Notes

A full bibliography can be found at https://law.stanford.edu/michelle-wilde-anderson. Quotations not captured in these notes come from author interviews that took place between 2016 and 2021. The Author’s Note contains more information about sources.

Prologue

  1. “If you think about it”: David Lang, “Symphony for a Broken Orchestra,” movie trailer by Temple Contemporary, video, 2:42, http://symphonyforabrokenorchestra.org/about/.
  2. “I don’t want to abolish”: Grover Norquist, “Conservative Advocate,” interview by Mara Liasson, Morning Edition, NPR, May 25, 2001, audio, 7:30, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1123439.

Introduction

  1. a for-profit company owned by: Lisa Whiting, “Private Firms Protecting Josephine County,” Mail Tribune, February 28, 2017, https://web.archive.org/web/20170302183738/http://www.mailtribune.com/news/20170227/private-firms-protecting-josephine-county; Laura Keeney, “Envision Healthcare’s Acquisition of Rural/Metro Complete,” The Denver Post, October 28, 2015, last modified April 21, 2016, https://www.denverpost.com/2015/10/28/envision-healthcares-acquisition-of-ruralmetro-complete/.
  2. second-poorest county: “A picture of poverty in Oregon,” The Oregonian, August 14, 2014, https://projects.oregonlive.com/maps/poverty/. Josephine’s countywide poverty rate improved during the 2015-2019 period, but its rural areas continued to have some of the highest poverty rates in the state.
  3. opioid use outpaces: “Prescription Drug Dispensing in Oregon, January 1, 2012-December 31, 2012: Schedules II-IV Medications Dispensed in Oregon: Josephine County,” Oregon Health Authority, November 2013, http://www.orpdmp.com/orpdmpfiles/PDF_Files/Reports/Josephine.pdf; “Prescribing and Drug Overdose Data Dashboard,” Oregon Health Authority, https://www.oregon.gov/oha/ph/PreventionWellness/SubstanceUse/Opioids/Pages/data.aspx.
  4. county voters went to the polls: “Past Election Results,” Josephine County, https://www.co.josephine.or.us/Page.asp?NavID=754.
  5. murder of two elderly people: Melissa McRobbie, “Details Emerge in Double-Slaying,” Mail Tribune, June 18, 2015, https://www.mailtribune.com/news/top-stories/details-emerge-in-double-slaying/.
  6. “consider relocating to an area”: Amelia Templeton, “Loss of Timber Payments Cuts Deep in Oregon,” All Things Considered, NPR, May 21, 2013, transcript and audio, 2:38, http://www.npr.org/2013/05/21/185839248/loss-of-timber-payments-cuts-deep-in-oregon.
  7. these metrics describe: This definition is a combination of how sociologists define “places” (as a municipality or rural county government), how they define “place-based poverty” (where at least 20 percent of the population lives under the poverty line), and the typical measure for a “low-income median income” (a median income below two-thirds of the state number). When the place-based poverty defined by sociologists combines with a low median income, it becomes an even harder governance problem. This “place” unit of analysis is most salient to me as a scholar of law and government because places have their own elected officials, employees, and tax bases. They have legal duties to a specific territory and its residents.
  8. a 31 percent increase: Daniel T. Lichter, Domenico Parisi, and Michael C. Taquino, “The Geography of Exclusion: Race, Segregation, and Poverty,” Social Problems 59, no. 3 (2012): 373.
  9. $26,246 per year: U.S. Census Bureau, “Poverty Thresholds: 2020,” https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines/prior-hhs-poverty-guidelines-federal-register-references/2020-poverty-guidelines (family of four with two minor children).
  10. Others are rural: Janet L. Wallace and Lisa R. Pruitt, “Judging Parents, Judging Place: Poverty, Rurality, and Termination of Parental Rights,” Missouri Law Review 77, no. 1 (2012): 95–147, 117; Daniel T. Lichter and Kenneth M. Johnson, “The Changing Spatial Concentration of America’s Rural Poor Population,” Rural Sociology 72, no. 3 (2007): 331–358, 338. Rural residents are even more likely than urban residents to live in counties where at least one in every five people lives in poverty.
  11. low rates of college attainment: David Autor, “The Faltering Escalator of Urban Opportunity,” MIT Work of the Future, 2020, http://workofthefuture.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/2020-Research-Brief-Autor.pdf.
  12. the way people sort at bigger scales… and at smaller ones: Richard Florida, The New Urban Crisis: How Our Cities Are Increasing Inequality, Deepening Segregation, and Failing the Middle Class—and What We Can Do About It (New York: Basic Books, 2017); Alan Mallach, The Divided City: Poverty and Prosperity in Urban America (Washington: Island Press, 2018); David Dante Troutt, The Price of Paradise: The Costs of Inequality and a Vision for a More Equitable America (New York: New York University Press, 2013).
  13. Since 1980, the wealthiest regions: Robert Manduca, “The Contribution of National Income Inequality to Regional Economic Divergence,” Social Forces 98, no. 2 (December 2019): 622–648.
  14. In thirty-one states: “U.S. Metro Economies GMP and Employment Report: 2015–2017,” U.S. Conference of Mayors, last modified January 20, 2016, https://www.usmayors.org/2016/01/20/u-s-metro-economies-gmp-and-employment-report-2015-2017/; Alan Berube and Carey Anne Nadeau, Metropolitan Areas and the Next Economy: A 50-State Analysis (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, February 2011), https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/02_states_berube_nadeau.pdf.
  15. Weak regions lacked: Michael Storper, Keys to the City: How Economics, Institutions, Social Interaction, and Politics Shape Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 92–103.
  16. crowd into low-income suburbs: Elizabeth Kneebone and Alan Berube, Confronting Suburban Poverty in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2013).
  17. sociologists have shown: Robert J. Sampson, “Neighbourhood Effects and Beyond: Explaining The Paradoxes of Inequality in the Changing American Metropolis,” Urban Studies 56, no. 1 (January 2019): 3–32.
  18. depress a child’s lifetime income: Raj Chetty, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” American Economic Review 106, no. 4 (April 2016): 855–902; Ruth Gourevitch, Solomon Greene, and Rolf Pendall, Place and Opportunity: Using Federal Fair Housing Data to Examine Opportunity across U.S. Regions and Populations (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 2018), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/place-and-opportunity-using-federal-fair-housing-data-examine-opportunity-across-us-regions-and-populations.
  19. Federal and state governments: Policy Basics: Federal Aid to State and Local Governments (Washington, D.C.: Center on Budget Priorities, 2018), https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/federal-aid-to-state-and-local-governments; Megan Randall, Tracy Gordon, Solomon Greene, Erin Huffer, Follow the Money: How to Track Federal Funding to Local Governments (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2018), https://www.urban.org/research/publication/follow-money-how-track-federal-funding-local-governments.
  20. bundle subsidies and tax breaks: Timothy J. Bartik, Making Sense of Incentives: Taming Business Incentives to Promote Prosperity (Kalamazoo: W.E. Upjohn Institute, 2019).
  21. broke local governments typically spend: Michelle Wilde Anderson, “The New Minimal Cities,” Yale Law Journal 123, no. 5 (March 2014): 1118–1227; Michelle Wilde Anderson, “The Western, Rural Rustbelt: Learning from Local Fiscal Crisis in Oregon,” Willamette Law Review 50, no. 4 (2014): 465–513; Michelle Wilde Anderson, “Who Needs Local Government Anyway? A Consideration of Dissolution in Pennsylvania’s Distressed Cities,” Widener Law Journal 24 (2015): 149–180; Michelle Wilde Anderson, “Democratic Dissolution: Radical Experimentation in State Takeovers of Local Governments,” Fordham Urban Law Journal 39, no. 3 (2012): 577–623; Mark Davidson and Kevin Ward, eds., Cities Under Austerity: Restructuring the U.S. Metropolis (New York: SUNY Press, 2018).
  22. among local government functions: Michelle Wilde Anderson, “The New Minimal Cities,” Yale Law Journal 123, no. 5 (March 2014): 1122–23.
  23. But they often share: Michael B. Katz, Why Don’t American Cities Burn? (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2012), 155–161; David Brooks, “America Is Having a Moral Convulsion,” The Atlantic, October 5, 2020, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/10/collapsing-levels-trust-are-devastating-america/616581/; Megan Brenan, “Americans’ Trust in Government Remains Low,” Gallup, September 30, 2021, https://news.gallup.com/poll/355124/americans-trust-government-remains-low.aspx.
  24. curve of the number of manufacturing jobs: Robert E. Scott, Manufacturing Job Loss: Trade, Not Productivity, Is the Culprit (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 2015), http://www.epi.org/publication/manufacturing-job-loss-trade-not-productivity-is-the-culprit/.
  25. number of manufacturing jobs: Enrico Moretti, The New Geography of Jobs (Boston: Mariner Books, 2012).
  26. hubs of steel production: Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 211.
  27. “Today an American”: Moretti, New Geography, 22.
  28. took some of the hardest losses: Ben Rooney, “Rust and Sun Belt cities lead ’07 foreclosures,” CNNMoney.com, February 13 2008, https://money.cnn.com/2008/02/12/real_estate/realtytrac/.
  29. a “lost decade”: “ ‘Lost Decade’ Casts a Post-Recession Shadow on State Finances,” (Washington, D.C.: Pew Charitable Trusts, 2019), https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2019/06/lost-decade-casts-a-post-recession-shadow-on-state-finances.
  30. most diverse city in America: Deidre McPhillips, “How Racially and Ethnically Diverse Is Your City?” U.S. News & World Report, January 22, 2020, https://www.usnews.com/news/cities/articles/2020-01-22/measuring-racial-and-ethnic-diversity-in-americas-cities. Stockton ranked as the number one most diverse city in America in a 2018 index. Detroit ranked first for the rate of increase in its racial diversity. For a rich analysis of “islands of integration” like Stockton and soon Detroit, see Sheryll Cashin, The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class Are Undermining the American Dream (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
  31. representative group of twenty residents: United States Census Bureau, American Community Survey Demographic and Housing Estimates, Stockton, California, 2019, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Stockton%20city%20Race%20and%20Ethnicity&tid=ACSDP1Y2019.DP05; Gretchen Livingston, In U.S. Metro Areas, Huge Variation in Intermarriage Rates, Pew Research Center, May 18, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/18/in-u-s-metro-areas-huge-variation-in-intermarriage-rates/.
