Prologue
1 . See Robert Evans, “The El Paso Shooting and the Gamification of Terror,” Bellingcat , August 4, 2019. See also Eliza Mackintosh and Gianluca Mezzofiore, “How the Extreme-Right Gamified Terror,” CNN, October 10, 2019.
2 . See “The Extremist Medicine Cabinet: A Guide to Online ‘Pills,’” Anti-Defamation League, November 6, 2019.
3 . See Colette Weeks, “Community Remembers Chuck Davis as Leader, Friend to All,” Skagit Valley Herald , July 23, 2017, 1B.
4 . See Joseph Bernstein, “Alt-Right Troll to Father Killer: The Unraveling of Lane Davis,” Buzzfeed , July 18, 2018. Bernstein assembled many of Davis’s biographical details used here, in conjunction with the author’s own research.
5 . See David Neiwert, “Alt-Righter ‘Seattle4Truth’ Charged with Killing Father over Conspiracy Theories,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), October 23, 2017.
6 . See Joseph Bernstein, “Top Conservative Writer Is a Group Effort, Sources Say,” Buzzfeed , March 31, 2016.
7 . See David Neiwert, “‘Pizzagate’ Theories Inspire D.C. Gunman, but Still Have Defenders in Powerful Places,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), December 6, 2016.
8 . See Davis’s YouTube video, “Progressive Ideology’s Deep Ties to Pedophilia,” April 29, 2017, as well as his older video, “Progress: Pedophilia,” September 12, 2015. Davis’s YouTube account containing all of these videos remains active.
Chapter 1
1 . See, for example, Nelson Blackstock, COINTELPRO: The FBI’s Secret War on Political Freedom (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1988).
2 . See Philip Shenon with Stephen Engelberg, “Eight Important Days in November: Unraveling the Iran-Contra Affair,” New York Times , July 5, 1987.
3 . See, for example, David Neiwert, “‘Communist Takeover’ Paranoia Gets a Final Resuscitation for Trump’s Inauguration,” January 17, 2017, Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), and “Far-Right Conspiracists Stir Up Hysteria about Nonexistent ‘Civil War’ Plot by ‘Antifa,’” November 14, 2017, Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center).
4 . See, for example, Duncan Campbell and Ben Aris, “How Bush’s Grandfather Helped Hitler’s Rise to Power,” Guardian , September 25, 2004.
5 . See Herbert Parmet, “What Should We Make of the Charge Linking the Bush Family Fortune to Nazism?” History News Network , November 17, 2003.
6 . See, for example, Joe Conason, “What’s Bush Hiding from 9/11 Commission?” The Observer , January 26, 2004; also see Thomas Bonsell, “Blame the Leadership Failures,” Seattle PI , October 7, 2004.
7 . See “Kissinger Resigns as Head of 9/11 Commission,” CNN, December 13, 2002.
8 . See Timothy J. Burger, “9/11 Commission Funding Woes,” Time , March 26, 2003.
9 . See Philip Shenon, “9/11 Commission Says It Needs More Time to Complete Report,” New York Times , January 28, 2004.
10 . National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, “The System Was Blinking Red,” The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, 254–66 . See also Kurt Eichenwald, “The Bush White House Was Deaf to 9/11 Warnings,” New York Times , September 10, 2012.
11 . See Russell Muirhead and Nancy L. Rosenblum, A Lot of People Are Saying: The New Conspiracism and the Assault on Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 19–41.
12 . Muirhead and Rosenblum, A Lot of People Are Saying , 3.
13 . See Chip Berlet, “Holocaust Museum Shooting, Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories, and the Tools of Fear,” Huffington Post , July 11, 2009.
14 . See Chip Berlet and Matthew N. Lyons, “Dynamics of Bigotry,” Political Research Associates , November 8, 2000.
15 . See Chip Berlet, “Dynamics of Right-Wing Populism,” Research for Progress , August 15, 2016.
16 . See Berlet, “Holocaust Museum Shooting.”
Chapter 2
1 . See Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing (New York: Regan Books, 2001), esp. 118–58.
2 . See David Neiwert, Alt-America: The Rise of the Radical Right in the Age of Trump (New York: Verso, 2017), 49–74.
3 . Much of this analysis is based on material provided by former Department of Homeland Security analyst Daryl Johnson.
4 . See “Stephen Paddock: Adam Le Fevre Tells of His Time with the Las Vegas Shooter,” News Corp Australia Network, October 6, 2017.
5 . See Dave Phillips, “Father’s History Could Offer Insight into Mind of Las Vegas Gunman,” New York Times , October 13, 2017.
6 . See Itay Hod, “‘Math Whiz,’ ‘Loner,’ ‘Invisible’: Vegas Shooter’s Friends Say He Grew Up ‘at the Bottom of the Bottom,’” The Wrap , October 26, 2017, and Greg Palast, “I Went to School with the Vegas Shooter,” GregPalast.com , October 13, 2017.
7 . See Doug Poppa, “Stephen Paddock’s Brother Eric Called Law Enforcement Dumb Mother*****, Said He and Paddock Were Smarter Than Most,” Baltimore Post-Examiner , October 19, 2018.
8 . See Mark Berman, Sandhya Somashekhar, William Wan, and Matt Zapotosky, “Las Vegas Shooting Motive Eludes Investigators as New Details Emerge about Gunman Stephen Paddock,” Washington Post , October 5, 2017.
9 . See Joshua Robertson and David Smith, “Las Vegas Shooter Recalled as Intelligent Gambler Well-Versed on Gun Rights,” Guardian , October 4, 2017.
10 . See Christal Hayes, “Las Vegas Gunman Was a Trump Supporter, Happy with the President Because Stock Market Was Doing Well,” Newsweek , November 3, 2017.
11 . See Chris Pleasance, “‘I Was Born Bad’: Las Vegas Prostitute Who Romped with Mass Killer Stephen Paddock Says He Enjoyed Violent Rape Fantasies as She Reveals He Boasted He Had Always Been Evil,” Daily Mail , October 8, 2017.
12 . See Christal Hayes, “Las Vegas Shooting Motive: Gunman Was Narcissistic, Became Depressed after Losing ‘Significant Amount of Wealth,’” Newsweek , November 2, 2017.
13 . See Pleasance, “‘I Was Born Bad.’”
14 . See Jason Wilson, “New Documents Suggest Las Vegas Shooter Was Conspiracy Theorist—What We Know,” Guardian , May 19, 2018.
15 . See Wilson, “New Documents Suggest Las Vegas Shooter Was Conspiracy Theorist.”
16 . See Wilson, “New Documents Suggest Las Vegas Shooter Was Conspiracy Theorist.”
17 . See Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt, The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America’s Racist Underground (New York: Free Press, 1989), 68–69.
18 . See Michel and Herbeck, American Terrorist , esp. 118–58.
19 . See Henry Schuster with Charles Stone, Hunting Eric Rudolph: An Insider’s Account of the Five-Year Search for the Olympic Bombing Suspect (New York: Berkley Books, 2005).
20 . See Richard Orange, “Anders Behring Breivik’s Mother ‘Sexualised’ Him When He Was Four,” Daily Telegraph , October 7, 2012.
21 . See “Breivik Planned Tagging as a Military Operation,” Dagbladet , April 2, 2012.
22 . See “Anders Behring Gives Evidence,” Guardian , April 17, 2012.
23 . See Matthew Taylor, “Norway Gunman Claims He Had Nine-Year Plan to Finance Attacks,” Guardian , July 25, 2011.
24 . See “The Terrorist and the Arsonists,” Der Spiegel , January 8, 2012.
25 . See Arlid Aspoy, “The Silence of the Shooters,” Dagbladet , August 29, 2011.
27 . See also Samuel Moyn, “The Alt-Right’s Favorite Meme Is 100 Years Old,” New York Times , November 13, 2018.
28 . See Bill Berkowitz, “‘Cultural Marxism’ Catching On,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 15, 2003.
29 . See Claudio Corredetti, “The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory,” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , 2015.
30 . See Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception,” Dialectic of Enlightenment (1940).
31 . See Martin Jay, “Dialectic of Counter-Enlightenment: The Frankfurt School as Scapegoat of the Lunatic Fringe,” Salmagundi Magazine , 2011.
32 . See Louis Menand, “How Cultural Anthropologists Redefined Humanity,” New Yorker , August 19, 2019.
33 . See Bill Berkowitz, “‘Cultural Marxism’ Catching On,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 15, 2003.
34 . See Paul Gottfried, “Yes Virginia [Dare], There Is a ‘Cultural Marxism,’” VDare , October 15, 2011.
