask you to act against your conscience.
conscientious: painstaking, scrupulous, ruled by conscience, as in conscientious objector
I’ve tried to do this work as conscientiously as possible.
conscious: aware
Jerry became conscious of a subtle change in Mary’s attitude.
contemptible: use to describe something or someone deserving of scorn
Few crimes are more contemptible than child abuse.
contemptuous: use to describe the expression of scorn
Instead of shaking hands, she thumbed her nose and stuck out her tongue. Her contemptuous attitude was clear.
continual: frequently repeated, but with interruptions or pauses
He had a bad cold and blew his nose continually.
continuous: completely uninterrupted, without any pause
The continuous noise at the party next door kept us awake.
Hint: Continuous ends in o(ne), u(ninterrupted), s(equence).
Not standard in written English. Use could have, should have, would have.
council: a governing body or an advisory group
The council met last week in a special emergency session.
counsel: as a verb means to advise or recommend; as a noun means advice, recommendation, exchange of ideas
Sarah knew she could rely on her father’s friendly counsel.
credible: believable
Their lame excuses were not credible.
creditable: worthy of praise
Adam’s behavior since his graduation has been creditable.
credulous: gullible, foolishly believing
She’s so credulous she still believes that the stork brings babies.
Data data: technically a plural word, the singular form of which is datum. The word’s Latin origins, however, have nothing to do with its current usage. Many people believe that data works as singular in all levels of English.
Correct: This data is accurate and helpful.
Correct (but very formal): These data are accurate and helpful.
device: a noun meaning, among other things, mechanism or special effect
The safety pin is a simple but an extraordinarily clever device.
devise: a verb meaning to invent or plot
The person who devised the safety pin is one of humanity’s minor benefactors.
Hint: Different from is preferable in all circumstances
discreet: tactful, reserved
Discreet silence is sometimes the most effective reply to an insult.
discrete: separate, distinct
Rising interest rates have several discrete effects on the economy.
disinterested: impartial, unbiased
A disinterested judge is necessary for a fair trial.
uninterested: bored, indifferent
An audience is uninterested in a poor play.
Hint: These words are NOT synonyms.
Each each: takes a singular verb and a singular pronoun. Each other refers to two persons. One another refers to more than two persons. See he, his, him, himself.
Each actress was told to practice her lines.
Each of the Cleveland Indians is taking his turn at batting practice.
economic: refers to business, finance, the science of economics, and so on
Economic conditions are improving in the textile industry.
economical: inexpensive or thrifty
The economical shopper looks for bargains.
Either either: only when dealing with two units
Not: Either the Republican, the Democrat, or the Independent will be elected, but: Either Elaine or Tom will get the job.
Hint: When either is the subject, it takes a singular verb and pronoun.
The scientists are both qualified. Either is ready to give her best.
See also neither.
elicit: to draw out
The interviewer was unable to elicit a direct answer.
illicit: improper or prohibited
Our modern novelists often write about illicit romance.
eminent: distinguished or noteworthy
The eminent speaker delivered a disappointing address.
imminent: about to happen
After years of frustration, a peace treaty is imminent.
emigrate: takes preposition from
A century ago the people who did emigrate from Mexico did so without problems.
immigrate: takes preposition to
In order to immigrate to England, the Irish needed proof of their birthplace.
Both words are used interchangeably, but use insure for references to financial guarantees against loss of life, health and property.
The new screens ensure that insects stay outside where they belong.
If you insure your home or apartment, take photographs of all your most valuable possessions.
Equally as equally as: not standard English. Eliminate the as or substitute just as.
Not: My grades were equally as good, but: My grades were equally good.
Not: The style was equally as important as the plot, but: The style was just as important as the plot.
Etc. etc.: Abbreviation of et cetera (Latin for “and so forth,” “and other things”). Except where brevity is a major concern, avoid etc. It tends to convey the impression that the writer doesn’t want to be bothered with being accurate and specific.