  32. higher rate of foreclosures: Ben Rooney, “Rust and Sun Belt cities lead ’07 foreclosures,” CNNMoney.com, February 13 2008, https://money.cnn.com/2008/02/12/real_estate/realtytrac/.
  33. “We all celebrate”: Margaret LaPlante, Images of America: Josephine County (Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2016), 27.
  34. “Ever the velvet slippers”: Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, The Rebel Girl: An Autobiography, My First Life (1906–1926) (New York: International Publishers, 1955), 127.
  35. blamed Lawrence for the regional opioid crisis: Marc Fortier and Mike Pescaro, “Mayor Fires Back After Trump Blames Lawrence for NH Opioid Problem,” NBC Boston, March 19, 2018, https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/president-trump-singles-out-lawrence-as-source-of-new-hampshire-opioid-problem/125432/.
  36. national study of all the local governments: Anderson, “The New Minimal Cities”; Anderson, “The Western, Rural Rustbelt”; Anderson, “Who Needs Local Government Anyway?”; Anderson, “Democratic Dissolution.” These states include Michigan, Rhode Island, Oregon, Pennsylvania, California, New York, and Tennessee.
  37. “the darkest evening… miles to go”: Robert Frost, “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” in The Poetry of Robert Frost, ed. Edward Connery Lathem (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1923).
  38. “City of Ruins”: Chris Hedges, “City of Ruins,” The Nation, November 4, 2010; Matt Taibbi, “Apocalypse, New Jersey: A Dispatch From America’s Most Desperate Town,” Rolling Stone, December 11, 2013; Donald Trump, “The Inaugural Address,” January 20, 2017, Trump White House, transcript and video, 34:00-34:46, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/the-inaugural-address/.
  39. Forbes magazine: Kurt Badenhausen, “America’s Most Miserable Cities,” Forbes, February 2, 2011, https://www.forbes.com/2011/02/02/stockton-miami-cleveland-business-washington-miserable-cities.html?sh=d33244479f3b.
  40. “pernicious circular logic”: Mitchell Duneier, Ghetto: The Invention of a Place, the History of an Idea (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2016).
  41. “quite how to pick rural America up”: Allan Golombek, “Sorry New York Times, Rural America Cannot Be Saved,” Real Clear Markets, December 18, 2018.
  42. 39 percent of the country: “Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households in 2018,” Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, May 2019, https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/2019-economic-well-being-of-us-households-in-2018-dealing-with-unexpected-expenses.htm; Kim Parker, Juliana Menasce Horowitz, and Anna Brown, “About Half of Lower-Income Americans Report Household Job or Wage Loss Due to COVID-19,” Pew Research Center, April 21, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/04/21/about-half-of-lower-income-americans-report-household-job-or-wage-loss-due-to-covid-19/#many-adults-have-rainy-day-funds-but-shares-differ-widely-by-race-education-and-income. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, only 47 percent of adults had emergency funds to last three months. That number was only 29 percent for Latino adults, 27 percent for Black adults, and 23 percent for lower income adults, no matter their race.
  43. “Obsolescence is the very hallmark of progress”: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of The Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 125.
  44. That 1971 plan: Michelle Wilde Anderson, “Cities Inside Out: Race, Poverty, and Exclusion at the Urban Fringe,” UCLA Law Review 55 (2008): 1095–1160; Laura Bliss, “Before California’s Drought, a Century of Disparity,” CityLab, October 1, 2015.
  45. Fifty years later: Camille Pannu, “Drinking Water and Exclusion: A Case Study from California’s Central Valley,” California Law Review 100, no. 1 (2012): 223–268; “The Town That Refuses to Die,” KALW, 91.7 FM, San Francisco, July 10, 2019, transcript and audio, https://www.kalw.org/podcast/crosscurrents-podcast/2019-07-10/the-town-that-refuses-to-die. Pannu notes that Tulare County marked Allensworth, for example, as lacking a future. Allensworth remains populated and proudly marks its heritage as the first Black town in California.
  46. Today, among those states: Anderson, “Democratic Dissolution.”
  47. Atrophy has yielded: Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, “The Unmattering of Black Lives,” The New Republic, May 21, 2020, https://newrepublic.com/article/157769/unmattering-black-lives. Race propels this legacy of dangerous atrophy. A powerful recent piece juxtaposed the loss of Black lives from police and vigilante violence and the ways in which environmental racism and health care disparities have driven mortality rates in Black communities. Kimberlé Crenshaw challenges readers to witness the connection “between the intentional killings and the left-dyings[.]”
  48. “You can’t say”: Sonia Sotomayor, My Beloved World (New York: Vintage Books, 2014), 95.
  49. His incumbent opponent: Richard Winton, “Stockton mayor arrested, accused of playing strip poker with a minor and giving them alcohol,” Los Angeles Times, August 4, 2016, https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-stockton-mayor-20160804-snap-story.html.

CHAPTER ONE: Stockton

  1. Judhromia Johnson, Jr.: “Edison High Student Shot Thursday Dies at Hospital,” The Record, February 9, 2010, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20100209/A_NEWS/2090320.
  2. Fernando Aguilar, sixteen: “Pair Arrested in Shooting Deaths of Two Teens at Party,” The Record, July 13, 2011, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20110713/a_news02/107130321.
  3. Juan Juarez-Martinez, seventeen: “Crime Stoppers (April 27, 2015),” The Record, April 26, 2015, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20150426/NEWS/150429709.
  4. Xavier Javier Plascencia, eighteen: Christian Burkin, “Family Disputes Gang Tie in Latest Slaying,” The Record, June 16, 2011, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20110616/A_NEWS/106160323.
  5. Joe Xiong, fifteen: Derek Shore, “Victim Recounts Stockton Backyard Birthday Shooting,” CBS Sacramento, July 25, 2011, https://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2011/07/25/victim-recounts-stockton-backyard-birthday-shooting/.
  6. Jorge Angulo… was shot: “Pedestrian Killed by Car Identified,” The Record, November 15, 2011, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20111115/A_NEWS02/111119943.
  7. Alejandro Vizcarra, sixteen: Roger Phillips, “Tragic List Keeps Growing,” The Record, January 5, 2012, http://www.recordnet.com/article/20120104/A_NEWS/201040314.
  8. an eighteen-year-old named Angelo Peraza: Barbara Zumwalt, “Four Killed in Two Week Spree,” The Record, September 14, 2011, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20110914/a_news/109140316.
  9. three other students: Phillips, “Tragic List.”
  10. a funeral home’s online guestbook: “Angelo ‘Lolo’ Peraza,” Tribute Archive, https://www.tributearchive.com/obituaries/3113018/Angelo-LOLO-Mark-Peraza/wall.
  11. “Nothing ever prepares you”: Roger Phillips and Christian Burkin, “Edison High in Shock,” The Record, February 6, 2010, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20100206/a_news/2060327.
  12. With just one counselor: “ACLU Releases New Data on Stockton Unified’s Pattern of Wrongly Arresting Students,” News, ACLU, June 6, 2017, https://www.aclunc.org/news/aclu-releases-new-data-stockton-unified-s-pattern-wrongly-arresting-students; University of California at Davis, Analysis of SUSD Data commissioned by the ACLU of Northern California, June 6, 2017, https://www.aclunc.org/sites/default/files/Analysis_June-2017-Stockton-USD-Data-Report.pdf.
  13. 2,000 arrests of students: Over-Policing in Stockton Schools: A Report Card, Stockton Education Equity Coalition, 2017, https://www.aclunc.org/sites/default/files/Report_Card_SEEC.pdf; SUSD Data Analysis, 4.
  14. 1989, when a white man opened fire: “Five Children Killed as Gunman Attacks a California School,” The New York Times, January 18, 1989, https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/18/us/five-children-killed-as-gunman-attacks-a-california-school.html.
  15. It was the worst K-12: “List of School Shootings in the United States (before 2000),” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_school_shootings_in_the_United_States_(before_2000).
  16. Two boom boxes: Lisa Fernandez, “Punjabis and Mexican Dance Together on July 4 and the Internet Goes Crazy,” FOX KTVU, July 19, 2017, http://www.ktvu.com/news/punjabis-and-mexican-dance-together-on-july-4-and-the-internet-goes-crazy.
  17. Some families have centuries: “San Joaquin Valley, Part of Foothills Home of Yokut Tribe,” Escalon Times, October 13, 2020, https://www.escalontimes.com/209-living/san-joaquin-valley-part-foothills-home-yokut-tribes/; Terry Jones and Kathryn Klar, eds., California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity (Lanham, MD: Alta Mira Press, 2010).
  18. Some locals of Mexican and Spanish descent: George Tays, “Pio Pico’s Correspondence with the Mexican Government, 1846–1848,” California Historical Society Quarterly, 13, no. 2 (June 1934): 124, http://www.militarymuseum.org/PioPicoCorrespondence.pdf. Commodore Stockton spared no blood in conquering California, but afterward he proclaimed, “All persons of whatever religion and whatever nation who freely adhere to the new Government, shall be considered as citizens of the territory, and as such shall be zealously and completely protected in their liberty of conscience, persons and property.”
  19. They would cram into stagecoach: R. Coke Wood, “The Rise of Stockton,” San Joaquin Historian 9, no.1 (January-March 1973): 2, 4.
  20. People say that nearly every: Michael Bennett, “On Lock Sam: In the Heart of the Third City,” San Joaquin Historian 14, no. 3 (2000): 1–9, http://www.sanjoaquinhistory.org/documents/HistorianNS14-3.pdf.
  21. Thousands fled their island nation: Dawn Bohulano Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013), 56. By World War II, Stockton was home to the largest community of Filipinas/os living outside the Philippines, earning the city’s downtown the nickname “Little Manila.”