35 . See Jacob Siegel, “The Alt-Right’s Jewish Godfather,” Tablet Magazine , November 29, 2016.
36 . See Chip Berlet, “Into the Mainstream,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 15, 2003.
37 . See William S. Lind, “What Is Cultural Marxism,” Free Congress Foundation , 1999; see also Bill Lind, “The Origins of Political Correctness,” Accuracy in Academia , February 5, 2000.
38 . See “Ally of Christian Right Heavyweight Paul Weyrich Addresses Holocaust Denial Conference,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), September 20, 2002.
39 . See Paul M. Weyrich, “Letter to Conservatives,” Free Congress Foundation , February 16, 1999.
40 . See “1992 Republican National Convention Speech,” Patrick J. Buchanan, August 17, 1992.
41 . See Patrick J. Buchanan, The Death of the West: How Dying Populations and Immigrant Invasions Imperil Our Country and Civilization (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001). See also “Citing Neo-Nazi and Racist Sources, Buchanan Sounds the Alarm,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), June 18, 2002.
42 . See “Roger Pearson,” Hatewatch profile (Southern Poverty Law Center).
43 . See Jared Taylor, “Cultural Marxism as Censorship,” YouTube, October 9, 2014.
44 . See Kevin MacDonald, “Kevin MacDonald on Cultural Marxism,” YouTube, September 10, 2010.
45 . See Stephen Baskerville, “The Criminalization of Masculinity,” Occidental Observer , November 18, 2018.
46 . See Lydia Brimelow, “Cultural Marxism in Action: Media Matters Engineers Cancellation of VDARE.com Conference,” VDare , January 24, 2017.
47 . See David Neiwert, “‘Cultural Marxism’: A History of a Far-Right Anti-Semitic Hoax,” YouTube, January 22, 2019.
48 . See Scott Oliver, “Unwrapping the ‘Cultural Marxism’ Nonsense the Alt-Right Loves,” Vice , February 23, 2017.
49 . See David Neiwert, “‘Cultural Marxism’: A History of a Far-Right Anti-Semitic Hoax,” YouTube, January 22, 2019.
50 . See Anders Breivik, “2083—A European Declaration of Independence,” July 2011.
51 . See David Neiwert, Alt-America: The Rise of the Radical Right in the Age of Trump (New York: Verso, 2017).
52 . See Keegan Hankes and Alex Amend, “The Alt-Right Is Killing People,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), February 5, 2018.
53 . See Bill Morlin, “Unrepentant and Radicalized Online: A Look at the Trial of Dylann Roof,” Hatewatch , December 19, 2016.
54 . See Katie Zavadski, “Dylann Roof’s Racist Manifesto Is Chilling,” Daily Beast , July 12, 2017.
55 . See Morlin, “Unrepentant and Radicalized Online.”
56 . See Josh Glasstetter, “Elliot Rodger, Isla Vista Shooting Suspect, Posted Racist Messages on Misogynistic Website,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), May 24, 2014.
57 . See Josh Glasstetter, “Shooting Suspect Elliot Rodger’s Misogynistic Posts Point to Motive,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), May 24, 2014.
58 . See Glasstetter, “Elliot Rodger, Isla Vista Shooting Suspect, Posted Racist Messages on Misogynistic Website.”
59 . See Glasstetter, “Shooting Suspect Elliot Rodger’s Misogynistic Posts Point to Motive.”
60 . See “Elliot Rodger, Isla Vista Shooting Suspect, Posted Misogynistic Video before Attack,” YouTube, May 24, 2014.
61 . See “Alek Minassian Toronto Van Attack Suspect Praised ‘Incel’ Killer,” BBC News, April 25, 2018.
62 . See Katharine Laidlaw, “The Man Behind the Yonge Street Van Attack,” Toronto Life , April 22, 2019.
63 . See Richard Hartley-Parkinson, “Virgin Van Driver ‘Killed 10 People Because He Was Sexually Frustrated,’” Metro UK News , September 27, 2019.
64 . See Amy Dempsey, “Inside the Life of Alek Minassian, the Toronto Van Rampage Suspect No One Thought Capable of Murder,” Hamilton Spectator , May 14, 2018.
65 . See Carli Brosseau and Alan Brettman, “Jeremy Christian’s Path from Troubled Youth to TriMet Stabbing Suspect,” Oregonian , June 11, 2017.
66 . See Nicole Chavez, “Accused Portland Stabber Reveals Himself—in His Own Words,” CNN, June 7, 2017.
67 . See Carli Brosseau and Allan Brettman, “Jeremy Christian’s Path from Troubled Youth to TriMet Stabbing Suspect,” Oregonian , June 11, 2017.
68 . See Aimee Green, “What Defenses Could MAX Stabbing Suspect Jeremy Christian Possibly Mount?” Oregonian , May 25, 2018.
69 . See Lizzy Acker, “Who Is Jeremy Christian? Facebook Shows a Man with Nebulous Political Affiliations Who Hated Circumcision and Hillary Clinton,” Oregonian , May 30, 2017.
70 . See Brosseau and Brettman, “Jeremy Christian’s Path from Troubled Youth to TriMet Stabbing Suspect.”
71 . See Doug Brown, “Suspect in Portland Hate Crime Murders Is a Known White Supremacist,” Portland Mercury , May 27, 2017.
72 . See “Jeremy Christian Marches with Patriot Prayer, Is Asked to Leave: 4-29-17,” YouTube, October 1, 2019.
73 . See Shane Dixon Kavanaugh, “Watch: MAX Stabbing Survivor Met Suspect at Portland Protest a Month before Attack,” Oregonian , October 25, 2017.
74 . See Conrad Wilson and Amelia Templeton, “Portland Woman Attacked Day before Fatal MAX Stabbings Says Police, TriMet Failed Her,” Oregon Public Broadcasting, August 18, 2017.
75 . See Kate Williams, “Video: Portland MAX Stabbing Suspect Made Racial Threats Hours before Slayings,” Oregonian , January 9, 2019.
76 . See Will Sommer, “Qanon-Believing Proud Boy Accused of Murdering ‘Lizard’ Brother with Sword,” Daily Beast , January 9, 2019. Wolfe’s Washington State Militia profile remained online through 2019.
77 . King County Prosecutor, “Findings of Fact Conclusion of Law Re: Competency,” Case No. 19-1-01395-4 SEA.
78 . See Sommer, “Qanon-Believing Proud Boy Accused of Murdering ‘Lizard’ Brother with Sword.”
79 . See Andy Campbell, “Proud Boy Allegedly Murders Brother with a Sword Thinking He’s Killing a Lizard,” Huffington Post , January 9, 2019.
80 . See Sommer, “Qanon-Believing Proud Boy Accused of Murdering ‘Lizard’ Brother with Sword.”
81 . See “Buckey Wolfe: Five Facts You Need to Know,” Heavy , January 9, 2019.
82 . See Sarah Keoghan and Laura Chung, “From Local Gym Trainer to Mosque Shooting: Alleged Christchurch Shooter’s Upbringing in Grafton,” Sydney Morning Herald , March 15, 2019.
83 . See Michael Workman, Stephen Hutcheon, and Pat McGrath, “Christchurch Shooter Brenton Tarrant Was a Personal Trainer in Grafton,” Australia Broadcasting Corporation, April 4, 2019.
84 . See Jovana Gec, “New Zealand Gunman Entranced with Ottoman Sites in Europe,” Associated Press, March 16, 2019.
85 . See Kim Sengupta, “Brenton Tarrant: Suspected New Zealand Attacker ‘Met Extreme Right-Wing Groups’ during Europe Visit, According to Security Sources,” Independent , March 15, 2019.
86 . See Victoria Ward, “Brenton Tarrant: The ‘Ordinary White Man’ Turned Mass Murderer,” Telegraph , March 20, 2019.
87 . See “Who Is Christchurch Mosque Shooting Accused? Brenton Tarrant Member of Bruce Rifle Club in Milton,” New Zealand Herald , March 16, 2019.
Chapter 3
1 . See “LVMPD Preliminary Investigative Report 1 October/Mass Casualty Shooting Event: 171001-3519,” Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, January 18, 2018.
2 . The following section is taken from an interview with a survivor of the massacre. The individual’s name has been changed to protect his or her anonymity.
3 . See “LVMPD Preliminary Investigative Report 1 October/Mass Casualty Shooting Event: 171001-3519.”
4 . See “Worker Warned Hotel before Las Vegas Shooter Opened Fire on Crowd,” CBS News, October 11, 2017.
5 . See Rachel Crosby, “Sheriff Says More Than 1,100 Rounds Fired in Las Vegas Shooting,” Las Vegas Review-Journal , November 22, 2017.