Every every: This adjective makes the noun it modifies take a singular verb and a singular pronoun. (See the entry below, “he, his, him, himself.”
Every woman leader needs to learn how to deal with the prejudices of her male counterparts.
Every Denver Bronco is required to report his weight upon arrival at training camp.
every day: the common phrase used for references to time
He loved her so much that he wanted to see her every day.
everyday: an adjective meaning normal, ordinary, routine
The everyday lives of many everyday people are filled with fears, tensions, and the potential for tragedy.
expand: to increase, enlarge, fill out
The company needs to expand its share of the market.
expend: to spend, use up
Last night I had expended all my energy studying.
explicit: stated to shown directly
Cheryl’s mother gave explicit instructions to be home before dark.
implicit: implied, not stated or shown directly
My wife and I have an implicit understanding that the first one who can’t stand the dirt any longer is the one who vacuums the rugs.
farther: for geographic distance
Allentown is five miles farther down the road.
further: use for everything but geographic distance
Further changes improved the curriculum. Jim kissed her, but they were further apart than ever.
faze: disconcert, fluster
No great artist is fazed by critical sneers.
phase: a stage of development. Limit its use to contexts in which the passage of time is especially important.
Not: One phase of the team’s failure is poor hitting, but: the history of the team can be divided into three phases.
fewer: refers to amounts that can be counted individually, item by item
Joe earned fewer dollars this year than he did five years ago.
less: refers to general amounts or amounts that cannot be counted or measured
Joe made less money this year than he did five years ago.
flaunt: to show off arrogantly or conspicuously
They lost no opportunity to flaunt their newfound wealth.
flout: to treat scornfully, to show contempt
Those hoodlums flout all the basic decencies and then complain that we misunderstand them.
foreword: a preface or introduction
The only interesting part of the book was the foreword.
forward: opposite of backward; bold or impertinent
Our mistakes are part of history. We must now look forward .
Amy’s old-fashioned grandfather told her that she was a forward hussy.
Former former: first of the two
Not: Grant, McKinley, and Harding were poor presidents. The former was the poorest, but: Grant, McKinley, and Harding were poor presidents. The first was the poorest. Grant and McKinley were poor presidents. The former was the poorer.
Hint: Do not use former when dealing with more than two persons or items.
good: adjective that modifies a noun
Mary was a good speaker.
well: adverb that modifies a verb
She spoke well.
Hint: After a linking verb, always use good. Common linking verbs are to be (in all forms and tenses- am, is, are, was, were, have been, has been, had been, would be, will be, and so on), feel, look, sound, taste, appear, smell, and the like.
Her voice sounded good.
The speech was good.
Mary felt good.
Hint: Both are past participles of hang; technically, they are interchangeable. Tradionally, however, hanged is reserved for references to executions and hung is used everywhere else.
The spy was hanged the next morning.
All the pictures hung crookedly.
Hint: English has no distinct singular pronoun to refer to both sexes. In the past, the masculine pronoun was used to refer to a singular subject of either sex or when sex was irrelevant of unknown.
Each citizen can make his choice on Election Day.
Everybody should protect himself from the dangers of alcoholism.
However, increased sensitivity to sexist language has caused this usage to disappear from contemporary published writing. The easiest and most common way to avoid sexist language is to change singular phrasing to plural whenever possible.
All citizens can make their choice known on Election Day.
People should protect themselves from the dangers of alcoholism.
Rephrase sentences that do not lend themselves to a plural approach. See he/she, his/her, him/her, he or she, his or hers, him or her.
Hint: Reserve these noble efforts to achieve sexual equality in language for legal contracts. Use a plural subject and pronoun whenever possible, or recast the sentence to eliminate sexist language.
Not: Everyone needs to make early plans for his/her career. But: People should make early plans for their careers.
Not: In cases of fatal illness, should a patient be told the truth about what is wrong with him or her?