  22. Filipino farmworkers migrated: Maya Abood, San Joaquin Valley Fair Housing and Equity Assessment (Sacramento, CA: California Coalition for Affordable Housing, 2014), 30, https://www.frbsf.org/community-development/files/SJV-Fair-Housing-and-Equity-Assessment.pdf.
  23. as labor rotations brought workers back: Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart.
  24. where boosters claimed: Mark Arax and Rick Wartzman, The King of California: J.G. Boswell and the Making of a Secret American Empire (New York: Public Affairs, 2003), 257.
  25. One hundred years of systematic recruitment: Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 69.
  26. From 1975 to the late 1980s: Don Walker, “A Short History of the Southeast Asian Immigration to San Joaquin County,” San Joaquin Historian 17, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 5, https://web.archive.org/web/20190326134038/http://www.sanjoaquinhistory.org/documents/HistorianNS17-2.pdf.
  27. embodies the racial violence: Robert V. Hine and John M. Faragher, The American West: A New Interpretive History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2000), 248–249; Lori Gilbert, “Our Diversity: Native Americans First to Call Stockton Home,” The Record, November, 29, 2014, http://www.recordnet.com/article/20141129/ENTERTAINMENTLIFE/141129569; Benjamin Madley, An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 62. Treaties in 1848 and then in 1851 extinguished Mexican and Native land rights. On August 17, 1846, Commodore Robert Stockton issued a proclamation that “[t]he only effectual means of stopping [Indian] inroads on the property of the country, will be to attack them in their villages.” The proclamation escalated calls for violence against native Californians, who were killed at numbers classified by historians as a genocide.
  28. The Ku Klux Klan: Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 94–95.
  29. Public officials assembled: Brian Niiya, “Stockton (Detention Facility),” Densho Encylopedia, http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Stockton%20%28detention%20facility%29/. The Stockton Assembly Center detained more than 4,000 Japanese-Americans who lived across the county over a 160-day period in 1942. Nearly all families were then moved to an internment camp in Rohwer, Arkansas.
  30. Banks used racially restrictive covenants: Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 272–275, 335–342.
  31. City leaders bulldozed homes: Mabalon, Little Manila Is in the Heart, 278–296.
  32. there are no plaques: Javier Padilla Reyes, “What Has Changed? From Segregation to Discrimination,” Placeholder, May 25, 2021, http://www.placeholdermag.com/culture/2017/08/17/from-segregation-to-discrimination-what-has-changed.html. Reyes shows how the historical consequences of redlining are easily visible in Stockton using CalEnviroScreen, a tool that produces scores for census tracts based on environmental, health, and socioeconomic factors. Formerly redlined Stockton neighborhoods are some of the most polluted and unhealthy in the entire state.
  33. federal funding allocated: Brett Theodos, Christina Plerhoples Stacy, and Helen Ho, Taking Stock of the Community Development Block Grant (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 2017), 3, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/89551/cdbg_brief.pdf; Roger Biles, The Fate of Cities: Urban America and the Federal Government, 1945–2000 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2011), 190, 316, 325, 332. The modern era of federal funding for local improvements such as water and sewer infrastructure, flood control, public facilities for children and the elderly, parks, and historic preservation began with the establishment of the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) Program in 1974. The federal government slashed funding for this program from 1981 to 1992. The federal urban agenda in the 1990s focused on investing in police for crime control and tax incentives for businesses.
  34. Stockton is a big city: 2019 San Joaquin County Crop Report (Stockton, CA: Office of the Agricultural Commissioner, San Joaquin County, 2019), https://www.sjgov.org/WorkArea//DownloadAsset.aspx?id=33165.
  35. Two freeways and a railroad: Lange Luntao, “A City With No Center,” Placeholder, September 3, 2014, https://www.placeholdermag.com/culture/2014/09/03/a-city-with-no-center.html. Stockton native and community leader Lange Luntao wrote an exceptional history of how the city’s major transportation infrastructure, especially its segments of Route 99 and Interstate-5, exacerbated the urban development character that the city is now infamous for: segregated, deteriorated older neighborhoods; a struggling downtown; and the “unsightly and unsustainable” sprawl.
  36. has mostly lost its better-paid manufacturing: Abbie Langston and Justin Scoggins, Stockton in Transition: Embedding Equity in an Emerging Megaregional Economy (Oakland, CA: PolicyLink, 2019), 2–4.
  37. that land is used: Darrah, Getting Political, 216.
  38. Even in the national growth years: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Unemployment: Stockton City, CA (U),” Local Area Unemployment Statistics, BLS Data Viewer, accessed January 23, 2022, https://beta.bls.gov/dataViewer/view/timeseries/LAUCT067500000000003.
  39. One in four people: U.S. Census Bureau, “Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months,” 2015–2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, accessed January 23, 2022, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=Poverty%20Stockton&tid=ACSST5Y2019.S1701.
  40. Well over half of the tenants: U.S. Census Bureau, “Financial Characteristics,” 2015–2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, accessed January 23, 2022, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=housing%20income%20stockton&tid=ACSST5Y2019.S2503.
  41. More than one-third: U.S. Census Bureau, “Financial Characteristics for Housing Units with a Mortgage, 2015–2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, accessed January 23, 2022, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=housing%20income%20stockton&tid=ACSST1Y2019.S2506.
  42. living wage income: Philip Martin, Brandon Hooker, and Marc Stockton, “Employment and Earnings of California Farmworkers in 2015,” California Agriculture 72, no. 2 (2017): 110, http://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?type=pdf&article=ca.2017a0043.
  43. seven of the ten counties: Cassie Hertzog et. al., California’s San Joaquin Valley: A Region and Its Children Under Stress (January 2017), 5, https://regionalchange.ucdavis.edu/report/region-and-its-children-under-stress.
  44. Too many parents: Adam Brinklow, “SF Driving Up Commute Times in Northern California,” Curbed, April 25, 2018, https://sf.curbed.com/2018/4/25/17280190/cars-traffic-commuter-commute-san-francisco-bay-area.
  45. Nearly one in ten working adults: Mike McPhate, “California Today: The Rise of the Super Commuter,” New York Times, August 21, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/21/us/california-today-super-commutes-stockton.html.
  46. city’s homicide rate: David Bennett and Donna Lattin, Stockton California Marshall Plan: A Violence Reduction Strategy, Lecture, Stockton Violence Reduction Symposium, February 8, 2013, https://crime-data-explorer.app.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend to find more recent info? Slides=1985-2012].
  47. one of the highest rates of incarceration: California Sentencing Institute, Total Incarceration Rate 2016, http://casi.cjcj.org/Adult/2016. County courts vary in their use of incarceration relative to other ways of handling criminal justice matters (such as addiction treatment through a drug court program or probation) and the length of sentences.
  48. transferring youths to adult criminal court: California Sentencing Institute, Juvenile State Prison Population 2016, http://casi.cjcj.org/Juvenile/2016.
  49. city’s police department ranked twelfth: Mapping Police Violence, Police Accountability Tool, https://mappingpoliceviolence.org/cities.
  50. local news station reported: “Man Shot, Killed Outside Stockton Movie Theatre,” CBS 13 Sacramento, April 25, 2014, http://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2014/04/25/man-shot-outside-stockton-movie-theater/.
  51. more than $190 million in capital projects: City’s Brief in Support of Statement of Qualifications, In re City of Stockton (June 29, 2012), 33.
  52. “phantasmagoria of worn-out, mangled faces”: Leonard Gardner, Fat City (New York: New York Review Books, 1969), 122.
  53. One journalist wrote: Joan Darrah, Getting Political: Stories of a Woman Mayor (Sanger, California: Quill Driver Books, 2003), 221 (quoting Michael Fitzgerald of The Stockton Record).
  54. the “uncontrolled development”: Darrah, Getting Political, 158.
  55. major raise in 2020: Cassie Dickman, “Stockton City Council, Mayor, Getting a Pay Raise in January,” The Record, December 2, 2020, https://www.recordnet.com/story/news/local/2020/12/02/pay-raises-approved-stockton-city-council-mayor/3796764001/.
  56. By comparison, the city of Riverside: Budget analysis on file with author.
  57. Stockton’s housing prices fell: California Common Sense, How Stockton Went Bust: A California City’s Decade of Policies and the Financial Crisis that Followed (July 1, 2012), 4, https://www.heartland.org/_template-assets/documents/publications/how_stockton_went_bust.pdf.
  58. By 2011, 56 percent of mortgages: Robbie Whelan, “Second-Mortgage Misery,” Wall Street Journal, June 7, 2011, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304906004576369844062260756.
  59. Reuters called Stockton: Michelle Conlin and Jim Christie, “Stockton: The town the housing boom broke” Reuters, March 19, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-economy-stockton/stockton-the-town-the-housing-boom-broke-idUSBRE82I0EJ20120319.
  60. Property tax revenues: In re City of Stockton, California, Debtor, 493 B.R. 772, 778 (Bankr. E.D. Cal. 2013).
  61. city cut nearly $90 million: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 780.
  62. “Stockton committed”: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 779.
  63. unaffordable pension obligations: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 779; “How Stockton Went Bust,” 8–9.
  64. By 2010, Stockton faced: City’s Brief in Support of Statement of Qualifications, In re City of Stockton (June 29, 2012), 33–35.
  65. Podesto also signed a twenty-year: Gary Wolff, Independent Review of the Proposed Stockton Water Privatization (Oakland: The Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security, 2003), https://www.inthepublicinterest.org/wp-content/uploads/stockton_privatization_review1.pdf; Gary Wolff et al., “Private Sector Participation in Water Services: Through the Lens of Stockton,” Hastings Law Journal 57 (2006): 1328-31; Concerned Citizens Coalition of Stockton v. City of Stockton, No. CV020397, 2006 WL 6111277 (Cal. Super. 2006).
  66. That deal did not stand up in court: Hidden Costs: The High Cost of Water Privatization Before It Even Starts (Oakland: Public Citizen, 2014), https://www.citizen.org/wp-content/uploads/acf2a8.pdf.
  67. Layoff notices went home: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 780.
  68. Remaining employees took benefit cuts: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 779–80.
  69. police union rented a billboard: Jeffrey Michael, “Do Stockton Police Care About Their City?” Valley Economy (blog), May 31, 2010, http://valleyecon.blogspot.com/2010/05/do-stockton-police-care-about-their.html.