6 . See “LVMPD Preliminary Investigative Report 1 October/Mass Casualty Shooting Event: 171001-3519.”
7 . See Gerrit De Vynk, “Google Displayed Fake News in Wake of Las Vegas Shooting,” Bloomberg News, October 2, 2017.
8 . See Bethania Palma, “Did a Second Gunman Shoot from the Fourth Floor of the Mandalay Bay Hotel?” Snopes.com , October 3, 2017.
9 . See Kevin Roose, “After Las Vegas Shooting, Fake News Regains Its Megaphone,” New York Times , October 2, 2017.
10 . See Saranac Hale Spencer, “No Evidence Linking Vegas Shooter to Antifa,” Fact-Check.org , October 5, 2017.
11 . See David Neiwert, “In Wake of Las Vegas Massacre, Alex Jones Claims ‘Democrats Are Going to Be Killing People,’” Orcinus , October 5, 2017.
12 . See also “In Wake of Las Vegas Massacre, Alex Jones Claims ‘Democrats Are Going to Be Killing People,’” YouTube, October 4, 2017.
13 . See Sam Levin, “‘I Hope Someone Truly Shoots You’: Online Conspiracy Theorists Harass Vegas Victims,” Guardian , October 26, 2017.
14 . See Levin, “‘I Hope Someone Truly Shoots You’: Online Conspiracy Theorists Harass Vegas Victims.”
15 . See Jorge L. Ortiz, “Las Vegas Sheriff: Investigation into Mass Shooting Shows No Conspiracy or Second Gunman,” USA Today , August 3, 2018.
16 . See “Norway Camp Shooting: ‘As Many as 30 Dead,’” Sky News, July 23, 2011.
17 . See Helen Pid, “Anders Behring Breivik Planned to Film Beheading of Former Prime Minister,” Guardian , April 19, 2012.
18 . See Elisa Mala and J. David Goodman, “Big Blast Hits Government Buildings in Central Oslo,” New York Times , July 23, 2011.
19 . See “Norway Attacks: The Victims,” BBC News, March 15, 2016.
20 . See “Survivors in Norway Describe Scenes of Terror,” National Public Radio, July 23, 2011.
21 . See Ross Lydall, “Mother of Two Shot Dead for Trying to Stop Norway Gunman,” London Evening Standard , July 26, 2011.
22 . See “Several Young People Shot and Killed on Utøya,” NRK News, July 22, 2011.
23 . See “Survivors in Norway Describe Scenes of Terror,” National Public Radio, July 23, 2011.
24 . See Rune Thomas Ege, Tor-Erling Thommet Ruud, and Jarle Brenna, “Doctor: Breivik Used Special Ammunition,” VG Net, July 24, 2011.
25 . See Aage Borchgrevink and Guy Puzey, A Norwegian Tragedy: Anders Behring Breivik and the Massacre on Utøya (London: Polity, 2013), 230–34.
26 . Borchgrevink and Puzey, A Norwegian Tragedy , 236–37.
27 . See “Dylann Roof Almost Backed Out because Parishioners Were ‘So Nice,’” Atlanta Journal-Constitution , June 19, 2015.
28 . See Matthew Weaver, “Charleston Shooting: State Senator Clementa Pinckney among Victims,” Guardian , June 18, 2015.
29 . See Melissa Boughton, “Bishops Bring Together Congregation in North Charleston to Address Police Shootings,” Post and Courier (Charleston, SC), June 3, 2015.
30 . See Nick Corasaniti, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Lizette Alvarez, “Church Massacre Suspect Held as Charleston Grieves,” New York Times , June 18, 2015.
31 . See Wayne Drash, “Inside the Bible Study Massacre: A Mom ‘Laid in Her Son’s Blood,’” CNN, December 17, 2015.
32 . See Jeremy Borden, Sari Horwitz, and Jerry Markon, “Officials: Suspect in Church Slayings Unrepentant Amid Outcry over Racial Hatred,” Washington Post , June 19, 2015.
33 . See Shelby Lin Erdman and Greg Botelho, “Timeline: A Killer’s Rampage through a California College Town,” CNN, May 27, 2014. See also Oren Dorrell and William M. Welch, “Police Identify Calif. Shooting Suspect as Elliot Rodger,” USA Today , May 24, 2014.
34 . See “Isla Vista Mass Murder—May 23, 2014—Investigative Summary,” Santa Barbara County Sheriff’s Office, February 18, 2015.
35 . See Ian Lovett and Adam Nagourney, “Video Rant, Then Deadly Rampage in California Town,” New York Times , May 24, 2014.
36 . See “Thwarted in His Plan, California Gunman Improvised,” CBS News, May 25, 2014.
37 . See Bryan Passifume, Kevin Connor, and Jane Stevenson, “10 Dead, 15 Wounded when Van Hits Pedestrians near Yonge and Finch,” Toronto Sun , April 23, 2018.
38 . See Rob Crilly, Christopher Guly, and Mark Molloy, “What Do We Know about Alek Minassian, Arrested after Toronto Van Attack?” Telegraph , April 25, 2018.
39 . See “‘Nobody’s Seen Anything Like This’: 10 Dead, 15 Injured in North Toronto Van Ramming Attack,” CBC News, April 23, 2015.
40 . See Tu Thanh Ha, Jeff Grayqueen, and Molly Hayes, “Massive Investigation into Toronto Van Attack Will Shut Down Yonge Street for Days,” Globe and Mail , April 23, 2018.
41 . See Shane Dixon Kavanaugh, “Muslim Teen Targeted before MAX Train Slaying: ‘Our Faces Were a Trigger,’” Oregonian , August 15, 2018.
42 . See Maxine Bernstein, “Portland MAX Hero’s Last Words: ‘Tell Everyone on This Train I Love Them,’” Oregonian , May 29, 2017.
43 . See Bernstein, “Portland MAX Hero’s Last Words: ‘Tell Everyone on This Train I Love Them.”
44 . See Ralph Ellis, Eliott C. McLaughlin, and Madison Park, “Portland Stabbing Suspect Yells in Court: Free Speech or Die,” CNN, May 31, 2017.
45 . See Sara Jean Green, “‘God Told Me He Was a Lizard’: Seattle Man Accused of Killing His Brother with a Sword,” Seattle Times , January 8, 2019.
46 . See Linzi Sheldon, “Seattle Man Jailed, Accused of Killing Brother with Sword,” KIRO-TV News, January 7, 2019.
47 . King County Prosecutor, “Findings of Fact Conclusion of Law Re: Competency,” Case No. 19-1-01395-4 SEA.
48 . See the Elders, “Buckey Wolfe Was Never a Proud Boy,” Proud Boy Magazine , January 9, 2019.
49 . See Will Sommer, “Qanon-Believing Proud Boy Accused of Murdering ‘Lizard’ Brother with Sword,” Daily Beast , January 9, 2019. Wolfe’s Washington State Militia profile remained online through 2019.
50 . See “Christchurch Mosque Shootings: Gunman Livestreamed 17 Minutes of Shooting Terror,” New Zealand Herald , March 15, 2019.
51 . See Will Sommer and Kelly Weill, “New Zealand Suspect Mixed Death and Disinformation,” Daily Beast , March 15, 2019.
52 . See “‘Hello, Brother’: Muslim Worshipper’s ‘Last Words’ to Gunman,” Al Jazeera, March 15, 2019.
54 . See Breanna Barraclough, “Christchurch Mass Shootings: Police ‘Strongly Urge’ Social Media Users Not to Share ‘Disturbing’ Video,” Newshub New Zealand , March 15, 2019.
55 . See Sommer and Weill, “New Zealand Suspect Mixed Death and Disinformation.”
56 . See “Man Who Scared Away Gunman at Christchurch Mosque Hailed a Hero,” Stuff NZ , March 18, 2019.
57 . See Joshua Berlinger and Hilary Whiteman, “New Zealand Terror Suspect Planned Third Attack, Police Chief Says,” CNN, March 20, 2019.
58 . See “Christchurch Shooting Death Toll Rises to 50 after One More Victim Discovered at Mosque,” Australia Broadcasting Corporation, March 16, 2019. See also “Christchurch Mosque Shootings: Gunman Livestreamed 17 Minutes of Shooting Terror.”
Chapter 4
1 . See “Conspiracists Hype ‘Jade Helm’ Theory of Yet Another Imminent Martial Law Coup,” YouTube, April 28, 2015.
2 . See Bill Morlin, “U.S. Military ‘Jade Helm’ Training Plan Draws Fears from the Antigovernment Right,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), May 4, 2015.
3 . See “Conspiracists Hype ‘Jade Helm’ Theory of Yet Another Imminent Martial Law Coup,” 3:20.