But: In cases of fatal illness, should patients be told the truth about what is wrong with them?
hoard: verb means amass; noun means a large hidden supply
As rumors of war increased, some citizens began to hoard food.
The old man’s hoard of gold was concealed beneath the floorboards.
horde: a large throng or crowd
The horde of locusts totally destroyed last year’s grain crop.
Hopefully Hint: Hopefully is an adverb, which means that it modifies and usually appears next to or close to a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Not: Hopefully, we can deal with this mess next weekend. The new driver’s training program, hopefully, will cut down on traffic fatalities.
But: The farmers searched hopefully for a sign of rain. Hopefully, the children ran down the stairs on Christmas morning.
In fairness, so many educated writers and speakers mishandle hopefully that the incorrect usage is likely to worm its way into standard English someday.
I: functions as the subject of a sentence or clause, and as a complement in the very formal but grammatically correct It is I.
me: the object of a verb or preposition
He gave the book to me. Why does she like me so much?
Hint: To determine which word to use in sentences like “Nobody is more enthusiastic than I” or “Nobody is more enthusiastic than me,” simply complete the sentences with a verb and see which makes sense.
Not: Nobody is more enthusiastic than me (am).
But: Nobody is more enthusiastic than I (am).
imply: to suggest or hint at something without specifically stating it
The editorial implies that our public officials have taken bribes.
infer: to draw a conclusion
I inferred from her standoffish attitude that she dislikes me.
Hint: Imply and infer are not interchangeable.
incredible: unbelievable
The witness gave evidence that was utterly incredible.
incredulous: unconvinced, nonbelieving
I was incredulous at hearing those absurd lies.
Indict indict: to charge with a crime. It does not mean to arrest or convict.
The grand jury indicted Fields for gambling.
ingenious: clever
Sherlock Holmes was an ingenious detective.
ingenuous: naïve, open
Nothing could rival the ingenuous appeal of the little child’s eyes.
Hint: The noun forms are ingenuity and ingenuousness.
inter-: a prefix meaning “between different groups”
Ohio State and Michigan fought bitterly for intercollegiate football supremacy.
intra-: a prefix meaning “within the same group”
The English faculty needs a new department head who can control intradepartmental bickering.
Irregardless Hint: Not standard. The proper word is regardless.
it’s: it is
It’s too quiet. Tell us if it’s true
it has
It’s been a week since I saw her.
Hint: It’s always stands for it is or it has, and nothing else. its: possession or ownership by some nonhuman thing
The Raggedy-Ann doll lost its stuffing.
As winter approached, the tree lost its leaves.
Hint: Replace its with his or her to see if the possessive pronoun is correct in the sentence.
The tree lost his leaves.
(His gives the sense of ownership; since trees have no male or female qualities, its is correct in the sentence.) Hint: The form its’ does not exist.
Kind of Hint: Means what it says- “a type of, a variety of.” It does not mean “somewhat” or “rather” except in the most informal writing.
Not: I was kind of curious about his answer.
But: She had a kind of honest stubbornness that could be very appealing.
Latter Hint: Means ‘the second of the two.’ Do not use latter when dealing with more than two items or people.
Not: Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln were great presidents. The latter was the greatest.
But: Washington and Lincoln were great presidents. The latter was the greater.
lay: transitive verb
Hint: always takes an object or is expressed in the passive voice
Present: lay Past: laid Past Participle: laid Present Participle: laying
I lay my burden down forever.
The hen laid six eggs yesterday.
The mason has laid all the bricks.
The porter is laying down our suitcases.
lie: intransitive verb
Hint: never takes an object, never is expressed in the passive voice. This problem-causing lie, by the way, means ‘recline,’ not ‘fib.’
Present: lie Past: lay Past Participle: lain Present Participle: lying
Now I am going to lie down.
Yesterday he lay awake for five hours.
The refuse has lain there for weeks.