  70. “Homicides were at”: City of Stockton, 493 B.R. 772, 780.
  71. The year 2012: Joe Goldeen, “Epidemic of Violence,” The Record, January 13, 2013, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20130113/a_news02/301130317.
  72. Officers adapted to staffing shortfalls: Tom DuHain, “Stockton police to focus on violent crime,” KCRA 3 (Jun. 1, 2012), http://www.kcra.com/article/stockton-police-to-focus-on-violent-crime/6397012.
  73. “Arm yourself or get out”: J. Joe Stiglich, “Oakland A’s Pitcher Dallas Braden Goes Ballistic at Stockton Town Meeting,” Mercury News, September 27, 2012, https://www.mercurynews.com/2012/09/27/oakland-as-pitcher-dallas-braden-goes-ballistic-at-stockton-town-meeting/.
  74. By 2012: Kurt Badenhausen, “America’s Most Miserable Cities,” Forbes, February 2, 2011, http://www.forbes.com/2011/02/02/stockton-miami-cleveland-business-washington-miserable-cities.html.
  75. San Joaquin County Grand Jury Report: San Joaquin County Grand Jury, South Stockton Quality of Life: As the South Side Goes, So Goes Stockton, Case Number 1414, 2015, 1, http://standaffordablehousing.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Grand-Jury-Report-on-South-Stockton-5-13-15.pdf?44cce4.
  76. “Lord, please help us.”: Michelle Conlin and Jim Christie, “Stockton: The Town the Housing Boom Broke,” Reuters, March 19, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-economy-stockton/stockton-the-town-the-housing-boom-broke-idUSBRE82I0EJ20120319.
  77. city council voted: City of Stockton, “City of Stockton Files for Chapter 9 Bankruptcy Protection,” news release, June 28, 2012, http://www.stocktonca.gov/files/News_2012_6_28_BankruptcyPetition.pdf.
  78. Stockton’s high-income Lincoln Village: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, Place Matters for Health in the San Joaquin Valley: Ensuring Opportunities for Good Health for All, March 2012, 17, https://www.nationalcollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/PLACE-MATTERS-for-Health-in-San-Joaquin-Valley.pdf; Joe Goldeen, “Two Neighborhoods, Years Apart,” Record, March 1, 2012, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20120301/A_NEWS/203010317.
  79. women’s walking group: Roger Phillips, “Crimes Rattle Victory Park,” Record, September 25, 2012, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20120925/a_news/209250318.
  80. after Lara’s arrival: “We Can Solve Crimes and Take Care of Our Community,” Media Center, United States Congressman Jerry McNerney, February 22, 2013, https://mcnerney.house.gov/media-center/in-the-news/we-can-solve-crimes-and-take-control-of-our-community.
  81. According to court documents: Petition for Nuisance Abatement and Receivership at 1-9, City of Stockton v. Singh, No. STC-CV-UMCP-2016-5206 (May 31, 2016).
  82. business was open to the public: Petition for Nuisance Abatement and Receivership at 8, City of Stockton v. Singh, No. STC-CV-UMCP-2016-5206 (May 31, 2016).
  83. The store captured the paradox: Alexandra Natapoff, “Underenforcement,” Fordham Law Review 75, no. 3 (2006), https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4241&context=flr. This is a rich explanation of how under-policing in low-income communities of color often runs in tandem with excessive criminalization, punishment, and police shows of force.
  84. a tough place to run a nonprofit: City of Stockton & Reinvent South Stockton Coalition, Stockton Reinvention Tour, June 2018, https://ncg.org/sites/default/files/files/pages/ReinventStockton_June1_2018_Summary.pdf.
  85. southside library closed: City memo on file with author.
  86. early speeches rallied: True Son, directed by Kevin Gordon (California: Jahanu Films & True Son Productions, 2014).
  87. church-based volunteers: Kevin Parrish, “Faith, Hope, and Solidarity,” The Record, March 21, 2012, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20120321/A_NEWS/203210321.
  88. Easy access to alcohol: Rachel Davis, Howard Pinderhughes, and Myesha Williams, Adverse Community Experiences and Resilience: A Framework for Addressing and Preventing Community Trauma, February 2016, https://www.preventioninstitute.org/publications/adverse-community-experiences-and-resilience-framework-addressing-and-preventing. A recent report funded by the Kaiser Foundation, based in part on evidence from Stockton, defines “community trauma” in three dimensions: the socio-cultural environment, the physical/built environment, and the economic environment (including education).
  89. Two shootings at the store: Petition for Nuisance Abatement and Receivership, City of Stockton v. Singh, No. STC-CV-UMCP-2016-5206 (May 31, 2016): 2.
  90. “in any sustained and meaningful way”: South Stockton Quality of Life, 1.
  91. Stockton tied for first place: Martha Hostetter, Sarah Klein, and Douglas McCarthy, Health Care Improvement in Stockton, California: Collaboration, Capacity-Building, and Medicaid Expansion (New York: The Commonwealth Fund, July 2017), https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/case-study/2017/jul/health-care-improvement-stockton-california-collaboration-capacity.
  92. first mayor elected after bankruptcy: Nashelly Chavez and Bill Lindelof, “Stockton Mayor Arrested, Accused of Holding Strip Poker Game at Youth Camp,” Sacramento Bee, August 4, 2016, https://www.sacbee.com/news/local/crime/article93717602.html.
  93. supplemental metric developed at UCSF: “Screening Tools,” Aces Aware, https://www.acesaware.org/learn-about-screening/screening-tools/. Researchers developed an updated tool called the Pediatric ACEs and Related Life-Events Screener (PEARLs). California became the first state in the nation to reimburse health care providers for screening Medi-Cal patients for ACEs.
  94. revealed the scope of child abuse: Kathryn Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems: Risks, Resilience and Interventions (Baltimore: Family-Informed Trauma Treatment Center, 2010), 4, https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources/resource-guide/understanding_impact_trauma_urban_poverty_family_systems.pdf.
  95. these worrisome high scores: Cecilia Chen and Nadine Burke Harris, A Hidden Crisis: Findings on Adverse Childhood Experiences in California (Center for Youth Wellness, February 2020), https://centerforyouthwellness.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/hidden-crisis-errataversion.pdf:6. White and Black adults have roughly the same rate of ACE scores at or above four. Latinos have a slightly higher rate, and a group defined as “Asian, Pacific Islanders, or other races” has a slightly lower rate.
  96. an ACE score of six or more: Ibid., 4.
  97. odds go up: Ryan C. Meldrum et al., “Are Adverse Childhood Experiences Associated with Deficits in Self-Control? A Test Among Two Independent Samples,” Criminal Justice & Behavior 47, no. 2 (2020): 166, 167; Joshua Mersky, James Topitzes, and Arthur Reynolds, “Unsafe at Any Age: Linking Childhood and Adolescent Maltreatment to Delinquency and Crime,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 49, no. 2 (2012): 295, 298.
  98. an ACE score of four or more: Devika Bhushan et al., Roadmap for Resilience: The California Surgeon General’s Report on Adverse Childhood Experiences, Toxic Stress, and Health (Office of the California Surgeon General, 2020), Table 1, https://www.acesaware.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Roadmap-For-Resilience_CA-Surgeon-Generals-Report-on-ACEs-Toxic-Stress-and-Health.pdf.
  99. more than five times as likely: Chen and Burke Harris, A Hidden Crisis, 10, 12.
  100. risk of social outcomes: Devika Bhushan et al., Roadmap for Resilience, 156.
  101. three violent ACEs: Chen and Burke Harris, A Hidden Crisis, 14.
  102. drives a person’s likelihood: Bryanna Hahn Fox et al., “Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent and chronic juvenile offenders,” Child Abuse & Neglect 46 (August 2015), 165; Mersky et al., “Unsafe at Any Age,” 298–99, 306–9; David Eitle and R. Jay Turner, “Exposure to Community Violence and Young Adult Crime: The Effects of Witnessing Violence, Traumatic Victimization, and Other Stressful Life Events,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 39, no. 2 (May 2002): 226, 231–32.
  103. exposure to a toxin: Devika Bhushan et al., Roadmap for Resilience, 7.
  104. They evolved to flood the body: Gayla Margolin and Elana B. Gordis, “The Effects of Family and Community Violence on Children,” Annual Review of Psychology 51, no. 1 (February 2000): 459–461, 462–464; Nadine Burke Harris, The Deepest Well: Healing the Long-Term Effects of Childhood Adversity (Boston: Mariner Books, 2019), 57–76.
  105. stress levels can become toxic: Burke Harris, The Deepest Well, 54–55.
  106. adversity can trigger: Charles F. Gillespie et al., “Trauma exposure and stress-related disorders in inner city primary care patients,” General Hospital Psychiatry 31 (2009): 506.
  107. Trauma commonly triggers depression: Keisha Carr Paxton et al., “Psychological Distress for African-American Adolescent Males: Exposure to Community Violence and Social Support as Factors,” Child Psychiatry and Human Development 34 no. 4 (Summer 2004): 290–91.
  108. overeating or drug use: Sunghyun Hong and Inger Burnett-Ziegler, “The Frequency of PTSD and Subthreshold PTSD among African-American Women with Depressive Symptoms in a Disadvantaged Urban Neighborhood: Pilot Study,” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 4 no. 6 (2017): 1069. Trauma can cause disorders other than PTSD or induce symptoms that fall below the clinical line for PTSD (known as subthreshold PTSD). In one study, 70 percent of women from disadvantaged neighborhoods who had experienced trauma show some degree of PTSD symptomatology.
  109. learn to wear a mask of aggression: Kenneth Dodge, J.E. Bates, and G.S. Pettit, “Mechanisms in the Cycle of Violence,” Science 250, no. 4988 (December 1990): 1678, 1681; Christopher M. Adams, “The Consequences of Witnessing Family Violence on Children and Implications for Family Counselors,” The Family Journal 14, no. 4 (October 2006): 334–37.