4 . See “Conspiracists Hype ‘Jade Helm’ Theory of Yet Another Imminent Martial Law Coup,” 5:40.
5 . See “Conspiracists Hype ‘Jade Helm’ Theory of Yet Another Imminent Martial Law Coup,” 7:20.
6 . See “Conspiracists Hype ‘Jade Helm’ Theory of Yet Another Imminent Martial Law Coup,” 10:20.
7 . See Representative Louie Gohmert, “Gohmert Statement on Jade Helm Exercises,” press release, May 5, 2015.
8 . See Dylan Baddour, “Ted Cruz, GOP Weigh in on Jade Helm—but Are They Playing to the Alarmists?” Houston Chronicle , May 6, 2015.
9 . See Justin Miller, “How Greg Abbott Got Played by the Russians during His Jade Helm Freakout,” Texas Observer , May 3, 2018.
10 . See Bill Morlin, “Military Training Exercise Jade Helm Precipitating Fallout,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 5, 2015.
11 . See Dan Lamothe, “Remember Jade Helm 15, the Controversial Military Exercise? It’s Over,” Washington Post , September 14, 2015.
12 . See Walter Laqueur, The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 56.
13 . See Ruth Shuster, “This Day in Jewish History 1189: Richard I Is Crowned and London’s Jews Are Massacred,” Haaretz , September 4, 2013.
14 . See E. M. Rose, The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
15 . See Emmy Stark Zitter, “Anti-Semitism in Chaucer’s ‘Prioress’s Tale,’” The Chaucer Review 25, no. 4 (spring 1991): 277–84.
16 . See Gavin I. Langmuir, Toward a Definition of Antisemitism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 478–79.
17 . See John Pollock, The Popish Plot: A Study in the History of the Reign of Charles II (1905; repr., Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006); see also John Kenyon, The Popish Plot (London: Phoenix Books, 2001).
18 . See Terry Melanson, Perfectibilists: The 18th Century Bavarian Order of the Illuminati (Walterville, OR: Trine Day, 2009).
19 . See Lindsay Porter, Who Are the Illuminati? Exploring the Myth of the Secret Society (London: Pavilion Books, 2005).
20 . See Massimo Introvigne, “Angels & Demons from the Book to the Movie FAQ: Do the Illuminati Really Exist?” Center for Studies on New Religions , January 28, 2011.
21 . See J. M. Roberts, The Mythology of Secret Societies (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974), 128–29.
22 . See Amos Hofman, “Opinion, Illusion, and the Illusion of Opinion: Barruel’s Theory of Conspiracy,” Eighteenth Century Studies 27, no. 1 (1993): 28.
23 . See Darrin M. McMahon, Enemies of the Enlightenment (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 113.
24 . See David Simpson, Romanticism, Nationalism, and the Revolt against Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 88.
25 . See Graeme Garrard, Counter Enlightenments: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present (London: Routledge, 2006).
26 . See Ray A. Billington, “Anti-Catholic Propaganda and the Home Missionary Movement, 1800–1860,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review 22, no. 3 (December 1935): 361–84.
27 . See Terry Golway, “Return of the Know-Nothings,” America: The National Catholic Weekly , March 29, 2004.
28 . See Amanda Beyer-Purvis, “The Philadelphia Bible Riots of 1844: Contest over the Rights of Citizens,” Pennsylvania History 83 (summer 2016): 366–93. See also William E. Gienapp, “Nativism and the Creation of a Republican Majority in the North before the Civil War,” Journal of American History 72, no. 3 (December 1985): 529–59.
29 . See Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
30 . See Tim Yang, “The Malleable Yet Undying Nature of the Yellow Peril,” Dartmouth College (February 19, 2004).
31 . See Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 111.
32 . Thomas Magee, “China’s Menace to the World,” Pioneer Laundry Workers Assembly, Knights of Labor, Washington, DC, 1878. The Library of Congress.
33 . See Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 3–25.
34 . See Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice , 76.
35 . See Homer Lea, The Valor of Ignorance (New York: Harper, 1909).
36 . See Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice , 70–71.
37 . See “Rejoices at the Fall of Schmitz in ’Frisco: Says Jap Trouble Is Only Labor Question, Will Not Tolerate Invasion of California Even if It Is Peaceful,” Boston Herald , June 16, 1907.
38 . See “Asiatic Coolie Invasion,” flyer, Official Organ of the State and Local Building Trades Councils of California, San Francisco, April 21, 28, and May 5, 1906. Available online at Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco.
39 . See Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice , 25–26.
40 . See Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916), 263.
41 . See Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color: The Threat against White World-Supremacy (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 303.
42 . See Roger Daniels, Prisoners without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), 112.
43 . See David Neiwert, Strawberry Days: How Internment Destroyed a Japanese American Community (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 110.
44 . See Neiwert, Strawberry Days , 110.
45 . See Neiwert, Strawberry Days , 104–7.
46 . See Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 6 (my italics).
47 . See Hadassa Ben-Itto, The Lie That Wouldn’t Die: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (New York: Vallentine Mitchell, 2005); see also Binjamin Segel, A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996).
48 . See Anti-Defamation League, “Hoax of Hate: The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”; see also Robert A. Rosenbaum, Waking to Danger: Americans and Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 (New York: Greenwood Press, 2010), 41.
49 . See Randall L. Bytwerk, “Believing in ‘Inner Truth’: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in Nazi Propaganda, 1933–1945,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 29, no. 2 (fall 2015): 212–29.
50 . See David Neiwert, “Anti-Semitism Illustrated: David Duke Working on New ‘Protocols of the Elders of Zion,’” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), May 20, 2014; see also Mike Dash, Borderlands: The Ultimate Exploration of the Unknown (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2000), 131–32.
51 . See Ted Bloecher, “Report on the UFO Wave of 1947,” National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena, 1967.
52 . See Nigel Watson, “Out of This World: 60 Years of Flying Saucers,” Wired , June 24, 2007; see also Jerome Clark, The UFO Book: Encyclopedia of the Extraterrestrial (Detroit: Visible Ink, 1998).
53 . See, for example, Henry Hurt, Reasonable Doubt: An Investigation into the Assassination of John F. Kennedy (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1986); Gerald D. McKnight, Breach of Trust: How the Warren Commission Failed the Nation and Why (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2005); and Mark Lane, Rush to Judgment (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1992).
54 . See Milton William Cooper, Behold a Pale Horse (Flagstaff, AZ: Light Technology Publishing, 1991).
55 . See Mark Jacobson, “The Granddaddy of American Conspiracy Theorists,” Rolling Stone , August 22, 2018.
56 . See Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955).
57 . See Kenneth D. Ackerman, Young J. Edgar: Hoover, the Red Scare, and the Assault on Civil Liberties (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007).
58 . See Landon R. Y. Storrs, “McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History , July 2, 2015. See also History.com Editors, “Red Scare,” History.com .
59 . See Albert Fried, McCarthyism, the Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 40–62; see also Albert Fried, Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 119–20.
60 . See Robert Griffith, The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. McCarthy and the Senate (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987), 11.
61 . See Griffith, The Politics of Fear , 263.
62 . See Thomas Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 207.
63 . See Jonathan M. Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 62–99.
64 . See William F. Buckley, “Goldwater, the John Birch Society, and Me,” Commentary , March 2008.
65 . See Benjamin R. Epstein and Arnold Forster, The Radical Right: Report on the John Birch Society and Its Allies (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 18–19.
66 . See Dion Leffler, “Fluoride Fight Has Long Roots, Passionate Advocates,” Wichita (KS) Eagle , August 5, 2014; see also William Heisel, “Does Fluoride Have Lessons for the Vaccine Debate?” Center for Health Journalism, November 11, 2016.
67 . See Gerald E. Markle, James C. Petersen, and Morton O. Wagenfeld, “Notes from the Cancer Underground: Participation in the Laetrile Movement,” Social Science & Medicine 12 (January 1978): 31–37. See also Richard D. Lyons, “Rightists Are Linked to Laetrile’s Lobby,” New York Times , July 5, 1977.
68 . See Paul Feldman, “Conspiracy Talk a U.S. Tradition,” Los Angeles Times , May 29, 1995; see also John Færseth, “Militias and Conspiracy Culture,” Hate Speech International , December 23, 2013.
Chapter 5
1 . See David Neiwert, In God’s Country: The Patriot Movement and the Pacific Northwest (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1999), 26–29.
2 . See Neiwert, In God’s Country , 27–28.
3 . See Neiwert, In God’s Country , 69–86.
4 . See Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009), 399–402.
