Index

• Abacus, 18
• Accelerating returns, 24
• Action potential, 174
• Adders
  • four-bit, 43
  • single-bit, 43
• Addition, 40
• Agrawal, Manindra, 82
• Agricultural revolution, 12, 24
• AIDS, 112
• AirBnb, 50
• Alcmaeon of Croton, 167
• Algorithms, 6, 7, 61, 73–77, 82, 83
  • addition, 41
  • complexity, 78, 79
  • genome assembly, 147–151
  • graph, 74–77, 209
  • learning, 7, 100, 102, 110, 281
  • natural language processing, 228
  • nearest neighbor, 98
  • neuroimaging, 194–197
  • origin of word, 17
  • page-rank, 226
  • Prim’s, 75
  • RSA, 82
  • shortest-path, 75
• Al-Khowarizmi, 17
• Alleles, 120, 121
• Allen Human Brain Atlas, 193
• AlphaGo, 225, 226, 230
• Amazon, 50
• America, 16
• Ampère, André-Marie, 27
• Analytical Engine, 19, 55–58, 87
• Andreessen, Marc, 47
• Antikythera mechanism, 18
• Arabidopsis thaliana, 146
• Arabs, 17
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), 62, 158
• Artificial intelligence, 8, 87–97, 226, 273, 280, 281
  • good old-fashioned (GOFAI), 96
  • human-level, 89, 280
  • strong, 89, 224, 281
• Asimov, Isaac, 280
• Astrolabe, 18
• Avery, Oswald, 127
• Axes, 12
• Axons, 139, 170
• Aztecs, 13

• Babbage, Charles, 15, 19, 55–58, 87
• BAC library, 147
• BAC-to-BAC sequencing method, 147, 149
• Back-propagation, 109, 110, 188
• Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), 147
• Baghdad, 17
• Bandettini, Peter, 202
• Bardeen, John, 36
• Battery, 27
• Bayes classifier, naive, 114, 115
• Bayes’ Theorem, 111–116
• Bayes, Thomas, 110, 111
• Beckmann, Johann, 2
• Belliveau, Jack, 201, 202
• Bennett, George, 168
• Berger, Hans, 205
• Bicameralism, 248
• Binary digits, 38, 42
• BioBrick plasmids, 164
• Bioinformatics, 7, 148, 151
• Biological networks, 151
• Biology, 2
• Biotechnology, 27
• BLAST program, 148
• Blue Brain Project, 192, 215
• BOLD effect, 196–199, 202
• Boltzmann, Ludwig, 28
• Books, 4, 5, 21, 22
• Bootstrapping, 273, 274
• Borges, Jorge Luís, 21
• Bosons, 34
• Bostrom, Nick, 235, 282
• Bows and arrows, 12
• Brain
  • behavior, 167–176
  • C. elegans, 161, 162
  • development, 182–185, 234
  • emulation, 235
  • evolution, 7, 117, 124
  • genetic encoding, 138
  • learning in, 96, 97
  • networks, 209, 210
  • origin of, 139–141
  • plasticity, 185–189
  • primitive, 140
  • research, 191–218
  • simulation, 214
  • size, 12, 140
  • structure, 177–180
  • waves, 181, 182
• Brain Activity Map Project, 192
• Brain-inspired systems, 232–234
• Brain-machine interfaces, 267
• BRAIN/MINDS Project, 192
• Brattain, Walter, 36
• Brenner, Sydney, 160
• Brodmann area 17, 179
• Brodmann, Korbinian, 178
• Brodmann map, 178
• Brownell, Gordon, 197
• Brownian motion, 33
• Burnham, Charles, 197

