2°C goal, 9, 12, 15–16, 35–36, 134, 158, 166–167, 170
45Q tax credits, 115, 147
Absorbers, in amine process, 43–44
Absorption processes, 52, 54
Acid rain, 51
Adaptation strategies, 8, 13–14
Adelman, Morris [Morry], 30–32
Adsorption processes, 53–54
Afforestation and reforestation (AR), 15, 118, 119, 133
Alberta, Canada, 106, 148
Allam cycle, 64, 66
Alstom Power, 149
American Reinvestment and Recovery Act, 146
Amine processes, 39, 42–51
costs associated with, 46–50
effectiveness of, 45
examples of, 95, 107–110, 114–115
explanation of, 43–45
problems and solutions in, 43, 45–46
purpose of, 42
Aquistore Project, 109
AR5 (IPCC), 120, 134
Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), 107–108
Arrhenius, Svante, 3, 5
Australia, 100, 105, 148, 151
Barents Sea, 104
Barrow Island, Australia, 105
Basalts, 90
Battery storage, 165–166
BECCS. See Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
Biochar, 16, 118
Bioelectricity, 123–125
Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), 16, 120–128, 168
bioelectricity, 123–125
biofuels, 125–128
biomass production, 121–123
Biofuels, 125–128
Biomass feedstock, 121
Biomass Integrated Gasification (BIG), 125
Biomass production, 121–123
Bipartisan Budget Act, 147
Bitumen, 106
Boundary Dam, Saskatchewan, 62, 108–111, 141
BP, 103–104, 153–154
Bravo Dome, New Mexico, 71
Brazil, 100, 125
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 98
Bush, George H. W., 150
Canada, 148
Cap-and-trade policies, 142–143
Capillary trapping, 76–77
Carbon budget, 9
Carbon capture, 39–66. See also Carbon storage
adsorption processes for, 53–54
alternative technologies for, 51–66
amine processes for, 39, 42–51
areas of application for, 168–169
benefits of, 37, 39–40
best uses of, 40–42
climate change mitigation as purpose of, 103–108, 157–158
costs associated with, 46–50, 62
cryogenic processes for, 56–58
defined, xiii
ease/difficulty of, 40, 42
economies of scale in, 40–41
examples of, 99–115
future of, 167–170
history of, 39–40, 138–141
industrial sector projects in, 105–108
membrane processes for, 54–55
as mitigation strategy, 13
oxy-combustion, 62–66
pioneer projects in, 103–105
post-combustion, 42–58
power sector projects in, 108–115
pre-combustion, 58–62
public awareness of, xv
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage Act, 147
Carbon capture and utilization (CCU). See Carbon utilization
Carbon cycle, 7
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
concentrations of, 4–5
conversion of, to fuel, 92–93
for EOR, 71
as greenhouse gas, 2
persistence of, in atmosphere, 9
processes for removing, 42–66
production of, 92, 99–102
source of, xiii, 4
storage of, 67–91
transport of, 69–70
utilization of, 91–94
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS). See Carbon capture; Carbon storage
Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR), 8, 15–16, 117
Carbon footprint
of Alberta oil sands, 106
of biomass feedstocks, 122, 126
of fossil fuel use, 25–29
reducing, 8–13
Carbon intensity, 24–25
Carbon pricing, 142–145, 170
Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum, 141
Carbon sinks, 8. See also Natural sinks
Carbon storage, 67–91
in coal seams, 91
examples of, 95–98
geographic distribution of options for, 87
geologic, 70–87
history of, 138–141
mineral trapping for, 89–90
ocean-based, 87–89, 138
public acceptance of, 87
strategies for, xiii, xv
transport and, 69–70
Carbon tax, 142, 144
Carbon utilization, 91–94
CCPI. See Clean Coal Power Initiative
CCS. See Carbon capture; Carbon storage
CDR. See Carbon Dioxide Removal
Chemical absorption, 52
Chemical looping, 64
Chemical scrubbing, 43, 50–51, 57–58
Chevron, 105
China, 12, 29, 87, 100, 148, 151, 153
Clean Air Act, 58
Clean Coal Power Initiative (CCPI), 111, 115
Clean coal technology, 59
Clean Development Mechanism, of Kyoto Protocol, 133
Clean Power Plan, 160
Climate change, 1–19. See also Global temperature
CCS projects for addressing, 103–108, 157–158
consensus on, 1
fossil fuels as contributor to, 35–37
future of, 166–167
greenhouse effect and, 2–3
intervention strategies for, 8–19
Climate sensitivity, 5, 9
Climeworks, 132–133
CO2 flooding, 71
Coal
biomass compared to, 123–124
carbon per unit of energy of, 24–25
chemical makeup and properties of, 23
emissions associated with, 12
Industrial Revolution based on, 21–22
use of, 12
Coal gasification processes, 52, 59–62, 111–113