5 . See Daniel Levitas, The Terrorist Next Door: The Militia Movement and the Radical Right (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2002), esp. 278–80 and 302–34. See also Neiwert, In God’s Country , 30 and 69–87.
6 . See Alexander Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones,” Rolling Stone , March 2, 2011.
7 . See Carey Dunne, “My Month with the Chemtrail Conspiracy Theorists,” Guardian , May 22, 2017.
8 . See Alex Jones, “Alex Jones Gay Frog Press Conference: Big Pharma Chemicals Creating Homosexual Biosphere,” Infowars , March 17, 2017.
9 . See Matt Novak, “Remember That Time Alex Jones Tried to Start a Y2K Riot?” Gizmodo , July 16, 2015.
10 . See Novak, “Remember That Time Alex Jones Tried to Start a Y2K Riot?”
11 . See Joe Hagan, “A Strange Man Is Following You,” New York Magazine , April 4, 2011.
12 . See Alexander Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones,” Rolling Stone , March 2, 2011.
13 . See Beau Hodai, “Alex Jones and the Informational Vacuum,” Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting , February 1, 2011.
14 . See Nate Blakeslee, “Alex Jones Is about to Explode,” Texas Monthly , January 20,2013.
15 . See Tyler Bridges, The Rise of David Duke (Oxford: University Press of Mississippi, 1994), 67.
16 . See Leonard Zeskind, Blood and Politics: The History of the White Nationalist Movement from the Margins to the Mainstream (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009), 34–35.
17 . See David Neiwert, And Hell Followed with Her: Crossing the Dark Side of the American Border (New York: Nation Books, 2013), 24–26.
18 . See Kathleen R. Arnold, American Immigration after 1996: The Shifting Ground of Political Inclusion (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2011), 75. Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), November 2, 2006.
19 . See “Anti-Immigration Groups,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), March 21, 2001. Also see Kathleen Arnold, editor, Anti-Immigration in the United States: A Historical Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2011), 34.
20 . See Casey Sanchez, “Glenn Spencer, More Hateful by the Day, Drones On,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), January 14, 2009.
21 . See Bob Moser, “Arizona Extremists Start Anti-Immigrant Citizen Militias,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), April 15, 2003.
22 . See “Paramilitary Compound Goes to SPLC Clients,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), January 27, 2006; see also “Immigrants Win Arizona Ranch,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 19, 2005.
23 . Neiwert, And Hell Followed with Her , 44–49.
24 . See Susy Buchanan and David Holthouse, “Minuteman Civil Defense Corps Leader Chris Simcox Has Troubled Past,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), January 31, 2006. See also Dennis Wagner, “Minuteman Leader Found New Calling after 9/11 Attacks,” Arizona Republic , June 1, 2006.
25 . See Nikolaj Vijborg, USA under Attack , 2008.
26 . See Neiwert, And Hell Followed with Her , 75–80.
27 . See David Holthouse, “Minutemen, Other Anti-Immigrant Militia Groups Stake Out Arizona Border,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), June 27, 2005.
28 . See Hal Bernton, Mike Carter, David Heath, and James Neff, “The Terrorist Within: The Story behind One Man’s Holy War against America,” Seattle Times , June 23-July 7, 2002.
29 . See Neiwert, And Hell Followed with Her , 159–70.
30 . See Neiwert, And Hell Followed with Her , 159–72.
31 . See Armando Navarro, The Immigration Crisis: Nativism, Armed Vigilantism, and the Rise of a Countervailing Movement (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2009), 125–30, 167; Terry Greene Sterling, Illegal: Life and Death in Arizona’s Immigration War Zone (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2010), x–xiii; United States Government Accountability Office, “GAO-06-770 Illegal Immigration: Border-Crossing Deaths Have Doubled since 1995,” August 2006; Karl Eschbach, Jacqueline Hagan, and Nestor Rodriguez, “Causes and Trends in Migrant Deaths along the U.S.-Mexico Border, 1985–1998,” Center for Immigration Research, University of Houston, 2001.
32 . See Richard Finger, “The Border Fence: Horrible Deal at Cost up to $40,000 per Illegal Immigrant Apprehended,” Forbes , July 18, 2013.
33 . See David Neiwert, “How the Brutal Murders of a Little Girl and Her Father Doomed the Xenophobic Minuteman Movement,” AlterNet , July 23, 2012.
34 . See David Neiwert, “Simcox’s Child-Molestation Trial Only the Latest Instance of Minuteman Criminality,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), March 16, 2015.
35 . See David Neiwert, “Chris Simcox’s Fall from Minuteman Heights Ends in 19½-Year Sentence for Molesting Girls,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), July 13, 2016.
36 . See Fox News Chicago, “KKK Warns of Death Threat against Obama,” May 21, 2007. See also Heidi Beirich and Mark Potok, “Silver Lining: Not All White Supremacists Oppose Black President,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 29, 2008.
37 . See David Neiwert, Alt-America: The Rise of the Radical Right in the Age of Trump (New York: Verso, 2017), 96–97. See also Amy Hollyfield, “For True Disbelievers, the Facts Are Just Not Enough,” Tampa Bay Times , June 28, 2008.
38 . See Andy Barr, “Roger Stone Claims Michelle Obama ‘Whitey’ Video Will Soon Surface,” The Hill , June 2, 2008.
39 . David Weigel, “Change They Can Litigate: The Fringe Movement to Keep Barack Obama from Becoming President,” Slate , December 4, 2008; Jess Henig with Joe Miller, “Born in the U.S.A.: The Truth about Obama’s Birth Certificate,” FactCheck.org , August 21, 2008.
40 . See Jeff Bercovici, “Who Is Alex Jones, Anyway? Five Fun Factoids,” Forbes , January 9, 2013. See also Alexander Zaitchik, “Meet Alex Jones,” Rolling Stone , March 2, 2011.
41 . See Neiwert, Alt-America , 109–36.
42 . See David Neiwert, “‘We Are at War’: How Militias, Racists and Anti-Semites Found a Home in the Tea Party,” AlterNet.org , November 21, 2010.
43 . See Neiwert, Alt-America , 149–53.
44 . See “Active Antigovernment Groups in the United States,” Southern Poverty Law Center. Also see Mark Potok, “Rage on the Right,” Intelligence Report (Southern Poverty Law Center), March 2, 2010.
45 . See Daniel Schulman and Rachel Morris, “Meet the Birthers: Who Are These People, Really?” Mother Jones , August 10, 2009. See also David Neiwert, “Hannity Gleefully Promotes Birther Soldier’s Get-out-of-Service Scam as Legitimate,” CrooksAndLiars.com , July 16, 2009.
46 . See “Trump Claims Obama Birth Certificate ‘Missing,’” CNN, April 25, 2011; also see Ashley Parker and Steve Eder, “Inside the Six Weeks Donald Trump Was a Nonstop ‘Birther,’” New York Times , July 2, 2016; also see Alana Abramson, “How Donald Trump Perpetuated the ‘Birther’ Movement for Years,” ABC News, September 15, 2016.
47 . See Maggie Haberman and Alexander Burns, “Donald Trump’s Presidential Run Began in an Effort to Gain Stature,” New York Times , March 12, 2016; see also Adam Gopnik, “Trump and Obama: A Night to Remember,” New Yorker , September 12, 2015; also see Amy B. Wang, “‘It Was Fantastic’: Trump Denies 2011 White House Correspondents’ Dinner Spurred Presidential Bid,” Washington Post , February 28, 2017.
48 . See Stephen Lemons, “Joe Arpaio Birther Posse Probes President Obama’s Birth Certificate,” Phoenix New Times , September 19, 2011; also see Sarah Anne Hughes, “Sheriff Joe Arpaio Tasks ‘Cold Case Posse’ to Investigate Obama’s Birth Certificate,” Washington Post , September 20, 2011.
49 . See Sarah Posner and David Neiwert, “How Trump Took Hate Groups Mainstream,” Mother Jones , October 14, 2016.
50 . See Tim Murphy, “How Donald Trump Became Conspiracy Theorist in Chief,” Mother Jones , November/December 2016.
51 . See Liam Stack, “He Calls Hillary Clinton a ‘Demon.’ Who Is Alex Jones?” New York Times , October 13, 2016. Also see “Alex Jones Rants Hysterically That Clinton, Obama Are Actually Demons,” YouTube video, April 5, 2017.
52 . See Glenn Kessler, “‘Pizzagate’ Rumors Falsely Link Death of Sex-Worker Advocate to Nonexistent Clinton Probe,” Washington Post , December 6, 2016.
53 . See David Neiwert, “Pizzagate’ Theories Inspire D.C. Gunman, but Still Have Defenders in Powerful Place,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), December 6, 2016.