• Caenorhabditis elegans, 146, 160–162, 236, 237
• Cambrian explosion, 137
• Capacitors, 27, 31, 32
• Carr, Herman, 199
• Carroll, Lewis, 5
• Caton, Richard, 205
• CDs, 3
• Celera Genomics, 144, 147
• Cells, 124–137
  • blood, 167, 195, 241
  • brain, 92
  • complex, 181
  • cryopreservation, 278
  • differentiation, 138, 153
  • eukaryotic, 123, 124, 131, 132, 137
  • exponential growth, 277
  • glial, 184, 203
  • neuron, 160
  • number, 167
  • prokaryotic, 131
  • simple, 181
• Cell systems, 159
• Central processing unit (CPU), 44, 62, 63, 126, 216
• Cerebrum, 177
• CERN, 34
• Chaos theory, 249, 250
• Chapman, Luke, 197
• Chess, 20, 88–90, 220–226
• China, 16, 17
• Chinese Room experiment, 92, 229
• Choanoflagellates, 139, 170
• Chromosomes, 22, 23, 120, 132, 147–149
• Church, Alonzo, 66, 83
• Church-Turing thesis, 83, 84
  • Physical, 84
• Civil rights, 253
• Clarke, Arthur Charles, 6, 94
  • third law of, 6
• Codons, 129, 133
• Cognitive revolution, 12
• Cohen, David, 205
• Complexity, 78, 79, 231
• Computability, 63, 66, 84
• Computation, theory of, 18, 53, 66
• Computational biology. See Bioinformatics
• Computed axial tomography (CAT), 194
• Computers, 1, 6, 27, 55
  • analog, 18
  • digital, 18, 38, 44, 47, 51, 62, 86, 156, 223, 286
  • Deep Blue, 224, 226, 230
  • ENIAC, 44
  • Harvard architecture, 62, 63
  • Mark I, 18, 63
  • MONIAC, 18
  • von Neumann architecture, 62, 63
  • Watson, 228–231, 252
• Computer science, 6
• Computing technology, 6
• Computronium, 276
• Connectionism, 108
• Consciousness, 220–222, 229, 230, 243–251
• Cooking, 12
• Cook, Stephen, 81
• Counting, 13
• Craik, Kenneth, 116
• Creationists, 122
• Crick, Francis, 121, 127, 143, 208
• Cryonics, 279
• Cryopreservation, 278
• Cuneiform script, 16

• Damadian, Raymond, 199
• Darwin, Charles, 20, 21, 116–119, 122, 126–128, 140
• Davidson, Donald, 245
• Davis, Martin, 72
• Dawkins, Richard, 123, 125
• de Broglie, Louis, 33
• Decimal numbering system, 41
• Decision trees, 102, 103, 110
• Dendrites, 170
• Denk, Winfried, 213
• Dennett, Daniel, 23, 122, 231, 247, 250
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 121–134
  • bases, 22, 23, 125, 129
  • double helix, 128
  • fragments, 146
  • molecule, 124, 128
  • reads, 147
  • sequences, 145–151, 164
  • sequencing, 4, 46, 144, 150, 193
  • strings, 148
  • structure, 128, 143
  • synthetic, 164
• Depression, long-term (LTD), 188
• de Robertis, Eduardo, 168
• Descartes, René, 244
• Determinism, 248–250
• Diamond, Jared, 277
• Difference Engine, 55, 56
• Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI), 203, 204
• Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI), 203
• Digital circuit, 44
• Digital computers, 18, 38, 44, 47, 51, 62, 86, 156, 223, 286
• Digital persons, 254–262
• Digital revolution, 26
• Digital technologies, 3, 24, 46, 51, 52, 258
• Dijkstra, Edsger, 75
• Dilbert, David, 71
• Diophantine equation, 71
• Division, 40
• Domestication, 12
• Domingos, Pedro, 100
• Draft animals, 13
• Drake Equation, 282–284
• Drake, Frank, 282
• Drexler, Eric, 240
• Drosophila melanogaster, 146
• Dualism, 244–246
• Dummer, Geoffrey, 37
• DVDs, 3

• Economic output, 14, 51–53
• Edwards, Roy, 197
• Egan, Greg, 242, 268
• Egypt, 16, 17
• Einstein, Albert, 33
• Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox, 35
• Electrical circuits, 27
• Electricity, 15, 26, 27
• Electroencephalography, 194, 204
• Electrons, 34, 35, 157, 158, 197, 211, 212
• Electronics, 6, 27
• Elephants, 21
• Eliza program, 93
• Escherichia coli, 146
• Eulerian cycle, 77
• Eulerian path, 149, 150
• Euler, Leonhard, 77
• Event-Related Optical Signal (EROS), 207
• Evolution, 7, 89, 116–127, 131, 247, 250, 285
• Exponential complexity, 78, 79
• Exponential function, 19, 21
• Exponential growth, 19, 24
• Exponential rate, 27, 45, 46, 118, 124
• Exponential trends, 19, 20