Homeless people are lying on park benches.
lead: 1. rhymes with weed. It means to show the way.
A good instructor will lead you to discover important values.
2. rhymes with fed. It is a grayish metal.
A lead pencil contains graphite and no lead at all.
led: rhymes with fed, too. This led is the past tense of lead. It means showed the way.
He led us through the back alleys of Los Angeles.
leave: to depart
let: to allow, permit
Not: Leave us look more closely at this sonnet.
But: Let us look more closely at this sonnet.
lend: a verb
Jack was kind enough to lend me ten dollars.
loan: a noun
High interest rates have interfered with loans.
liable: likely to, legally obligated
After a few drinks, that man is liable to do anything.
The owner of the dog was liable for damages.
libel: an unjust written statement exposing someone to public contempt
Senator Green sued the newspaper for libel.
Hint: To use like or as (sometimes as if), look at the words that follow. If the words make up a clause (subject plus verb) use as; if not, use like. This rule is not foolproof, but it will solve most practical problems. Like in place of as is now fairly well accepted outside of formal written English.
Even philosophers can sometimes act like fools.
Even philosophers can sometimes act as fools would act.
My boss treated me like dirt.
My boss treated me as if I were dirt.
loath: an adjective meaning reluctant
I am loath to express the full intensity of my feelings.
loathe: a verb meaning to hate
I loathe people who use old-fashioned words like loath.
loose: rhymes with moose. It means “not tight, freer;” sometimes it means “set free.”
A loose shoelace is dangerous.
You should loose the hand brake before driving your car. lose: rhymes with whose. It means “to misplace” or “not to win or keep.”
If you lose the registration form, you will have to pay another fee.
Hint: A candidate who has a majority has more than half of the total votes. A candidate who has a plurality has won the election but received less than half the total votes.
may be: verb form meaning “could be, can be.”
I may be wrong, but I feel that Light in August is
Faulkner’s best novel.
maybe: adverb meaning “perhaps.”
Maybe the railroad is best option.
medal: awarded to heroes or other celebrities
The American team won most of its Olympic medals in swimming.
metal: substance such as iron or copper
Future metal exploration may take place more often beneath the sea.
mettle: refers to stamina, enthusiasm, vigorous spirit
Until the Normandy invasion, Eisenhower had not really proved his mettle.
moral: as an adjective means ‘having to do with ethics’ or ‘honorable, decent, upright.’ As a noun it means ‘lesson, precept, teaching.’
Not all moral issues are simple cases of right and wrong.
The story has a profound moral.
morale: refers to one’s state of mind or spirit
The new coach tried to improve the team’s morale.
more: use when comparing two things
Between Sally and Phyllis, Sally was the more talented.
most: use for any number over two
Of all my teachers, Mr. Frederic was the most inspired.
Hint: Never use most as a synonym for almost.
Not: Most everyone showed up at the party.
Neither Hint: Use only when dealing with two units.
Not: I like neither collies nor poodles nor dachshunds.
But: I like neither dogs nor cats.
When neither is the subject, it takes a singular verb and pronoun.
Both nations are responsible. Neither is doing its best for the environment.
None Hint: Means “no one” or “not one” and takes a singular verb and pronoun.
None of these women understands that she is a public servant.
Not hardly Hint: A double negative; not standard English. Use hardly.
Not: He couldn’t hardly see his hand in front of his face. But: He could hardly see his hand in front of his face.
Only Hint: Make sure that it modifies only the word you want it to modify. “Only” can mean different things depending on where it is in the sentence.
Not: I only felt a little unhappy.
I only asked for a chance to explain.
But: I felt only a little unhappy.
I asked only for a chance to explain.
Only John went to the store.
John only went to the store.
John went to the only store.