54 . See David Neiwert, “Conspiracy Meta-Theory ‘the Storm’ Pushes the ‘Alternative’ Envelope Yet Again,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), January 17, 2018.
55 . See Mark Landler, “What Did President Trump Mean by ‘Calm before the Storm’?” New York Times , October 6, 2017.
56 . See Paris Martineau, “The Storm Is the New Pizzagate—Only Worse,” New York Magazine , December 19, 2017.
57 . See Ben Collins, “NASA Denies That It’s Running a Child Slave Colony on Mars,” Daily Beast , June 29, 2017.
58 . See Neiwert, “Conspiracy Meta-Theory ‘the Storm’ Pushes the ‘Alternative’ Envelope Yet Again.”
59 . See Neiwert, “Conspiracy Meta-Theory ‘the Storm’ Pushes the ‘Alternative’ Envelope Yet Again.”
60 . See Kyle Mantyla, “Jerome Corsi Has Uncovered Irrefutable Proof of the Authenticity of ‘QAnon,’” Right Wing Watch, January 11, 2018.
61 . See Elizabeth Nolan Brown, “Trump’s Mythical Crackdown on Sex Trafficking,” Reason , February 27, 2017.
62 . See “Interviewing Liz Crokin on the Storm, QAnon, Pedogate, & Twitter Feuds,” YouTube video, January 2, 2018.
63 . See Andrea Park, “Chrissy Teigen and John Legend Threaten to Sue Conspiracy Theorist over Pedophilia Allegations,” CBS News, January 2, 2018.
64 . See “Americans Say Murder More Likely Than Suicide in Epstein Case,” Rasmussen Reports , August 14, 2019.
65 . See “‘Epstein Didn’t Kill Himself’ and the Meme-ing of Conspiracy,” Wired , November 15, 2019.
66 . See Bill Morlin, “Terrorism Suspect Makes Reference to Extremist Conspiracies,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), July 20, 2018.
67 . See Brendan Joel Kelly, “QAnon Conspiracy Increasingly Popular with Antigovernment Extremists,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), April 23, 2019.
68 . See David Weigel, “Conspiracy Theorist Shares Oval Office Photo with Trump,” Washington Post , August 24, 2018.
69 . See Jana Winter and Elias Groll, “Here’s the Memo That Blew Up the NSC,” Foreign Policy , August 10, 2017.
70 . See Julie Hirschfield Davis, “White House Aide Forced Out after Claim of Leftist Conspiracy,” New York Times , August 11, 2017.
71 . See James Downie, “This NSC Ex-Staffer’s Memo Is Crazy. Trump’s Reaction Is More Disturbing,” Washington Post , August 11, 2017.
72 . See Michael D. Shear and Julie Hirschfield Davis, “As Midterm Vote Nears, Trump Reprises a Favorite Message: Fear Immigrants,” New York Times , November 1, 2018.
73 . See Swathi Shanmugasundaram, “Hate Groups and Extremists Cheer President Trump as He Vilifies Migrant Caravan,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), October 25, 2018.
74 . See Avery Anapol, “Fox Business Drops Guest Who Blamed Migrant Caravan on ‘Soros-Occupied State Department,’” The Hill , October 28, 2018.
75 . See “Laura Ingraham Attacks the Media for Not Fearmongering over the Migrant Caravan,” Media Matters, October 22, 2018.
76 . See Megan Keller, “CNN’s Camerota, Matt Schlapp Clash over Migrant Caravan: Will Migrants ‘Get a Luxury Car?’” The Hill , October 22, 2018.
77 . See Donald Trump, October 18, 2018 tweet, 1:04 p.m.
78 . See Daniel Politi, “Why Did Synagogue Suspect Believe Migrant Caravan Is Jewish Conspiracy? Maybe He Watched Fox News,” Slate , October 27, 2018.
79 . See Adam Serwer, “Trump’s Caravan Hysteria Led to This,” The Atlantic , October 28, 2018.
80 . See Ben Collins, “Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting Suspect Threatened Jewish Groups, Pushed Migrant Caravan Conspiracies,” NBC News, October 27, 2018.
81 . See Rita Katz, “Inside the Online Cesspool of Anti-Semitism That Housed Robert Bowers,” Politico , October 29, 2018. See also “‘The Jews Should Count Themselves Lucky’: Extremists React to Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting,” Anti-Defamation League, October 27, 2018.
Chapter 6
1 . See Belinda Goldsmith, “Is Facebook Envy Making You Miserable?” Reuters, January 22, 2013.
3 . See Rob Brotherton, Suspicious Minds: Why We Believe Conspiracy Theories (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), v.
4 . See Sean Illing, “The Trump-Ukraine Story Shows the Power of Conspiracy Theories,” Vox , October 1, 2019.
5 . See Jesse Walker, The United States of Paranoia: A Conspiracy Theory (New York: HarperCollins, 2013).
6 . See Illing, “The Trump-Ukraine Story Shows the Power of Conspiracy Theories.”
7 . See Brotherton, Suspicious Minds , 105–7.
8 . See Brotherton, Suspicious Minds , 105–7.
9 . See Jennifer A. Whitson and Adam D. Galinsky, “Lacking Control Increases Illusory Pattern Perception,” Science 322, no. 5898 (October 2008): 115–17.
10 . See Joseph E. Uscinski, Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 250.
11 . See Gwen Snyder, Twitter thread, May 27, 2019.
12 . See Uscinski, Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them , 14.
13 . See Stephan Lewandowsky, Gilles E. Gignac, and Klaus Oberauer, “The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science,” PLoS One 8, no. 10 (October 2, 2013).
14 . See Stephan Lewandowsky, John Cook, Klaus Oberauer, Scott Brophy, Elisabeth A. Lloyd, and Michael Marriott, “Recurrent Fury: Conspiratorial Discourse in the Blogosphere Triggered by Research on the Role of Conspiracist Ideation in Climate Denial,” Journal of Social and Political Philosophy 3, no. 1 (2015).
15 . See Michael Wood and Karen M. Douglas, “Conspiracy Theory Psychology: Individual Differences, Worldviews, and States of Mind,” in Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them , ed. Joseph E. Uscinski (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 245–56.
16 . See Brotherton, Suspicious Minds , 110.
17 . See Andrew K. Przybylski, Kou Murayama, Cody R. DeHaan, and Valerie Gladwell, “Motivational, Emotional, and Behavioral Correlates of Fear of Missing Out,” Computers in Human Behavior 29, no. 4 (July 2013): 1841–8. Also see John M. Grohol, “FOMO Addiction: The Fear of Missing Out,” Psych Central , July 8, 2018.
19 . See Wood and Douglas, “Conspiracy Theory Psychology,” 245–56.
20 . See Brotherton, Suspicious Minds , 67.
21 . See Illing, “The Trump-Ukraine Story Shows the Power of Conspiracy Theories.”
22 . See A. Cichocka, M. Marchlewska, and A. Golec de Zavala, “Does Self-Love or Self-Hate Predict Conspiracy Beliefs? Narcissism, Self-Esteem, and the Endorsement of Conspiracy Theories,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 2 (2016): 157–66.
23 . See Kelly Weill, “Christmas Is the Loneliest Time for QAnon Fans,” Daily Beast , December 23, 2018.
24 . See Renee Diresta, “Online Conspiracy Groups Are a Lot Like Cults,” Wired , November 13, 2018.
25 . See Weill, “Christmas Is the Loneliest Time for QAnon Fans.”
26 . See Wood and Douglas, “Conspiracy Theory Psychology,” 245–56.
27 . See Weill, “Christmas Is the Loneliest Time for QAnon Fans.”
28 . See Leanne Naramore, “Sandy Hook Families Are Suing Alex Jones. This Is What He Said about the Shooting,” Media Matters, April 17, 2018.
29 . See Bob Cesca, “Alex Jones Is Actually Dangerous: Why We Have to Start Taking His Paranoid Worldview Seriously,” Salon , May 15, 2015. Also see “Mystic Playground Sign Thief Gets Jail Time in Virginia,” Westerly (RI) Sun , November 30, 2017.
30 . See Reeves Wiedeman, “The Sandy Hook Hoax,” New York Magazine , September 2016. Also see Paula McMahon, “Fired FAU Prof James Tracy Testifies about Feud with Sandy Hook Victim’s Parents,” Orlando Sun-Sentinel , December 1, 2017.
31 . See Emily Shugerman, “US Shock Jock Alex Jones Sued by Six More Families of Sandy Hook Victims,” Independent , May 25, 2018. See also “Infowars’ Alex Jones Blames ‘Psychosis’ for His Sandy Hook Hoax Claim,” Associated Press, March 30, 2019.