• Faraday, Michael, 27, 28
• Fermi, Enrico, 284
• Fermi’s paradox, 284–286
• Feynman, Richard, 33, 240
• Fields, 30, 31
  • curl, 30
  • divergence, 30
  • electric and magnetic, 28, 29, 199, 205
  • electric, 30–32, 158, 205
  • gravitational, 29
  • magnetic, 30, 31, 199–201, 205–207
  • scalar, 29
  • vector, 29
• Fire, controlled use of, 12
• Fisher, Ronald, 121
• Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), 198, 199
• Flying shuttle, 15
• Franklin, Benjamin, 27
• Franklin, Rosalind, 127
• Free will, 220, 221, 245–250
• Functional MRI (fMRI), 201–203, 209, 210

• Gates
  • and, 39
  • exclusive-or, 39, 40
  • logic, 38
  • nand, 38–41
  • nor, 39, 41
  • or, 39
• Gates, Bill, 47
• Gene regulatory networks, 152, 153, 159
• Genes, 119–126, 130, 133, 138, 144, 146, 153, 154, 183, 208
• Genetics, 120, 126, 127, 143
• Globalization, 15
• Global Positioning System (GPS), 37, 262
• Go (game), 224–226
• Gödel, Kurt, 66, 83
• Gödel’s theorem, 84
• Golden ratio, 21
• Golgi, Camillo, 160, 168
• Golgi stain, 168
• Good, Irving John, 274, 280
• Google, 226, 227, 230, 231, 252
• Gradient descent, 109
• Greece, 17
• Gross domestic product (GDP), 51, 52, 243

• Hamiltonian cycle, 76
• Hamiltonian path, 150, 151
• Hamilton, William Rowan, 76
• Hammurabi, Code of, 17
• Heaviside, Oliver, 28
• Hebb, Donald, 186, 187
• Hebb’s Rule, 186
• Heisenberg, Werner, 33
• Hemophilus influenza, 146
• Hertz, Heinrich, 31
• Higgs boson, 34
• Hilbert, David, 71
• Hippocrates, 167
• Hobbes, Thomas, 19, 43, 244
• Hodgkin, Alan, 172, 173
• Hodgkin-Huxley model, 173, 174
• Hofstadter, Douglas, 231
• Homo floresiensis, 141
• Homo habilis, 141
• Homo heidelbergensis, 141
• Homo neanderthalensis, 141
• Homo sapiens, 12, 123, 141, 282
• Horstmann, Heinz, 213
• Hounsfield, Godfrey, 194
• Hubel, David, 179, 180, 187
• Human Brain Project, 192, 207
• Human Connectome Project, 191
• Human genome, 22, 23, 143–151
• Human Genome Project, 143–147
• Hume, David, 99, 100
• Hunt, Bruce, 28
• Huxley, Andrew, 172, 173

• Imitation game, 90
• Incas, 13
• Inductors, 27
• Industrial revolutions, 14, 15, 24
• Information age, 15
• Information delivery devices, 25
• Information processing, 16
• Integrated circuits, 37, 38, 46, 117
• Intel, 45
• Intelligence explosion, 274
• Intelligent life, 283–285
• Intelligent machines, 86, 87, 106, 274, 277
• Internet, 27, 47–49
• Inverter, 41
• Ion channels, 171
• Ion pumps, 171

• Jacquard loom, 15, 56
• Jaynes, Julian, 248
• Jeopardy (television game show), 228–230

• Karp, Richard, 81
• Kasparov, Garry, 224
• Kayal, Neeraj, 82
• Kelly, Kevin, 231
• Kilby, Jack, 37
• Knight, Tom, 164
• Kryder’s Law, 46
• Kuhl, David, 197
• Kurzweil, Ray, 24, 235, 275
• Kwong, Kenneth, 202

• Labeled instances, 97
• Language, 64
• Languages
  • programming, 6
  • recognizable, 64, 65
  • written, 16
• Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 111
• Large Hadron Collider, 34
• Last universal common ancestor (LUCA), 130
• Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), 179, 181
• Lauterbur, Paul, 199
• Learning
  • deep, 110, 224
  • inductive, 97, 101, 102, 112
  • machine, 7, 8, 95–102, 110, 115, 116, 228
  • reinforcement, 116
  • similarity-based, 98
  • temporal difference, 116
• Le Bihan, Denis, 203
• Leder, Philip, 129
• Libet, Benjamin, 247
• Library of Babel, 21–24
• Library of Congress, 227, 228
• Library of Mendel, 124, 163, 164
• Life expectancy, 8
• Loebner Prize, 93, 94
• Logic function, 39–42
• Logic Theorist program, 88
• Lovelace, Ada, 19, 58, 87, 92
• Lucas, John, 84, 85
• Luddites, 15