Hint: Awkward versions of orient and oriented.
passed: the past of pass
We passed them on the highway.
past: used mainly as an adjective or noun
Valerie had a mysterious past.
patience: not being in a hurry
We expect the delivery tomorrow; our patience is almost at an end.
patients: people seeking medical care or under medical attention
The patients waited nervously in the doctor’s office.
perpetrate: to commit an evil, offensive or stupid act
He perpetrated a colossal blunder.
perpetuate: to preserve forever
We resolved to perpetuate the ideals our leader stood for.
personal: adjective meaning private, individual
My love life is too personal for me to discuss.
personnel: noun referring to the people employed in an organization. It can also refer to a department in the organization that oversees employee-based issues such as hiring and firing, morale, and processing of claims for benefits.
Address all inquiries about the company’s personnel to the Personnel Department.
perspective: has various meanings, most commonly “the logically correct relationships between the parts of something and the whole,” or “the drawing techniques that give the illusion of space or depth.”
Inflation is not our only problem; we need to keep the economy in perspective.
Medieval painting reveals an almost complete indifference to perspective.
prospective: “likely to become” or “likely to happen.”
The prospective jurors waited nervously for their names to be called.
None of the prospective benefits of the merger ever materialized.
precede: to go before
Years of struggle and poverty preceded her current success.
proceed: to go on
Let us proceed with our original plans.
prejudice: ordinarily used as a noun
prejudiced: used as an adjective
Not: The neighborhood is filled with prejudice people.
But: John is prejudiced. Legislation alone cannot prevent prejudice.
prescribe: to order, recommend, write a prescription
The committee prescribed a statewide income tax.
proscribe: to forbid
The dean proscribed new fraternity housing.
principal: 1. a head person at a school
The principal speaks to the students each day.
2. a major sum of money
The principal he invested earned $1, 250 interest.
3. a descriptive word that means “most important”
Rice is still the principal food for many people.
principle: a rule, a major belief, a basic idea or truth
One principle for success is hard work.
As a woman of principle, she refused a bribe.
Hint: Principle and rule both end in —le: if you use principle, make sure it means rule.
raise: transitive verb
The farmer raises corn and wheat.
rise: an intransitive verb that never takes an object
I always rise at 8:00 a.m.
respectfully: with respect
Everyone likes to be treated respectfully.
respectively: each in the order named
The speaker discussed education, medical research, and defense spending, respectively.
robber: works by force
thief:works in secret
burglar: breaks in and enters with felonious intent
sadist: enjoys hurting living creatures
The way he treated his cat proved he was a sadist.
masochist: enjoys being hurt
She purposefully fell off the swings because she was a masochist.
Seeing as how Hint: Not standard English. Use since or because.
Seldom ever Hint: Ever is unnecessary in this phrase. Avoid it.
Not: He was seldom ever angry.
But: He was seldom angry.
sensual: negative; suggesting gross overindulgence in physical sensations
Unlimited sensual abandon led to Ben’s early death.
sensuous: usually positive, refers to physical pleasure
Jane felt that a hot tub and a glass of champagne were among life’s great sensuous delights.
set: to place or to put
Set the table.
Set down that chair.
sit: is not the same as set
We sit at the table. (Not: We set at the table.)
Sit down in that chair. (Not: Set down in that chair.)
Hint: Elaborate rules differentiate between these words. Few people understand the rules, and no one remembers them. Our advice on this subject is to use will all the time except when shall obviously sounds more natural, as in some questions and traditional phrases.
Shall we dance?
We shall overcome.
shone: the alternate past tense and past participle of shine. Same as shined.
The sun shone brightly.
shown: the alternate past participle of show. Same as showed.
More shocking films are being shown in local theaters this spring.
So Hint: When so is used for emphasis, the full thought often needs to be completed by a clause. (See the entry below, “such.”)
Not: The coffee was so sweet. My sister is so smart.
But: The coffee was so sweet that it was undrinkable. My sister is so smart that she does my homework for me every night.
So-called Hint: Use so-called to complain about something that has been incorrectly or inaccurately named. Do not use it as a simple synonym for undesirable or unpleasant.