33 . See Will Sommer, “Jack Posobiec and Laura Loomer Fight for Credit over Vegas Shooting Conspiracy Theory,” Daily Beast , June 27, 2018.
34 . See Dan Friedman, “Inside the Crazy and Vicious Feud between Roger Stone and Jerome Corsi—and Why It Matters,” Mother Jones , January 31, 2009.
35 . See David Neiwert, “Portland Far-Right ‘Patriot’ Street Brawlers in Disarray as Proud Boys Part Ways amid Violent Talk,” Daily Kos , February 11, 2019.
36 . See David Neiwert, “Defiant Alt-Right ‘Patriots’ Encounter Portland’s Simmering Anger after Train Killings,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), June 6, 2017.
37 . See David Neiwert, “What You Need to Know about Saturday’s ‘Patriot’ Rally in San Francisco,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 25, 2017.
38 . See David Neiwert, “Portland Far-Right Rally once Again Quickly Turns Violent as March Becomes a Riot,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), July 3, 2018.
39 . See Neiwert, “Portland Far-Right ‘Patriot’ Street Brawlers in Disarray as Proud Boys Part Ways amid Violent Talk.”
40 . See Neiwert, “Portland Far-Right ‘Patriot’ Street Brawlers in Disarray as Proud Boys Part Ways amid Violent Talk.”
41 . See Illing, “The Trump-Ukraine Story Shows the Power of Conspiracy Theories.”
42 . See Uscinski, Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them , 13.
Chapter 7
1 . See Zeynep Tufekci, “We’re Building a Dystopia Just to Make People Click on Ads,” TED Talk, September 2017.
2 . For more on this subject, see Zeynep Tufekci, “It’s the (Democracy-Poisoning) Golden Age of Free Speech,” Wired , August 16, 2018.
3 . See David Neiwert, “Good Intentions on Extremism at YouTube, Facebook Hit the Wall of Profitability,” Daily Kos , April 3, 2019.
4 . See Mark Bergen, “YouTube Executives Ignored Warnings, Letting Toxic Videos Run Rampant,” Bloomberg News , April 2, 2019.
5 . See Alexis Madrigal, “The Reason Conspiracy Videos Work So Well on You-Tube,” The Atlantic , February 21, 2019.
6 . See Jane Coaston, “YouTube, Facebook, and Apple’s Ban on Alex Jones, Explained,” Vox , August 6, 2018. Also see Neiwert, “Good Intentions on Extremism at YouTube, Facebook Hit the Wall of Profitability.”
7 . See Timothy Johnson, “Despite Ban, Alex Jones’ Infowars Appears to be Operating Yet Another Youtube Channel,” Media Matters, March 25, 2019.
8 . See Kelly Weill, “How YouTube Built a Radicalization Machine for the Far-Right,” Daily Beast , December 17, 2018.
9 . See Bergen, “YouTube Executives Ignored Warnings, Letting Toxic Videos Run Rampant.”
10 . See Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York University Press, 2018), 185.
11 . See Rebecca Hersher, “What Happened When Dylann Roof Asked Google for Information about Race?” National Public Radio, January 10, 2017.
12 . See Mike Caulfield, “The Curation/Search Radicalization Spiral,” Hapgood , May 7, 2019. Also see Mike Caulfield, “Info-Environmentalism: An Introduction,” New Horizons , October 23, 2017.
13 . See Noble, Algorithms of Oppression , 116.
14 . See Weill, “How YouTube Built a Radicalization Machine for the Far-Right.”
15 . See Caulfield, “The Curation/Search Radicalization Spiral.”
16 . See Peter Neumann, “Options and Strategies for Countering Online Radicalization in the United States,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 36, no. 6 (2013).
17 . See Neumann, “Options and Strategies for Countering Online Radicalization in the United States.”
18 . See Neumann, “Options and Strategies for Countering Online Radicalization in the United States.”
19 . Author’s interview with Caulfield, April 2019.
20 . Author’s interview with Caulfield, April 2019.
21 . Author’s interview with Caulfield, April 2019.
22 . See “Understanding Fake News and Misinformation,” Trends and Issues in Higher Ed , University of Washington, May 29, 2018.
23 . See Kate Starbird, “The Surprising Nuance behind the Russian Troll Strategy,” Medium , October 20, 2018.
24 . See Kate Starbird, “Muddied Waters: Online Disinformation during Crisis Events,” University of Washington lecture series, Vimeo video, April 18, 2018.
26 . See Starbird, “The Surprising Nuance behind the Russian Troll Strategy.”
27 . See Kate Starbird, “Examining the Alternative Media Ecosystem through the Production of Alternative Narratives of Mass Shooting Events on Twitter,” International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 2017.
28 . See Starbird, “Examining the Alternative Media Ecosystem through the Production of Alternative Narratives of Mass Shooting Events on Twitter.”
29 . Author’s interview with Starbird, April 2019.
30 . Author’s interview with Starbird, April 2019.
31 . See Michael Edison Hayden, “Neo-Nazi Website Daily Stormer Is ‘Designed to Target Children’ as Young as 11 for Radicalization, Editor Claims,” Newsweek , January 16, 2018.
32 . See Jared Holt, “At AmRen 2018, White Nationalists Boast about Grooming the Next Generation of Racists,” Right Wing Watch , May 2, 2018.
33 . See J. M. Berger, “Nazis vs. ISIS on Twitter: A Comparative Study of White Nationalist and ISIS Online Social Media Networks,” George Washington University Program on Extremism, September 2016.
34 . See David Neiwert, “Meet ‘Patriot Front’: Neo-Nazi Network Aims to Blur Lines with Militiamen, the Alt-Right,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), December 12, 2017.
35 . See Hatewatch Staff, “Donning the Mask: Presenting ‘The Face of 21st Century Fascism,’” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), June 20, 2017.
36 . See Lynsi Burton, “Theater Poster-Plastering Latest in String of UW Nazi Recruitment Propaganda,” Seattle PI , February 16, 2017.
37 . See Dan Sullivan, “National Guard ‘Neo-Nazi’ Aimed to Hit Miami Nuclear Plant, Roommate Says,” Tampa Bay Times , June 14, 2017.
38 . See “Vanguard America,” Anti-Defamation League (profile), 2017.
39 . See Hatewatch Staff, “Alleged Charlottesville Driver Who Killed One Rallied with Alt-Right Vanguard America Group,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), August 13, 2017.
40 . See Neiwert, “Meet ‘Patriot Front’: Neo-Nazi Network Aims to Blur Lines with Militiamen, the Alt-Right.”
41 . See Neiwert, “Meet ‘Patriot Front’: Neo-Nazi Network Aims to Blur Lines with Militiamen, the Alt-Right.”
42 . See Neiwert, “Meet ‘Patriot Front’: Neo-Nazi Network Aims to Blur Lines with Militiamen, the Alt-Right.”
43 . See A. C. Thompson, Ali Winston, and Jake Hanrahan, “Inside Atomwaffen as It Celebrates a Member for Allegedly Killing a Gay Jewish College Student,” Pro Publica , February 23, 2018.
44 . See Robert Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled,’” Bellingcat, October 11, 2018.
45 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
46 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
47 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
48 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
49 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
50 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
51 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
52 . See David Neiwert, “What the Kek: Explaining the Alt-Right ‘Deity’ behind Their ‘Meme Magic,’” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), May 9, 2017.
53 . See “Kek,” Know Your Meme, January 2014.
54 . See Neiwert, “What the Kek: Explaining the Alt-Right ‘Deity’ behind Their ‘Meme Magic.’”
55 . See Neiwert, “What the Kek: Explaining the Alt-Right ‘Deity’ behind Their ‘Meme Magic.’”
56 . Neiwert, “What the Kek: Explaining the Alt-Right ‘Deity’ behind Their ‘Meme Magic.’”
57 . See Neiwert, “What the Kek: Explaining the Alt-Right ‘Deity’ behind Their ‘Meme Magic.’”
58 . See Evans, “From Memes to Infowars: How 75 Fascist Activists Were ‘Red-Pilled.’”
Chapter 8
1 . See Zeynep Tufekci, “We’re Building a Dystopia Just to Make People Click on Ads,” TED Talk, September 2017.
2 . See especially Theodor Adorno, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950).
3 . See Robert Altemeyer, The Authoritarians (Ramona, CA: Cherry Hill Publishing, 2006); and Marc J. Hetherington and Jonathan D. Weiler, Authoritarianism and Polarization in American Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
4 . See Amanda Taub, “The Rise of American Authoritarianism,” Vox , March 1, 2016.
5 . See Altemeyer, The Authoritarians , 27.