Coal seams, carbon storage in, 91
Contract-for-differences, 149
Cool Water IGCC Demonstration Plant, California, 59
Criteria pollutants, 58, 60–61
Cryogenic processes, 55–58
DAC. See Direct Air Capture
Decatur Project, 107–108, 126, 141
Deep saline formations, 74
Denmark, 29
Direct Air Capture (DAC), 16, 128–133
Direct emissions from land-use change, 122–123
Distillation, 55–56
Duke Energy, 61
Earth Summit (1992), 98
Edwardsport Power Station, Indiana, 61
Efficiency. See Energy efficiency
Electricity
biomass as source for, 126, 128
carbon capture and, 168–169
constraints on production of, 163–164
fuel input/output for, 28–29
German policies and practices concerning, 162–164
Emissions Trading System (European Union), 148
Energiewende, 162–164
Energy crops, 121–122
Energy efficiency, 11, 25
Energy penalty, 47, 49–50, 58
Energy Policy Act, 125
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) technologies, 71–72, 100–102, 115, 145
Environmental Protection Act (Canada), 109
EOR. See Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) technologies
Ethanol, 125–126
European Union, 148
Feed-in tariffs, 146
First International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal, 140
Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD), 51
Flue gases
amine processes for, 39–40, 42–46, 50
cryogenic processes for, 56
DAC compared to carbon capture from, 128–131
market incentives for capture of, 99–100
oxy-combustion processes for, 62–63
Fossil fuels, 21–37
climate change in relation to, 35–37
energy supplied by, 21
fundamentals of, 23–25
geographic variables in uses of, 29
history of, 21–22
as source of CO2, 3, 4
supplies of, 30–35
uses of, 25–29
Gas. See Natural gas
Gasification. See Coal gasification processes
Geoengineering, 8, 138. See also Carbon capture; Carbon Dioxide Removal; Solar Radiation Management
Geologic storage, 70–87
capacity of, 84–87
characteristics of target formations for, 72–74
and induced seismicity, 82–84
leakage from, 78–79, 81–82
security and monitoring of, 78–82
trapping mechanisms for, 74–78
Germany, 12–13, 29, 151, 162
Global temperature
2°C goal for, 9, 12, 15–16, 35–36, 134
effects of rising, 6–7
increase of, due to greenhouse effect, 5
solar radiation management for, 16–19
Gorgon project, 105
Great Plains Synfuels Plant, North Dakota, 102
Greenhouse effect
defined, 2
global temperature linked to, 5
natural vs. manmade, 2–3, 5
runaway, 7, 15
Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT) Conference, 140
Greenhouse gases
concentrations of, 7–8
defined, 2
from energy crops, 122–123
Heitkamp, Heidi, 147
Horizontal drilling, 33
Hubbert, M. King, 30
Hydraulic fracturing, 33
Hydrocarbons. See Fossil fuels
Hydrogen fuel, 126
IGCC. See Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle
Illinois Basin Decatur Project, 107–108
Illinois Industrial CCS Project, 107–108, 141
India, 29, 87, 100
Induced seismicity, 82–84
Industrial Revolution, 21–22
Industrial sector CCS projects, 105–108
In Salah Gas Project, 103–104
Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), 59–62
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1, 78, 92
Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) Summary for Policymakers, 120, 134
Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, 141
International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, 140
Intervention, in climate change, 8–19
adaptation, 13–14
carbon dioxide removal (CDR), 15–16
mitigation, 8–13
solar radiation management (SRM), 16–19
IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Iron fertilization, 118, 120
Japan, 87–88, 100, 140, 148, 151
JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration, 113
Kemper County Energy Facility, Mississippi, 62, 111–113
Korea, 87
Krechba Formation, 103–104
Kyoto Protocol, 133
Land availability, for energy crops, 121–122
Land-use changes, 122–123
Liquefied natural gas (LNG), 104–105
Low-/no-carbon energy sources, 11–13
Marchetti, Cesare, 138
Market pull policies, 142–145, 170
McElmo Dome, Colorado, 71
Membrane processes, 54–55
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), 53
Methane
as greenhouse gas, 7
as natural gas component, 23
occurrences of, 34–35
for oil upgrading, 107
Methane hydrates, 34–35
Middle East, 29
Mineral carbonation, 89–90
Mineral trapping, 77
Mitigation costs, 49, 133–134, 143
Mitigation strategies, 8–13, 103–108
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, 115