• Macleod, Colin, 127
• Magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI), 199–201, 236, 242
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 194, 204–207
• Manhattan Project, 36
• Mathematics, 7, 17, 18, 71, 81, 274
• Matiyasevich, Yuri, 72
• Maxwell’s equations, 27–32, 172
• Maxwell, James Clerk, 27–31
• Mayans, 13
• McCarthy, John, 87
• McCarty, Maclyn, 127
• McClelland, James, 108
• McCulloch, Warren, 104
• Mechanical looms, 14
• Membrane, 171–175
• Membrane potential, 171, 174
• Memories, 44
• Menabrea, Luigi, 58
• Mendel, Gregor, 24, 119–121, 127, 130
• Mendel’s laws of inheritance, 120
• Mesopotamia, 13, 16, 17
• Messenger RNA (mRNA), 132, 133, 154
• Metabolic networks, 152
• Microscopy
  • confocal, 212
  • electron, 211, 236
  • fluorescent, 211
  • multi-photon fluorescent, 212
  • reflection, 211
  • two-photon, 212
• Microtome, 212
• Miedaner, Terrel, 231
• Milky Way, 282
• Mind
  • backup, 261–265
  • biological, 222
  • digital, 8, 218, 222, 223, 243, 253–256, 259, 273
  • duplication, 259–261
  • field-specific, 221
  • natural, 222, 232
  • non-biological, 8
  • synthetic, 222, 223, 232, 234, 269
  • uploading, 232, 235, 239, 240, 254, 259–261, 279
• Minimum spanning tree, 75
• Minsky, Marvin, 87
• Model organisms, 146, 183, 192
• Monism, 244, 246
• Moore’s Law, 24, 45, 46, 144, 145, 218, 277
• Moore, Gordon, 45
• Multiplication, 40
• Multiplier, 43
• Mycoplasma genitalium, 164
• Mycoplasma laboratorium, 164
• Mycoplasma mycoides, 164

• Nagel, Thomas, 251
• Nanotechnology, 27, 238, 240, 257, 275
• Natural selection, 117–119, 122–126, 137
• Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), 196, 197
• Needles, 12
• Neocortex, 140
• Neural back-propagation, 188
• Neural networks, 110, 152, 224
  • artificial, 103, 107, 154, 155
• Neural plate, 184
• Neuroimaging, 193
• Neuromorphic intelligent systems, 232
• Neuronal networks, 152, 154, 160
• Neurons, 6, 139, 167
• Neurotransmitters, 175
• Neutrons, 34
• Newell, Allen, 87
• Newspapers, 4, 5, 25
• Nirenberg, Marshall, 129
• No Free Lunch Theorem, 100
• Noyce, Robert, 37
• Numbers
  • binary, 38–43
  • natural, 66–68
  • rational, 67, 68
  • real, 68, 70, 84

• Occam’s razor, 103
• Occam, William of, 103
• Ogawa, Seiji, 202
• Ohm, Georg, 32
• Ohm’s Law, 32
• Olson, Ken, 47
• Open Connectome Project, 192, 213
• OpenWorm project, 161, 162
• Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 36
• Optogenetics, 208, 237
• Organisms, 124, 127
  • diploid, 23, 120
  • multi-cellular, 126, 137, 138, 151, 160
  • polyploid, 120
  • prokaryotic, 131
  • single-cell, 130, 139
• Orientation columns, 181
• Ørsted, Hans Christian, 27
• Oughtred, William, 18

• Palade, George, 168
• Paleolithic period, 12
• Papert, Seymour, 95
• Parfit, Derek, 250
• Parry program, 93
• Pea plants, 120
• Penrose, Roger, 85, 249
• Perceptrons, 103–110
  • multi-layer, 108, 109, 188
  • soft-threshold, 108
• Personhood, 253–255, 261
• Phillips, William, 18
• Photoelectric effect, 33
• Photons, 34
• Physics, 2
• Pitts, Walter, 104
• Positron-emission tomography (PET), 194–198
• Positrons, 34, 35, 194, 197–199
• Potentiation, long-term (LTP), 188
• Prehistoric humans, 12
• Prehistoric technologies, 11
• Prehistoric times, 11
• Price, Richard, 111
• Problems
  • decidable, 64, 65
  • credit assignment, 107
  • Eulerian path, 77, 79
  • factorization, 82
  • halting, 70–73
  • Hilbert’s tenth, 71, 72
  • induction, 100, 101
  • Millennium Prize, 81
  • NP-complete, 81, 83, 151
  • NP-hard, 80, 81, 88, 107
  • Post Correspondence, 72, 73
  • Seven Bridges of Königsberg, 77
  • shortest-path, 74, 79
  • traveling salesman, 76–83
  • undecidable, 65, 66, 70–73
• Protein-protein interaction networks, 152, 153
• Proteins, 129–133
• Protein structure, 134
  • ab initio determination, 136
  • primary, 134
  • quaternary, 134
  • secondary, 134
  • tertiary, 134, 136
• Protons, 34
• Putnam, Hilary, 72