  110. Patterns of harmful events: Davis, Pinderhughes, and Williams, Adverse Community Experiences and Resilience, 12.
  111. feelings that a person is not safe: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems: Risks, Resilience and Interventions, 11–12.
  112. Even when a child or adolescent: Karyn Horowitz, Stevan Weine, and James Jekel, “PTSD Symptoms in Urban Adolescent Girls: Compounded Community Trauma,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34, no. 10 (October 1995): 1357–58, https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199510000-00021.
  113. “Hearing about violent events”: Ibid., 1358.
  114. school performance goes down: Christopher M. Adams, “The Consequences of Witnessing Family Violence on Children and Implications for Family Counselors,” The Family Journal 14, no. 4 (October 2006): 334, 337. This describes developmental delays and lower academic achievement in children who have observed domestic violence against their mother.
  115. Trauma can affect: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems, 11.
  116. the natural “egocentrism”: Burke Harris, The Deepest Well, 101.
  117. secondary health harm: Emma Barrett, Katherine Mills, and Maree Teesson, “Hurt People Who Hurt People: Violence Amongst Individuals with Comorbid Substance Use Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Addictive Behaviors no. 36 (2011): 721, 723.
  118. major regional public health assessment… the city’s highest-poverty neighborhoods: San Joaquin County 2016 Community Health Needs Assessment, 39, 64, https://healthiersanjoaquin.org/pdfs/2016/2016_CHNA_full_document-narrative_and_health_profiles.pdf.
  119. number of domestic violence: Ibid., 13.
  120. More than 18 percent: Ibid., 64.
  121. high school juniors reported: Ibid., 66.
  122. Fifteen percent reported: Ibid., 39, 64
  123. Yet San Joaquin County: Ibid., 63.
  124. One-third of people who were abused: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems, 4.
  125. Parents’ own trauma: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems, 1-2; Mark Assink et al., “The Intergenerational Transmission of Child Maltreatment: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis,” Child Abuse and Neglect 84 (August 2018): 131, 132, 142. In a meta-analysis of eighty-four studies of child maltreatment, researchers found that the odds of child maltreatment (including physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as neglect) were nearly three times higher in families of parents with their own history of child maltreatment. The study found that factors such as parents’ social isolation, parents’ young age, stress, poverty, attachment insecurity, maternal substance abuse, and parents’ current violence victimization all compounded the risk of intergenerational transfer of mistreatment.
  126. Traumatized adults: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems.
  127. “buffering adults” can transform outcomes: Assink et al., “Intergenerational Transmission,” 142. Supportive relationships with non-abusive adults in both childhood and adulthood (along with other social support and an escape from poverty) are associated with lower intergenerational transmission of child mistreatment.
  128. Supportive relationships, nutrition: Collins et al., Understanding the Impact of Trauma and Urban Poverty on Family Systems, 22.
  129. Mothers who suffered abuse: Egeland et al., “Breaking the Cycle of Abuse,” 1087.
  130. The crack… epidemic: Donovan X. Ramsey, When Crack Was King (New York: One World/Random House, 2022).
  131. some of those traumatized children: Matthew Phelan, “The History of ‘Hurt People Hurt People,’ ” Slate, September 17, 2019, https://slate.com/culture/2019/09/hurt-people-hurt-people-quote-origin-hustlers-phrase.html. The phrase “hurt people hurt people” seems to have been popularized by self-help books, religious figures, and media. The psychological and biological truth of trauma is not that simple.
  132. an $850,000 grant: St. Joseph’s Medical Center, “Initiative to Address Trauma in South Stockton Receives $850K,” August 1, 2016, https://www.dignityhealth.org/central-california/locations/stjosephs-stockton/about-us/press-center/initiative-to-address-trauma-in-south-stockton-receives-$850k.
  133. held out as a model: Harold Pierce, “Stockton Emerging as Public Health Model for Toxic Stress Intervention,” Bakersfield Californian, September 16, 2017, https://www.bakersfield.com/news/stockton-emerging-as-public-health-model-for-toxic-stress-intervention/article_9d0c3d90-94d3-11e7-96f4-6b3d30fae5a8.html.
  134. how to recognize the signs of trauma: Maria Lotty et al., “Effectiveness of a Trauma-Informed Care Psychoeducational Program for Foster Carers—Evaluation of the Fostering Connections Program,” Child Abuse and Neglect 102 (2020): 9. In a study of foster parents, for example, researchers found that those who received TIC training reported less child behavioral and emotional difficulties by the fifteenth month.
  135. Apu was proud to report: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/100707/impact_of_the_national_initiative_for_building_community_trust_and_justice_on_police_administrative_outcomes_2.pdf.
  136. police solved more cases: Dan Lawrence et al., Impact of the National Initiative for Building Community Trust and Justice on Police Administrative Outcomes (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 2019): 4, 36; https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/100707/impact_of_the_national_initiative_for_building_community_trust_and_justice_on_police_administrative_outcomes_2.pdf; Michael Friedrich, “A Police Department’s Difficult Assignment: Atonement,” Bloomberg CityLab, October 23, 2019.
  137. the office’s civilian Ceasefire and Peacekeeper: Jesse Jannetta et al., Learning to Build Police-Community Trust (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 2019): 46–47.
  138. Mayor Tubbs recruited and secured: Steve Lopez, “Column: Stockton’s Young Mayor Has Bold Turnaround Plan: Basic Income and Stipends for Potential Shooters,” Los Angeles Times, May 26, 2018, https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-lopez-stockton-money-05272018-story.html; “The Solution,” Advance Peace, https://www.advancepeace.org/about/the-solution/.
  139. medical care to treat gunshot injuries: Mike McLively, October 17, 2017, letter of support for Funding Agreement with Advance Peace to Implement the Peacemaker Fellowship Program, https://stockton.granicus.com/MetaViewer.php?view_id=63&clip_id=6064&meta_id=526071.
  140. build an evidence-based plan: Clese Erikson and Lydia Mitts, South Stockton Promise Zone (Washington: Funders Forum on Accountable Health, George Washington University, 2018), 5–6, https://accountablehealth.gwu.edu/sites/accountablehealth.gwu.edu/files/CA%20-%20South%20Stockton.pdf.
  141. This barrier dates back: “About the Board,” California Victim Compensation Board, https://victims.ca.gov/board/; Lily Dayton, “Most Survivors Want More Rehab, Less Punishment for Victimizers,” Rosenberg Foundation, August 23, 2016, https://rosenbergfound.org/most-survivors-want-more-rehab-less-punishment-for-victimizers/; Cal. Govt. Code § 13963.1. The Reagan Administration created a federal Victims of Crime Act Fund, which sets aside the fines and penalties levied against federal offenders, then distributes those funds to state victim support programs. California also uses substantial fines and fees generated by the criminal justice system for a victim compensation fund to help pay victims’ expenses. In 2013, California began a competitive grant program to use surplus victim compensation funds to pay for trauma recovery centers, which offer counseling and a broad range of support to the victims of sexual assault, shootings, and other crimes; and the surviving family members of homicide.
  142. principles of freedom under law: Lois Herrington and Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on Signing Executive Order 12360, Establishing the President’s Task Force on Victims of Crime,” April 23, 1982, https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/research/speeches/42382b.
  143. database is not publicly accessible: “911 Calls,” The Record, October 28, 2010, https://www.recordnet.com/article/20101028/A_NEWS0201/10280315.
  144. A 2016 state audit of this database: The CalGang Criminal Intelligence System (California State Auditor, August 11, 2016), https://www.voiceofsandiego.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/CalGangs-audit.pdf.
  145. more than 100,000 people were listed: Attorney General’s Annual Report on CalGang (California Department of Justice, 2017) 3, https://oag.ca.gov/sites/all/files/agweb/pdfs/calgang/ag-annual-report-calgang-2017.pdf.
  146. dropped to 45,000: California Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Annual Report on CalGang, 2020, 1–4, https://oag.ca.gov/sites/all/files/agweb/pdfs/calgang/ag-annual-report-calgang-2020.pdf.
  147. wait five years after his last entry: Retention Period for Adult Records, 11 C.C.R. §§ 754.4(a)(6-7) (2021); Criteria to be Designated as a Gang Member or Associate, 11 C.C.R. § 752.4(a) (2021).
  148. “Healing For All” bill: Healing for All Act of 2017, A.B. 1639, August 20, 2018, https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB1639.
  149. She embarked on an ambitious campaign: December 2020 Surgeon General report: “Roadmap for Resilience: The California Surgeon General’s Report on Adverse Childhood Experiences, Toxic Stress, and Health,” https://health.ucdavis.edu/crhd/pdfs/resources/roadmap-for-resilience-ca-surgeon-generals-report-on-aces-toxic-stress-and-health-12092020.pdf.
  150. she visited Stockton: “New California Surgeon General Joins Community Groups in Stockton to Discuss Health Disparities,” California Pan-Ethnic Health Network, January 22, 2019, https://cpehn.org/about-us/blog/new-california-surgeon-general-joins-community-groups-in-stockton-to-discuss-health-disparities/.
  151. A local blog: “The Chaos Machine: An Endless Hole,” Invisibilia Season 7, Episode 2, April 29, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/04/29/992017530/the-chaos-machine-an-endless-hole; David Siders, “The Fall of Michael Tubbs,” Politico, December 23, 2020, https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/12/23/the-fall-of-michael-tubbs-449619.

CHAPTER TWO: Josephine

  1. The creek is named after: Stephanie Flora, “Emigrants to Oregon in 1846,” http://www.oregonpioneers.com/1846.htm; “The Applegate Trail Interpretive Center,” Rogue Web, http://www.rogueweb.com/interpretive/. Crowley was part of an early party traveling on the Applegate Trail, which was intended as a less dangerous route than the Oregon Trail. For decades, Crowley’s grave served as a trail marker for travelers crossing the region’s forested mountains, and later to the gold miners who laid claim to Grave Creek’s banks.
  2. According to a detective on the case: “Suspect sought in death of girlfriend,” The Bulletin, July 23, 2009, https://www.bendbulletin.com/localstate/suspect-sought-in-death-of-girlfriend/article_3076ffa8-0f42-5ccc-a27a-9c608b52c025.html; Chris Conrad, “Wolf Creek man charged in girlfriend’s killing,” Mail Tribune, August 29, 2009, https://www.mailtribune.com/crime-courts-and-emergencies/2009/08/29/wolf-creek-man-charged-in-girlfriends-killing/.