Mount Simon Sandstone, 107
Natural gas
carbon per unit of energy of, 24–25
chemical makeup of, 23
emissions associated with, 12
source of, 22
use of, 12, 22
Natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plants, 48–50
Natural sinks, 15–16, 118–120. See also Carbon sinks
Negative Emissions Technologies (NETs), 117–135
BECCS, 120–128
DAC, 128–133
overview of, 15–16, 117–120
role of, 133–135
NER300 program, 148–149
NETs. See Negative Emissions Technologies
New Entrants Reserve (NER), 148
NGCC. See Natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) power plants
Nitrogen, 50, 55–56, 60, 62
North American Chemical, 39, 43
North Sea, 70, 85, 95–98, 140
Norway, 70, 95–98, 104, 148, 151
No-till farming, 16, 118
NRG, 113–114
Nuclear power, 12–13, 137
Oceans
carbon in, 7–8
carbon storage in, 87–89, 138
NET utilizing, 16, 118–120
Offsets, 133–135, 168
Oil
carbon per unit of energy of, 24–25
chemical makeup and properties of, 23
origins of industrial production of, 22
Oil and gas reservoirs, 73–74
Our Common Future (Brundtland Commission), 98
Oxy-combustion capture, 62–66
Oxygen, distillation of, 55–56
Paris Agreement, 9, 12, 13–14, 158–161
Peak oil, 30–33
Permeability, 72, 104
Permian Basin, Texas, 70–71
Peterhead project, 153–154
Petra Nova Project, Texas, 62, 113–115
Physical absorption, 52
Pipelines, 69
Plant Berry, Alabama, 115
Policy
future of, 157–162, 169–170
market pull, 142–145, 170
need for, 36–37
renewable-energy vs. climate-mitigation, 164
technology push, 145–150
Politics, 144–146, 150–155, 169–170
Post-combustion capture, 42–58
adsorption processes, 53–54
alternative technologies for, 51–58
amine processes, 42–51
cryogenic processes, 55–58
economic viability of, 99–102
membrane processes, 54–55
Power sector CCS projects, 108–115
Power Systems Development Facility, Alabama, 111
Pre-combustion capture, 58–62
Production of CO2, 92, 99–102
Pulverized coal (PC) power plants, 59–60, 62–63. See also Supercritical pulverized coal (SCPC) power plants
Quest Carbon Capture and Storage project, 106–107, 148
Renewables
climate policy debate concerning, 164–165
drawbacks of, 163–164
in electricity input/output, 28–29
German policies and practices concerning, 29, 151, 162–164
policies on, 29, 145–146, 151
politics favoring, 146, 153–154
research and development of, 137
Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE), 140
Reserves, hydrocarbon, 33–34
Residual trapping. See Capillary trapping
Resources, hydrocarbon, 34
Rochelle, Gary, 51, 57–58
Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Colorado, 83
SaskPower, 109–111
Saudi Arabia, 100, 106
Schwarze Pumpe plant, Germany, 63
Scotford Upgrader, Alberta, 106–107
Scottish and Southern Energy, 149
Searles Valley Minerals plant, California, 39, 99
Seismic techniques, for monitoring CO2 storage, 79
SES Innovation, 56–58
Sheep Mountain, Colorado, 71
Shell, 149
Sherwood Plot, 131
Ships, CO2 transport in, 70
Sleipner project, 95–99, 103, 110, 140
Snohvit project, 104
Solar energy, 12, 145
Solar Radiation Management (SRM), 8, 16–19
Solubility trapping, 77
Southern Company, 62, 111–113, 115
SRM. See Solar Radiation Management
Statoil, 96, 104
Steam methane reforming, 107
Strippers, in amine process, 43–46
Structural trapping, 76
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 23, 51
Supercritical pulverized coal (SCPC) power plants, 48–50
Synfuel programs, 102
Syngas, 59, 61
Tanker trucks, CO2 transport in, 69
Target formations, 72–74
Tax credits, 145. See also 45Q tax credits
Technology
future of, 165–166, 169–170
improvements in, for fuel extraction and use, 32–33, 37, 71, 105
neglect of, 161
policies based on, 145–150
Temperature. See Global temperature
Town gas, 22, 59
Transportation, energy needs and sources of, 27–28
Transport Integrated Gasification (TRIG), 111–112
Trapping mechanisms, 74–78
United Kingdom, 148, 149, 151, 153
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 36, 98, 150
United States, 12–13, 27, 29, 100, 125–126, 145–147, 158
Upgrading, 106–107
US Department of Energy (DOE), 90, 107, 111, 141, 147
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 79–81, 108
Class VI injection permit, 141
Utsira Formation, 95
Vattenfall, 63
Volumetric method (for estimating storage capacity), 84–85
Water-gas shift reaction, 61
Weathering, 16, 89, 119
Weyburn project, 102
White, David, 30
Wind energy, 12, 145
Zeolites, 53