• Quantum computing, 82, 239
• Quantum mechanics, 33
• Quantum physics, 35, 248, 250

• Radio, 25
• Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 168, 169
• Rare Earth Hypothesis, 284, 285
• Records, vinyl, 3
• Red Queen effect, 5
• Relativity, 33, 262
• Religions, 244
• Resistors, 27, 31, 32
• Ribosomes, 132–137
• Rice, 20
• RNA World Hypothesis, 126
• Robinson, Julia, 72
• Robotics, Asimov’s laws of, 280
• Robots, 266–268, 281
• Rosenblatt, Frank, 104
• Rumelhart, David, 108
• Rutherford, Ernest, 2

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 146
• Sagan, Carl, 282
• Samuel, Arthur, 88
• Sanger sequencing, 146, 148
• Saxena, Nitinby, 82
• Scharf, Caleb, 283
• Schleiden, Matthias, 127
• Schrödinger, Erwin, 33, 35
• Schwann, Theodor, 127
• Schwinger, Julian, 33
• Searle, John, 92, 93, 229
• Second Life, 50
• Sequencing, 144, 147, 149
• Serial block-face electron microscopy (SBEM), 213, 214
• Serial electron microscopy (SEM)
• Seung, Sebastian, 168
• Shockley, William, 36
• Simon, Herbert, 87
• Simulations, 155–158
  • of biological systems, 157
  • of brain, 32, 216
  • multi-level, 157
  • of electrical circuits, 32, 155
  • of spiking neurons, 217
• Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 22, 23
• Singularity, 273–280
• Slide rule, 18
• Smullyan, Raymond, 245
• Soma, 170
• Spears, 12
• Speed of light, 29
• Spike, 175
• Spinning, 14
• Spinning jenny, 14
• Spinning mule, 14
• Sporns, Olaf, 210
• Standard model, 34
• Stephenson, Neal, 241
• String theories, 34
• Stross, Charles, 250, 264
• Subtraction, 40
• Super-intelligences, 280–282
• Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), 207
• Synapses, 139
  • chemical, 175, 176
  • electrical, 176
• Synthetic biology, 163
• Szybalski, Wacław, 163

• TCP/IP, 47, 227
• Technological gap, 5
• Technologies, development of, 2–7
• Telephone, 25
• Television, 4, 5, 25, 37
• Teller, Edward, 62
• Thomson, William, 28
• Thread, 12
• Time travel, 261–263
• Tomography, 194
• Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro, 33
• Tractography, 203
• Transcription, 133, 154
• Transcription factors, 154, 159
• Transistors, 26, 36–38, 43, 44
  • bipolar junction, 37
  • metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect (MOSFET), 37, 39
• Translation, 129, 132
• Transportation technology, 15
• Turing, Alan, 44, 59, 61–63, 66, 83, 90–93, 96, 280
• Turing machines, 59–65, 70–74, 81–85, 249
  • non-deterministic, 80
  • universal, 61, 70, 84, 155
• Turing Test, 90–96, 162, 219–221, 234, 252, 255, 256

• Uber, 50
• Ulam, Stanislaw, 62, 275
• Universal machines, 18

• VCRs, 3
• Venter Institute, 164
• Venter, J. Craig, 144
• Vinge, Vernor, 275
• Virtual reality, 265–267, 286
• Visual cortex, 179–181
• Volta, Alessandro, 27
• von Neumann, John, 44, 62, 63, 275
• Voxels, 193, 194

• Wallace, Alfred, 117
• Watson, James D., 121, 127, 143
• Watson, Thomas J., 47
• Weaving, 14
• Wheel, 13
• Whole-brain emulation (WBE), 223, 235, 243, 249
• Wiesel, Torsten, 179, 180, 187
• Wikipedia, 49, 51
• Wilkins, Maurice, 127
• Wolff, Christian, 246
• World Wide Web, 4, 46–51, 226
• Writing, 13, 16, 17

• Zombies, 245, 246
• Zuboff, Arnold, 241