  3. When O’Dell was a boy: “Suspect sought,” Associated Press.
  4. His mother was then killed: Ibid.
  5. On the cover of a history: Ibid.
  6. Teddy Roosevelt’s speech celebrating: “The Man in the Arena Speech,” The Theodore Roosevelt Center, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Blog/Item/The%20Man%20in%20the%20Arena.
  7. The federal government had been sending: “Governor’s Task Force on Federal Forest Payments and County Services,” Final Report (State of Oregon: 2009), 4, 12, 30, 78, https://digital.osl.state.or.us/islandora/object/osl%3A18897. The term “timber counties” can broadly refer to the thirty-three counties in Oregon that receive some share of the federal timber payments described later in this chapter. In several of these counties, including Josephine, at least 60 percent of the land is federally owned. These counties are most at risk of severe losses of general fund revenues when federal direct subsidies fall or terminate.
  8. the area around Grave Creek was governed: Doyce B. Nunis, Jr., ed., The Golden Frontier: The Recollections of Herman Francis Reinhart, 1851-1869 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1962), 48 n.32.
  9. The Umpqua and Rogue River watersheds: “The Cow Creek Story,” Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians, https://www.cowcreek-nsn.gov/tribal-story/.
  10. Coastal forests nurtured a rich Umpqua tradition: Patricia Whereat-Phillips, Ethnobotany of the Coos, Lower Umpqua, and Siuslaw Indians (Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2016).
  11. They lost more than half of their community: George W. Riddle, History of Early Days in Oregon (Riddle, OR: Reprinted from the Riddle Enterprise, 1920), 56.
  12. In 1852, settlers accused the son: Ibid.; Nunis, Golden Frontier, 47–48. According to a settler reporting on this event, “to the Indians, the boy’s fault would not compare with the treatment their women had received from drunken white men.”
  13. a vigilance committee—a group of white volunteers: Hubert Howe Bancroft and Frances Fuller Victor, History of Oregon (San Francisco: The History Company, 1888), 369–79. In southern Oregon and northern California at this time, volunteer militiamen tracked and killed Native Americans deemed hostile or “annoying” to white settlers.
  14. The chief’s son was easy to recognize: Nunis, Golden Frontier, 47–48.
  15. Within four hours: Ibid., 48; Riddle, Early Days, 56.
  16. They hanged the chief’s son: Ibid.
  17. The chief himself was subsequently murdered: Cow Creek Band, “Cow Creek Story.”
  18. settlers forced tribal members on a 160-mile journey: Robert H. Ruby, John A. Brown, and Cary C. Collins, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, 3rd ed. (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010), 107.
  19. Oregon legally established 1,642 square miles: “Josephine County History,” Oregon Secretary of State, https://sos.oregon.gov/archives/records/county/Pages/josephine-history.aspx.
  20. The county elected eight public officers: Ibid.
  21. bands of volunteers continued to patrol: Bancroft and Victor, History of Oregon, 369-79. For a general overview of the history and origins of posse comitatus in the West, see David B. Kopel, “The ‘Posse Comitatus’ and the Office of Sheriff: Armed Citizens Summoned to the Aid of Law Enforcement,” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 104, no. 4 (Fall 2014): 761–850.
  22. Like most western counties at that time: James J. Chriss, Beyond Community Policing: From Early American Beginnings to the 21st Century (London: Routledge, 2011), 50. The “continuing heavy presence” of the military in western states—which was full of volunteer militiamen committing vigilante violence against Native Americans—suppressed the development of formal cities and towns with social services, such as fire and police.
  23. the rural township of Wolf Creek: “Endangered gray wolf is found dead in Northern California,” Los Angeles Times, February 6, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-02-06/endangered-gray-wolf-found-dead-in-northern-california. Like many other places called Wolf Creek across the Pacific Northwest, Josephine’s Wolf Creek township was named for the gray wolves who visited the riverbanks for water at night. Somehow those wolves seem symbolic. Every wolf in the state had been shot or poisoned through eradication programs by 1947. But sixty years later, wolves had crossed back into the state from the east, and northeast Oregon had its first new wild wolf pack. In 2011, one of its young members (tracked on GPS as OR-7 but nicknamed Journey) made a 1,200 mile trek across Oregon, into California, and back home again. He had become the first wolf in California in ninety years. He later sired a female, tracked as OR-54, who traveled 8,712 miles across the forest and mountain ranges of Oregon and California. She was shot in Shasta County in 2020, but the species had progressed across impossible odds. They refused to be wiped off the land that bore their names.
  24. a resurgent back-to-the-land movement: James J. Kopp, Eden Within Eden: Oregon’s Utopian Heritage (Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2009). Southern Oregon and northern California had long been a place for seeking utopia, with one of the richest histories of communes in the country. In the early decades of the twentieth century, the region was home to agricultural and labor cooperatives offering an alternative to bursting industrial cities. In the Great Depression, a “back to the land” movement in the region focused more on survival, as people struggled to find a “place where a man stood a chance.” Mid-century, at the peak of postwar anticommunism and the rise of suburbia, cooperatives and communes faded away, only to roar back to life in the region during the 1960s and 1970s. In those decades, new waves of seekers (including “refugees from affluence”) established new communities of alternative religions, nontraditional family structures, communal housing, and sustainable lifestyles.
  25. Josephine County landed on the cover of Life magazine: “The Youth Communes: New Way of Living Confronts the U.S.,” LIFE magazine, July 18, 1969, 21.
  26. Leaders there published WomanSpirit: Heather Burmeister, “Women’s Lands in Southern Oregon: Jean Mountaingrove and Bethroot Gwynn Tell Their Stories,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 115, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 61–62, 79, https://doi.org/10.5403/oregonhistq.115.1.0060.
  27. “verdant comfort of the gentle”: “Spiritual Gathering of Radical Faeries,” Nomenus, https://nomenus.org/2018/07/sgrf-gathering-july-13-23/.
  28. Masters started a radio show: Howard Kurtz, “The Evangelist’s New Pulpit,” The Washington Post, November 29, 1990, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1990/11/29/the-evangelists-new-pulpit/46dd60c0-b2ca-4a07-8f2a-b9dab0e27eb3/.
  29. For several decades, he counseled: Roy Masters, “Cancer and Energy Loss,” Advice Line Radio Program, January 4, 2018, produced by Foundation of Human Understanding, podcast, https://www.blogtalkradio.com/roy-masters/2018/01/05/cancer-and-energy-loss-k9139. As recently as January 2018, for instance, Masters was warning online radio listeners about, “What doctors don’t tell you about Asthma Attacks! Every Mother’s incessant impatience drains the adrenaline of her child to the point of breathless exhaustion and even passing out.”
  30. Many locals in Josephine thought of Masters: Edith Decker, “Preacher Roy Masters brought controversy, uproar to Josephine,” Daily Courier, April 1, 2010, http://web.thedailycourier.com/eedition/2010/04/01/Progress/3.pdf.
  31. Masters broadcasted a show: “About Mark Masters,” Talk Radio Network, http://markmasterstrn.com/; “The Godfather of Right-Wing Radio,” The Daily Beast, https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-godfather-of-right-wing-radio.
  32. after their operations had emptied the forests: James Stevens, Green Power: The Story of Public Law (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1958), 273, 25. The big forests of the Great Lakes region had been so heavily logged and swept by fire by 1920 that a first-hand account described their forests as an “abomination of desolation.”
  33. “more dangerous than war”: James LeMonds, Deadfall: Generations of Logging in the Pacific Northwest (Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 2001), 156–57. The industry promoted tales of Paul Bunyan—the “mythical boss logger” who “pulled the stumps with his teeth”—to teach that a real timber man wears a “dented hard hat” and is “too tough to feel pain, too brave to voice his fears, too stoic to complain about hazardous conditions.”
  34. the “flannel-shirt frontier”: Michael Hibbard and James Elias, “The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry and the Decline of the Flannel-Shirt Frontier,” Forgotten Places: Uneven Development and the Loss of Opportunity in Rural America, ed. Thomas A. Lyson and William W. Falk (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1993).
  35. Most timber-related workers manufactured products: Josh Lehner, Timber Counties, Oregon Office of Economic Analysis, May 28, 2013, http://oregoneconomicanalysis.com/2013/05/28/timber-counties/; Josh Lehner, Historical Look at Oregon’s Wood Product Industry, Oregon Office of Economic Analysis, January 23, 2012, http://oregoneconomicanalysis.com/2012/01/23/historical-look-at-oregons-wood-product-industry/.
  36. aligned Oregon towns with the rise and fall of the Rust Belt: Amy Glasmeier and Priscilla Salant, “Low-Skill Workers in Rural America Face Permanent Job Loss,” Carsey Institute Policy Brief no. 2 (Spring 2006): 2, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536116.pdf; Strengthening the Rural Economy, prepared by the Executive Office of the President Council of Economic Advisers (Washington, D.C., 2010), 4, https://www.agri-pulse.com/ext/resources/pdfs/r/u/r/1/0/RuralAmericaRpt27Apr10.pdf. Rural areas experienced heavy job losses in the manufacturing sector between 1997 and 2003.
  37. But blue-collar jobs in southern Oregon were mostly nonunionized: LeMonds, Deadfall, xviii, 70–73.
  38. At an Argentine sawmill: Stevens, Green Power, 23. By 1933, a U.S. Senate report presciently warned that the success of foreign mills could lead to “far-reaching and utterly demoralizing economic and social losses to dependent [domestic] industries, to local communities, and to entire forest regions.”
  39. In the earliest years of Western logging: LeMonds, Deadfall, 46; Nathan Rice, “Seeking Balance in Oregon’s Timber Country,” High Country News, April 29, 2013, http://www.hcn.org/issues/45.9/45.7/seeking-balance-in-oregons-timber-country.
  40. Modern feller bunchers do the work of ten to fifteen men: “Feller Bunchers Specs and Charts,” Construction Equipment Guide, https://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/charts/feller-bunchers.