Not: These so-called jet planes make too much noise. She wore a so-called wig.
But: Many of our so-called radicals are quite timid and conservative. These so-called luxury homes are really just mass-produced bungalows.
Somewheres Hint: Not standard English. Use somewhere.
Sort of Hint: Means “a type of, a variety of.” Do not use as a substitute for somewhat or rather. (See the entry below, “kind of.”)
stationary: unmoving, unchanging
The house was stationary despite the strong wind.
stationery: paper for letter writing
She wrote her love letters on personalized stationery.
Such Hint: When such is used for emphasis to mean “so much” or “so great,” the full thought usually needs to be completed by a clause. (See the entry above, “so.”)
Not: He was such a wicked man. We had such fun at the picnic.
But: He was such a wicked man that everyone feared him. We had such fun at the picnic, we had to force ourselves to go home.
then: at a certain time
The folksinger performed, and then we left the party.
than: a comparing word
She is taller than her brother.
there: a place
Was it there?
Hint: There often starts a sentence. It is sometimes followed by are, were, is, or some other verb.
There was a good movie at the Rialto.
There are too many books, and there is too little time to read them.
their: ownership (possession) by a group
It’s their car.
Was it their house that burned?
they’re: they are
Hint: They’re always means they are. Substitute the two words for the contraction to see if the sentence is correct.
They’re late again! (They + are late again.)
Hint: Through is the standard spelling except, perhaps, on road signs where space and reading time merit special consideration
We drove straight through to Buffalo.
Thru traffic keep left.
Thusly Hint: Not standard English. Use thus.
Hint: Toward is the American style. Towards is the British style.
Try and Hint: Acceptable in conversation, but undesirable in print. Use try to.
Not: We must all try and improve our environment.
But: We must all try to improve our environment.
two: the number 2
too: 1. One meaning is “very,” “more than enough,” “excessively” or “in a great degree.
The color is too dull.
My cousin is too tall.
2. Too means “also” as well.
Let me go, too.
Will the mayor, too, speak at the luncheon?
Hint: When too (meaning “also”) is an interrupting word or appears at the end of a sentence, use a comma before it.
I shook President Carter’s hand, too.
to: 1. To shows direction. It means “toward,” “for,” or “at.”
Carry the milk to the refrigerator.
To me he is always fair.
2. To is the first word in an infinitive. (An infinitive is the starting point of any verb used in a sentence.)
To run in track meets, you must begin to train your legs. infinitive infinitive
Unique Hint: This word means “one of a kind.” It cannot be made stronger than it already is, nor can it be qualified. Do not write “very unique, more unique, less unique, somewhat unique, rather unique, fairly unique.”
vain: refers to vanity or futility
Jim is so vain that he dyes the gray hairs on his chest.
vane: most commonly another word for weathervane
You can recognize the house by the rooster vane near the chimney.
vein: a blood vessel; has many figurative meanings as well
The vein carries blood to the heart.
Beneath the teasing runs a vein of deep tenderness.
weather: has to do with climate
The dark clouds indicate that the weather may soon change.
whether: has to do with choices and alternative possibilities
Anita needs to decide whether to accept the most recent job offer.
When Hint: In using this word, make sure it refers to time, as in “It was ten years ago when we first fell in love.”
Not: Basketball is when five men on opposing teams…
But: Basketball is a game in which five men on opposing teams…
Where Hint: When using this word, make sure it refers to a place, as in “This is the house where I used to live.”
Not: I am interested in seeing the movie where the motorcycle gang takes over the town.
But: I’m interested in seeing the movie in which the motorcycle gang takes over the town.
Whether or not Hint: The word whether means the same as whether or not, and is therefore preferable.
Not: We wondered whether or not it would snow.
But: We wondered whether it would snow.
Hint: Use who or that for people, preferably who, never which. Use which or that for things, preferably that, never who.