6 . See Altemeyer, The Authoritarians , 75–95.
7 . See Maggie Koerth-Baker, “Why Rational People Buy into Conspiracy Theories,” New York Times Magazine , May 21, 2013.
8 . Sinclair’s quote—“It is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends upon his not understanding it!”—can be found in his book I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked (1935; repr., Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 109.
9 . See David Neiwert, “The Far Right’s Hate-Spewing Trolls Come Crawling Out to Celebrate Christchurch Massacre,” Daily Kos , March 26, 2019.
10 . See John Wagner, “‘So Ridiculous!’: Trump Accuses the Media of Trying to Blame Him for New Zealand Shootings,” Washington Post , March 18, 2019.
11 . See Colby Itkowitz and John Wagner, “Trump Says White Nationalism Is Not a Rising Threat after New Zealand Attacks: ‘It’s a Small Group of People,’” Washington Post , March 15, 2019.
12 . See Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto, Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
13 . See Bart Duriez and Alain Van Hiel, “The March of Modern Fascism: A Comparison of Social Dominance Orientation and Authoritarianism,” Personality and Individual Differences 32, no. 7 (2002): 1199–1213.
14 . See Jordan Peterson, “The Gulag Archipelago: A New Foreword by Jordan B. Peterson,” in The Gulag Archipelago , by Aleksander Solzhenitsyn (New York: Penguin Books, 2018).
15 . See Samantha K. Stanley, Taciano L. Milfont, Marc S. Wilson, and Chris G. Sibley, “The Influence of Social Dominance Orientation and Right-Wing Authoritarianism on Environmentalism: A Five-Year Cross-Lagged Analysis,” PLoS One, July 10, 2019.
16 . Although the quote is frequently attributed to John Steinbeck, it is not a direct citation of anything he wrote, but rather a paraphrase attributed to Ronald Wright, A Short History of Progress (Toronto: House of Anansi Press, 2004), 124.
17 . See Ledyard King, Bill Theobald, Kevin McCoy, Brett Murphy, and Ali Schmitz, “What We Know about Cesar Sayoc, the Florida Man Suspected of Mailing More Than a Dozen Bombs,” USA Today , October 26, 2018.
18 . See Kevin McCoy, “Pipe Bomb Suspect Cesar Sayoc Pleads Guilty in Spree Aimed at Trump Critics, Including Obama, Biden,” USA Today , March 21, 2019.
19 . See Chip Berlet, “Heroes Know Which Villains to Kill: How Coded Rhetoric Incites Scripted Violence,” Research for Progress , January 2014.
20 . See Xeni Jardin, “‘MAGA Mail-Bomber’ Cesar Sayoc: Trump Was ‘My New Found Drug’ and I Was Also on Steroids,” Boing Boing , April 23, 2019.
21 . See Ayal Feinberg, Regina Branton, and Valerie Martinez-Ebers, “Counties That Hosted a 2016 Trump Rally Saw a 226 Percent Increase in Hate Crimes,” Washington Post , March 22, 2019.
22 . See Justin Wm. Moyer, “Trump Says Fans Are ‘Very Passionate’ after Hearing One of Them Allegedly Assaulted Hispanic Man,” Washington Post , August 20, 2015.
23 . See Chip Berlet, “Heroes Know Which Villains to Kill: How Coded Rhetoric Incites Scripted Violence.”
24 . See David Neiwert, “The American Right Hankers for a Civil War: A History in Four Videos,” Daily Kos , February 25, 2019.
25 . See Glenn Thrush and Maggie Haberman, “Trump’s N.F.L. Critique a Calculated Attempt to Shore Up His Base,” New York Times , September 25, 2017.
26 . See Inae Oh, “Trump Defends Claim That There Were ‘Very Fine People on Both Sides’ of White Supremacist Rally,” Mother Jones , April 26, 2019.
27 . See David Neiwert, “Christopher Hasson Is Just the Latest Sign of America’s Rising Far-Right Domestic Terrorist Tide,” Daily Kos , February 21, 2019.
28 . See Charles P. Pierce, “A Coast Guard Officer Was Just Found Plotting to Murder Democrats and Media Personalities ‘On a Scale Rarely Seen,’” Esquire , February 20, 2019.
29 . See Neiwert, “The American Right Hankers for a Civil War: A History in Four Videos.”
30 . See Jason Wilson, “Are Rightwing Pundits Right That America Is on the Brink of a Civil War?” Guardian , June 22, 2017.
31 . See David Neiwert, “‘Communist Takeover’ Paranoia Gets a Final Resuscitation for Trump’s Inauguration,” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), January 17, 2017.
32 . See Abby Ohlheiser, “A Short History of Alex Jones Claiming That the Left Is about to Start a Second Civil War,” Washington Post , July 3, 2018.
33 . See David Neiwert, “Far-Right Conspiracists Stir Up Hysteria about Nonexistent ‘Civil War’ Plot by ‘Antifa,’” Hatewatch (Southern Poverty Law Center), November 14, 2017.
34 . See “Cohen: Fears No ‘Peaceful Transition’ if Trump Loses in 2020,” Reuters, February 27, 2019.
35 . See Libby Nelson, “Donald Trump Just Said He Might Not Concede the Election if Clinton Wins,” Vox , October 19, 2016.
36 . See Chris Cilizza, “Donald Trump Is Setting the Stage to Never Concede the 2016 Election,” Washington Post , October 14, 2016.
37 . See Jenna Johnson, “Donald Trump Says He Will Accept Results of Election—‘If I Win,’” Washington Post , October 20, 2016.
38 . See Jack Shafer, “Trump’s Final Days,” Politico , September 19, 2018.
39 . See Aaron Blake, “The Most Ominous Thing Michael Cohen Said about Trump This Week,” Washington Post , February 28, 2019.
Chapter 9
1 . See Robert Jay Lifton, Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyo, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism (New York: Henry Holt, 1999), 340.
2 . See Joseph Bernstein, “Alt-Right Troll to Father Killer: The Unraveling of Lane Davis,” BuzzFeed , July 18, 2018.
3 . See Joseph Bernstein, “The Unsatisfying Truth about Hateful Online Rhetoric and Violence,” BuzzFeed , November 24, 2018.
4 . See Bernstein, “Alt-Right Troll to Father Killer: The Unraveling of Lane Davis.”
5 . See Bernstein, “The Unsatisfying Truth about Hateful Online Rhetoric and Violence.”
6 . See Bernstein, “The Unsatisfying Truth about Hateful Online Rhetoric and Violence.”
7 . The remainder of this chapter is constructed from advice and insight provided by a team of experts with backgrounds in extremism, radicalization, disinformation, and rehabilitation/recovery, to whom I am eternally grateful for the extensive time they provided through interviews:
Dr. Peter Neumann, founding director of the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence as well as professor of security studies at the War Studies Department of King’s College London.
Dr. Stephan Lewandowsky, chair of cognitive psychology at the School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, and a longtime professor at the University of Western Australia.
Kate Starbird, associate professor in the Department of Human Centered Design and Engineering (HCDE) and director of the Emerging Capacities of Mass Participation (emCOMP) Laboratory at the University of Washington. She is also adjunct faculty in the Paul G. Allen School of Computer Science and Engineering and the Information School.
Michael Caulfield, the director of blended and networked learning at Washington State University–Vancouver.
Samantha Kutner, a researcher on far-right Proud Boys organizing with the anti-extremist organization Light upon Light.
C. V. Vitolo, professor of debate at University of Wisconsin–Madison, an anti-racist activist with a track record of successful deradicalization.
8 . Author’s interview with Peter Neumann, April 2019.
9 . Author’s interview with Stephan Lewandowsky, April 2019.
10 . Author’s interview with Michael Caulfield, April 2019.
11 . See Noah Berlatsky, “The Case against Empathizing with Trump Supporters,” Medium , May 2, 2019.
12 . See especially Carl Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and Theory (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951).
13 . See Anonymous, “What Happened after My 13-Year-Old Son Joined the Alt-Right,” Washingtonian , May 5, 2019.
14 . See Paol Hergert, “How Tangible Is Cyberspace?” Digital Culturist , March 15,2017.
15 . See Tim Stevens and Peter Neumann, “Countering Online Radicalisation: A Strategy for Action,” The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence, December 7, 2017.
16 . See Chip Berlet, “Toxic to Democracy: Conspiracy Theories, Demonization, and Scapegoating,” Political Research Associates, 2009.
17 . See Jonathan Corpus Ong and Jason Vincent Cabanes, “Architects of Networked Disinformation: Behind the Scenes of Troll Accounts and Fake News Production in the Philippines,” Newton Tech4Dev Network, University of Leeds, 2017.