  41. During the recession of the early 1980s: Vincent Adams and Dawn Marie Gaid, “Federal Land Management and County Government: 1908–2008,” working paper RSP 0804, (Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University, Rural Studies Program, 2008), https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/technical_reports/mk61rn05n; Michael Blumm & Tim Wigington, “The Oregon & California Railroad Grant Lands’ Sordid Past, Contentious Present, and Uncertain Future: A Century of Conflict,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 40, no. 1, (February 2013): 63, https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2094&context=ealr.
  42. the Pacific Northwest’s timber industry laid off 20 percent: Ibid., 206; Hibbard and Elias, The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry, 195–96. Even as timber-related employment fell steeply across the 1970s, Oregon timber production and profits continued to grow until a 1989 peak.
  43. a 22 percent cut in real earnings: Hibbard and Elias, The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry, 206–7, 207; Nick Beleiciks, Oregon Labor Trends: Oregon Sees Third Month of Modest Job Gains, Worksource Oregon Employment Department, December 2011. Measured in constant dollars, hourly manufacturing wages in Oregon fell from $10.68 to $8.38 from 1978 to 1990. Timber-related jobs continued to vanish even during the housing boom that preceded the 2008 recession because technology kept advancing. By 1988, before the timber wars of the 1990s, real per capita income in rural areas of Oregon was 77 percent of the state’s urban areas, and educational attainment rates severely lagged the state’s urban areas. Like all manufacturing economies, these differences set the region up for particularly big losses as the service and knowledge economy eclipsed the industrial one.
  44. the federal government shares 50 percent: Blumm and Wigington, “Grant Lands’ Sordid Past,” 21.
  45. nearly three-fourths of the forests: “Josephine County,” Oregon Forest Resources Institute, last modified 2019, https://knowyourforest.org/sites/default/files/documents/Josephine-state-economic-19.pdf#overlay-context=.
  46. While the federal government did not otherwise pay… property taxes: OR. REV. STAT. § 321.272; Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, 14; Oregon Secretary of State, Audits Division, Oregon’s Counties: 2012 Financial Condition Review (2012), 10 (hereafter cited in text as 2012 Financial Condition Review), http://www.cooscountywatchdog.com/uploads/8/7/3/0/8730508/sos_or_counties_2012_financial_condidtion_review_2012-17.pdf. The federal government pays “payments in lieu of taxes” to cover any local services the forests might require. These formal PILT payments make up a smaller share of local funds.
  47. sharply discounted property taxes: Oregon Department of Revenue, “How forestland is taxed in Oregon,” accessed January 23, 2022, https://www.oregon.gov/dor/programs/property/Pages/timber-forestland-tax.aspx.
  48. Until 1990, there were few constraints: Rice, Seeking Balance; Hibbard and Elias, The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry. In 1990, a laid-off timber worker said, “You talk to the old timers here and they’ll tell you that [the timber company] said they had enough timber to last them for the next hundred years. Then they got greedy in the last four or five years and literally raped the ground, took all the trees and did very little planting. I’ve gone through two back surgeries from working in this mill. Now this happens [the mill closes]. Sure, I’m disgusted.”
  49. nicknamed the “Department of Nothing Remaining”: LeMonds, Deadfall, 169.
  50. tree farms take decades of growing time: Rice, Seeking Balance; LeMonds, Deadfall, 22–23; Hibbard and Elias, The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry, 201–3; Dawn Marie Gaid, “Changing Federal County Payments and Rural Oregon Counties: Analysis of Policy Impact and Responses from Loss of Secure Rural Schools Funding in Selected Oregon Counties,” working paper No. RSP 0904, (Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University, Rural Studies Program, 2009), 14, https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_projects/f4752j29r. “Sustained-yield forestry” promised to level out cutting with new planting—a big change from the old system when timber companies would leave behind a “stump farm” for a tax foreclosure or a firesale transfer. But sustained-yield tree farming never took hold widely enough, and most companies kept moving into virgin forest. Clear-cut logging meant that when land was replanted, it was “managed more like plantations than forests,” with heavy use of herbicides to limit growth only to replanted trees.
  51. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the owl: Blumm and Wigington, “Grant Lands’ Sordid Past,” 26–39; Michelle W. Anderson, “The Western, Rural Rustbelt: Learning from Local Fiscal Crisis in Oregon,” Willamette Law Review 50, (2014): 473.
  52. Between 1989 and 1999, 45 percent of the sawmills: LeMonds, Deadfall, 170.
  53. By 2000, timber harvests on 24 million acres: Jean M. Daniels, The Rise and Fall of the Pacific Northwest Log Export Market, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-624, (Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 2005).
  54. “Some people think we’re a bunch of dumb hicks”: Hibbard and Elias, The Failure of Sustained-Yield Forestry, 210.
  55. Shops in the Pacific Northwest sold bumper stickers: Jennifer Sherman, Those Who Work, Those Who Don’t: Poverty, Morality, and Family in Rural America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), 36.
  56. President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore’s Northwest Forest Plan: “Northwest Forest Plan Overview,” Regional Ecosystem Office (REO), https://www.fs.fed.us/r6/reo/overview.php; Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, 13. The president’s Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) was “a landscape approach to federal land management designed to protect threatened and endangered species while also contributing to social and economic sustainability in the region.” The NWFP has been challenged again and again in efforts to increase harvest levels. Environmentalists and the timber industry are still, so to speak, at loggerheads.
  57. putting $1.2 billion into five years of funding: Harriet H. Christensen, Terry L. Raettig, and Paul Sommers, tech. eds., “Northwest Forest Plan: outcomes and lessons learned from the Northwest economic adjustment initiative,” General Technical Report PNW-GTR-484 presented to a forum (Portland, OR: July 29–30, 1997), 2 (hereafter cited in text as “Lessons learned from the NEAI”), https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr484.pdf; Elisabeth Grinspoon, PhD, Delilah Jaworski, and Richard Phillips, Social and Economic Status and Trends, special report prepared for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, February 2016, 45, 74, https://www.fs.fed.us/r6/reo/monitoring/downloads/socioeconomic/Nwfp20yrMonitoringReportSocioeconomic.pdf. These funds comprised the Northwest Economic Adjustment Initiative. Unemployment hit highs in 1992 and 2003 in the Oregon regions covered by the Plan, but then spiked to its highest level following the 2007–2008 recession.
  58. The job-training programs showed gains: Rebecca McLain and Will Kay, Northwest Economic Adjustment Initiative Assessment, Cave Junction, Illinois Valley, Oregon, (Sierra Institute, 2007) (hereafter cited as NEAI Report), https://web.archive.org/web/20071007231129/http://www.sierrainstitute.us/neai/OR_case_studies/Cave_Junction_OR.pdf. As part of the Northwest Economic Adjustment Initiative, the U.S. Department of Labor directed a special grant stream between 1994 and 2000 for dislocated timber workers. A regional Jobs Council operated retraining and education services for 661 workers during this time. More than 75 percent of those workers did place in new jobs, but their new positions took home average hourly wages of between $8 to $10 per hour (approximately double the federal minimum wage at that time, but less than experienced timber and mill workers had earned).
  59. limited literacy and math skills: McLain and Kay, NEAI Report, 27–31. A comprehensive evaluation of the retraining efforts found that the program was bogged down by the number of displaced wood workers with limited reading, writing, and math skills, which required using months of their time in the program on basic education rather than job skills. In addition, the retraining funds available for each worker did not last long enough: unemployment benefits and supportive services (like counseling and child care) lasted only six months or one year, but workers needed two years to complete a skills track at Rogue Community College.
  60. “Cussing at computers”: LeMonds, Deadfall, 147.
  61. Meanwhile, the tax breaks and federal deficits: McLain and Kay, NEAI Report, 30; Deborah A. Verstegen, “Education Fiscal Policy in the Reagan Administration,” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 12, no. 4 (December 1990): 368, https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737012004355. By the end of Reagan’s second term, in 1988, vocational and adult education programs were funded 27 percent lower than in 1980.
  62. it did try to replace some of the public revenues: Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000, Pub. L. 106–393, 114 Stat. 1607, 2000; Bruce Sorte, Paul Lewin, and Bruce Weber, “Economic Impacts on Oregon Counties of the Termination of the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act (P.L. 106–393),” Working Paper No. RSP 0805 (Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University, Rural Studies Program, 2008), 3, https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/technical_reports/tm70n070r?locale=en; Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, 16. In 1993, through the so-called “spotted owl safety net,” Congress decoupled federal subsidies in the region from harvest revenues in western counties with the Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1993, and then statewide with the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000, or “SRS Act.”
  63. In 1993, Congress began: Gaid, Changing Federal County Payments and Rural Oregon Counties, 10.
  64. Oregon’s timber counties took home a full half: Ibid.
  65. Federal funding has been saved: Bruce Weber, Paul Lewin, and Bruce Sorte, “Economic Impacts on Oregon of the Termination of Secure Rural Schools Payments to Counties: 2011 Update 2–3,” Working Paper No. RSP 1101 (Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University, Rural Studies Program, 2011), https://ruralstudies.oregonstate.edu/biblio/economic-impacts-oregon-termination-secure-rural-schools-payments-counties-2011-update; Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, 16; “FAQs for Title I-Secure Payments for States and Counties,” U.S. Forest Service, last modified November 25, 2013, http://www.fs.usda.gov/main/pts/securepayments/faqs; “Secure Rural Schools Reauthorization,” U.S. Forest Service, https://www.fs.usda.gov/pts/. Even during this ramp-down period, the subsidies were substantial: In 2007–2008, federal subsidies for roads and discretionary spending in thirty-three Oregon counties totaled $230.2 million, with another $35.8 million for county schools. Since 2013, the federal funds have been reauthorized as unrelated amendments and additions to separate legislative packages.
  66. But backwoods recreation, fixed incomes: Anne A. Riddle, The Outdoor Recreation Economy, Congressional Research Service report prepared for Congress, October 22, 2019, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45978.pdf. In 2017, the United States made $1.6 trillion through tourism, of which only $427 billion (or 27 percent) was through outdoor recreation.