Keats is one of the many great writers who died at an early age.
There’s the woman that I was telling you about.
Podunk is a town that people always ridicule.
The play, Othello, which we are now studying, is incredibly difficult.
who: serves as the subject of verbs in dependent clauses
I dislike people who can’t take a joke.
whom: used as the object in dependent clauses
The teacher whom I feared so greatly last term has now become a great friend.
Hint: Although the distinction between who and whom is no longer a major issue in the conversation of many educated speakers and in much informal writing, formal English still fusses about words.
The role played by who or whom in the dependent clause determines which word is right; don’t be distracted by the connections that who or whom may appear to have with other parts of the sentence. In cases of doubt, a sometimes effective tactic is to substitute he, she, they or him, her, them for the word in question and see which makes better sense. If he, she, they works, use who. If him, her, them works, use whom.
I dislike people (who, whom) can’t take a joke.
Take the dependent clause (who, whom) can’t take a joke. Clearly, they can’t take a joke works, and them can’t take a joke does not work. Use who.
Special problems pop up when words intervene between who or whom and its verb. Don’t be misled by expressions like I think, they say, it seems, she feels, and so on. These expressions should be thought of as interrupting words and do not affect the basic grammar of the clause.
The minority leader is the man who I think should be the next president. (Who is the subject of should be.)
No artist who he said was brilliant ever impressed us. (Who is the subject of was.)
Shortcuts:
Immediately after a preposition, use whom.
He asked to whom I had been speaking.
This is the person in whom we must place our trust.
At other times, use who.
In my home, it’s the man who does the cooking.
Fred Smiley is the man who Ethel chose.
If who sounds “wrong” or unnatural, or if you are in a situation that demands formal writing and feel uncertain about the formal rules (the sample sentence about Fred and Ethel breaks the rules), try to eliminate the problem with one of these techniques:
Change who or whom to that.
Fred Smiley is the man that Ethel chose.
Remove who or whom.
Fred Smiley is the man Ethel chose.
who’s: a contraction of who is or who has.
Who’s going to get the promotion?
Fenton is a man who’s been in and out of jail all his life.
whose: the possessive form of who
Quentin Tarantino is a filmmaker whose place in movie history is still in doubt.
your: ownership. It means “belonging to you.”
Is that your car?
Give your husband the car keys.
you’re: you are
When you’re out of town, call.
Hint: You’re always means you are. Substitute the two words for the contraction to see if the sentence is correct.
The First Word of a Sentence The capital letter at the beginning of a sentence signals the reader that a new unit of thought is about to begin. Together with the punctuation mark at the end of the previous sentence, it makes reading easier.
Chile and Peru are squabbling over strong liquor called pisco. Each country claims to be the parent country of the grape-based drink.
In sentence fragments used for special effects, capitalize the first word.
But aside from good hair grooming, they are oblivious to everything but each other. Everybody gives them a once-over. Disgusting! Amusing! How touching!—Tom Wolfe
After a Colon Many writers do not capitalize the first word of an independent clause that follows a colon.
It should be clearly understood: facts can change, and new interpretations can, at any moment, alter our interpretations of them.
But some writers do capitalize the first word after a colon.
The answer is another question: How many days must go by before millions of people notice they are not eating?
The New York Times usually does not capitalize after a colon.
The first word in an independent clause following a semicolon is never capitalized unless it is a proper noun.
All in all, however, outside support counted for little; the men of the village did the work themselves.
Proper Nouns and Their Abbreviations Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, or things —names that set off the individual from the species. Proper nouns include names like Melissa (instead of the common noun person), Spain (instead of the common noun country) and Empire State Building (instead of the common noun building).
Names and nicknames of people Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ella Fitzgerald, John F. Kennedy, Phish, Bugsy
Names of places Italy, the United States of America, the Panama Canal, Back Bay, the North Shore, the Irunia Restaurant, the Sierra Nevada, the Great Lakes
Official names of organizations, organized events, courses The Authors’ Guild of America, the University of Notre Dame, Cumberland College, Ford Motor Company, the Roman Catholic Church, the American Red Cross, the NCAA, the N.A.A.C.P., History 351: Old South, and Civil War
Days of the week, months, special days Monday, July, Christmas, Labor Day, Yom Kippur, Pearl Harbor Day
Ethnic groups, nationalities, and their languages Greeks, Chinese, Americans, Turks, Chinese, English, Arabic. The words blacks and whites generally are not capitalized when they are used to refer to ethnic groups, but many writers follow individual choice in this matter.
Members of religious bodies and their sacred books and names Jews, Christians, Baptists, Holy Bible, God, Allah, Hindus, Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit, the Koran, the Torah.
Religious terms Many religious terms such as sacrament, altar, priests, rabbi, preacher and holy water are not capitalized. The word Bible is capitalized (though biblical is not), but it is never capitalized when it is used as a metaphor for an essential book.
The Daily Racing Form was for many years called the bible of horse racing enthusiasts.
Pronoun references to a deity worshiped by people in the present are sometimes capitalized, although some writers use capitals only to prevent confusion.
God helped Abraham carry out His law.
Do not capitalize pronoun references to deities no longer worshiped.
The Roman god Jupiter led a tempestuous love life that often got him into deep trouble with his wife, Juno.
Historical events, names of movements, and titles of works World War II, the Louisiana Purchase, Impressionism, the Bill of Rights, Moby-Dick
Other proper nouns Sometimes words not ordinarily capitalized take capitals when they are used as parts of proper names.
My aunt is arriving this afternoon.
My Aunt Lou tells fantastic stories that I think she makes up.
I graduated from high school in 1989.
Mother, Father, Cousin, Brother, and Sister may replace proper names in speech and writing.I still miss Mother, although she has been dead for years.
I asked my mother to wake me at 5:00 A.M.
Some titles that may be capitalized before a proper name are often not capitalized when they are used after the name.Everyone knew that Governor Cleveland was the most likely candidate for the Democratic nomination.
The most likely candidate for the Democratic nomination was Grover Cleveland, governor of New York.
Writers and editors do not agree on the capitalization of titles. President of the United States, or the President (meaning the chief executive of the United States), is frequently but not always capitalized. Practice varies with other titles also: speak to the Governor, speak to the governor, the President of the university, the president of the university.
In general, editors and writers are tending to capitalize less, but it is all-important to be consistent.
Words derived from proper nouns generally keep the capitals of the original words.Reaganomics, Siamese cat
When proper names describe or identify common nouns, the nouns that follow are generally not capitalized.Russian history, French fries, Philadelphia cheese steak
Brand names and trademarks are capitalizedApple computer, Band-Aid, Big Mac
Abbreviations used as parts of proper names usually take capitals.T.S. Eliot; Sammy Davis, Jr.; Maria Lopez, M.D.
Names of regions Capitalize names of regions if they are well established, like the Midwest and Central Europe, but do not capitalize directions, as in turn south.
Months and days of the week Capitalize names of months and days of the week; do not capitalize seasons, such as summer.
Capitalization in Dialogue and Quotations Capitalize the first word in quoted spoken dialogue.
“Calm down,” he shouted. “I spent just 30 minutes learning to drive this motorcycle, and we’re already doing a hundred miles an hour.”
Indirect quotations and questions require no capitals for words attributed to a speaker or writer.
She said that jazz was one of the many contributions of blacks to world culture.
Capitalize the first word of quotations from printed sources if the quotation is introduced as dialogue.
Jim, the narrator of My Antonia, concludes: “Whatever we had missed, we possessed together the precious, the incommunicable past.”
When a quotation from a printed source is only an element in a sentence, not a sentence on its own, do not capitalize the first word.
Jim took comfort in sharing with Antonia “the precious, the incommunicable past.