  67. Some say the county’s best shot: Lehner, Timber Counties.
  68. young people in particular have left: Oregon Secretary of State, 2012 Financial Condition Review, 45. In 1950, one out of four Josephine residents were older than age fifty; rising to about half of the population in 2010. This shift could drive demand for health and social services while the local workforce is shrinking.
  69. Josephine’s population is substantially older: U.S. Census Bureau, “Population Estimates: July 1, 2019, (V2019),” accessed October 15, 2021, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts.
  70. One in five families with minor children in Josephine live below the poverty line: Oregon Secretary of State, 2012 Financial Condition Review, 45. U.S. Census Bureau, “Poverty Status in the Past 12 Months,” 2015–2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, accessed January 23, 2022, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?t=Poverty&g=0500000US41033&tid=ACSST5Y2019.S1702.
  71. Only 17.5 percent of the population: U.S. Census Bureau, “Population Estimates: July 1, 2019, (V2019),” accessed October 15, 2021, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts.
  72. Jay Williams, a former mayor: Nick Carey, “Special Report: America’s route to recovery,” Reuters, December 29, 2009, https://jp.reuters.com/article/instant-article/idUKTRE5BS2I620091229.
  73. Many millworkers and loggers: LeMonds, Deadfall, xviii, 70–73.
  74. When Washington state passed a law: LeMonds, Deadfall; McLain and Kay, NEAI Report, 30. Truckers typically work as independent contractors rather than employees, heightening their economic vulnerability.
  75. “In the middle of winter”: LeMonds, Deadfall, 132.
  76. a rare liberal to hold office there: Like most local government races, Josephine County elections are technically nonpartisan. As the first Democrat elected to the county in two decades, however, Toler believes he won because his Republican opponent was effectively disqualified.
  77. In Oregon, drought conditions: “Drought in Oregon, 2000 to the present,” National Integrated Drought Information System, https://www.drought.gov/states/oregon.
  78. The average annual temperature in the region: R.S. Vose, et al., “Temperature changes in the United States,” Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I; D.J. Wuebbles, et al., ed., U.S. Global Change Research Program (2017): 185–206, https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/6/#:~:text=The%20largest%20changes%20were%20in,in%20the%20Northern%20Great%20Plains. Based on average annual temperatures in the recent period between the years 1986–2016, as compared to average annual temperatures for the first half of the twentieth century, 1901–1960.
  79. further weakening the trees’ resistance: Thomas Kolb et al., “Observed and anticipated impacts of drought on forest insects and diseases in the United States,” Forest Ecology and Management 380, (2016): 321–34, https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_journals/2016/rmrs_2016_kolb_t001.pdf.
  80. One million acres of Oregon land burned: “911 Dispatchers Slammed With Calls About Qanon-Backed False Claims About Wildfires,” KEZI 9 ABC News, September 11, 2020, https://www.kezi.com/content/news/572381892.html; Shane Dixon Kavanaugh, “Rash of Oregon arson cases fuels fear, conspiracy theories during devastating wildfires,” The Oregonian, September 19, 2020, https://www.oregonlive.com/wildfires/2020/09/rash-of-oregon-arson-cases-fuel-fear-conspiracy-theories-during-devastating-wildfires.html.
  81. A new flank in the timber wars: Ibid.
  82. The northern spotted owl remains threatened: Brooke Jarvis, “A shot in the dark,” California Sunday Magazine, February 4, 2016, https://story.californiasunday.com/barred-owl-removal/.
  83. With less restrictive diets: Ibid.
  84. “Shoot an owl” is now an official task: Craig Welch, “The Spotted Owl’s New Nemesis,” Smithsonian Magazine, January 2009, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-spotted-owls-new-nemesis-131610387/.
  85. Meanwhile, ongoing lawsuits over demands to resume: “Oregon,” Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S. Forest Service, last modified December 12, 2016, https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/rma/fia-topics/state-stats/Oregon/index.php; Jes Burns, “Jordan Cove Would Be Oregon’s Top Carbon Polluter If Built,” Oregon Public Broadcasting, May 3, 2019, https://www.opb.org/news/article/jordan-cove-oregon-lng-carbon-pollution/.
  86. That approach would have managed wildfire risk: Tony Schick and Jes Burns, “Efforts to Reduce Wildfire Risk Fall Short, Buck Science,” Oregon Public Broadcasting, July 24, 2018, https://www.opb.org/news/article/west-wildfire-risks-fuels-treatment-thinning-burning/.
  87. And the United States has never enacted a federal climate change statute: Jody Freeman and Kate Konschnik, “U.S. Climate Change Law and Policy: Possible Paths Forward,” Global Climate Change and U.S. Law, 2nd ed., ed. Jody Freeman and Mike Gerrard (Washington, D.C.: American Bar Association Book Publishing, 2014).
  88. By 2005, the industry was attracting people: “Oregon resumes issuing medical marijuana cards,” News on 6, Associated Press, June 20, 2005, https://www.newson6.com/story/5e368b6d2f69d76f620a26d7/oregon-resumes-issuing-medical-marijuana-cards; Noelle Crombie, “Legal marijuana in Oregon: A look at the state’s pot history,” OregonLive, November 7, 2014, https://www.oregonlive.com/marijuana/2014/11/legal_marijuana_in_oregon_a_lo.html.
  89. Wages, in freefall from dwindling grower profits: Oregon Liquor Control Commission, 2019 Recreational Marijuana Supply and Demand Legislative Report (Oregon, 2019), 7–8, https://www.oregon.gov/olcc/marijuana/Documents/Bulletins/2019%20Supply%20and%20Demand%20Legislative%20Report%20FINAL%20for%20Publication(PDFA).pdf. “Increased supply has resulted in consumer prices falling from more than $10 per gram of usable marijuana in October 2016 to less than $5 per gram in December 2018.”
  90. Rumor has it that tobacco conglomerates: Chris Roberts, “Sensing Big Bucks, Tobacco Companies Pivot Toward Marijuana,” Observer, March 2, 2018, https://observer.com/2018/03/legalization-has-tobacco-companies-interested-in-marijuana-industry/.
  91. Rates of homelessness soared: Hanna Merzbach, “Desperation in Josephine County: On the brink of homelessness,” Street Roots, February 3, 2021, https://www.streetroots.org/news/2021/02/03/desperation-josephine-county-brink-displacement. From 2017 to 2019, the county’s homeless population nearly doubled.
  92. Mistrust of government generates reluctance: Edward W. Morris, “ ’Snitches End Up in Ditches’ and Other Cautionary Tales,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26, no. 3 (August 2010): 254, 262–264, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1043986210368640. The criminologist Edward Morris, for instance, compared anti-snitching culture at a predominately white, low-income rural school to that of a predominately black, low-income urban school. Views of the police in the first setting, he found, stemmed from “reputation-based distrust” that the police treated kids from “bad families” worse than kids from “good families.” In the second setting, “race-based distrust” expected the criminal justice system to be racially discriminatory.
  93. Where a wrongdoer or his family is known personally: Ralph A. Weisheit, David Falcone, and L. Edward Wells, Rural Crime and Rural Policing, special report prepared for the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, September 1994, 7–8, https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles/rcrp.pdf; Alexandra Natapoff, Snitching: Criminal Informants and the Erosion of American Justice (New York: NYU Press, 2010).
  94. Research shows that people care: Tracey L. Meares and Peter Neyroud, Rightful Policing, New Perspectives in Policing Bulletin NCJ 248411 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2015), https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/248411.pdf; Tracey L. Meares, “The Path Forward: Improving the Dynamics of Community–Police Relationships to Achieve Effective Law Enforcement Policies,” Columbia Law Review 117, no. 5 (June 2017): 1355, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44288101.
  95. By spending years as a community-based deputy: Quint C. Thurman and Edmund F. McGarrell, eds., Community Policing in a Rural Setting, 2d ed., (London: Routledge, 2014). David Alan Sklansky, “Police and Democracy,” Michigan Law Review 103, no. 7 (2005): 1699, 1779, https://repository.law.umich.edu/mlr/vol103/iss7/1/.
  96. Between 2008 and 2012: 2012 Financial Condition Review, 42. Federal funds accounted for 22 percent of the county’s governmental fund revenues in 2011. In that year, before federal funding started falling, Josephine County generated only $177 per capita in locally generated revenues, compared with $122 per capita in federal timber subsidies.
  97. Josephine still relied on these subsidies: Ibid.
  98. He laid off all detectives: Kelly Jarvis and Lisa Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding in Josephine County 2010–2018 (Portland: NPC Research, 2019), 4.
  99. Same for the records staff: Ibid., 5–6.
  100. The number of dispatch staffers: Ibid., 4, 22, 50.
  101. One told dispatch that a gunshot wound: Ibid.
  102. their staffing dropped from twenty-three local officers: Ibid., I.
  103. The sheriff’s office dropped from eighty-five people: Ibid., 4.
  104. The hours of the sheriff’s office fell: Ibid., 5; Shane Dixon Kavanaugh, “Unsolved Josephine County Deaths Illustrate Small-Town Crisis Stemming from Law-Enforcement Cutbacks,” The Oregonian, March 11, 2014, https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2014/03/crime_cave_junction_josephine.html.
  105. could respond only to “life-threatening calls”: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 4. In 2012, an average of twenty calls per day “did not receive a deputy response due to limited resources.”
  106. The case offered tragic confirmation: Anderson, New Minimal Cities, 1, n.3. In the aftermath of the Great Recession, he was not the only sheriff making such an announcement. Similar press releases came out of other rural Oregon counties. In Milwaukee, the county sheriff warned the public that his resources were so denuded that they should arm themselves. In many other struggling cities, public leaders were not so candid (or foolish, depending on your view), but the reality was no different.
  107. “consider relocating to an area with adequate law enforcement”: Amelia Templeton, “Loss of Timber Payments Cuts Deep in Oregon,” NPR, May 21, 2013, http://www.npr.org/2013/05/21/185839248/loss-of-timber-payments-cuts-deep-in-oregon.
  108. “whole system has crumbled”: Ibid.
  109. Instead, they were staying with abusers: Ibid.
  110. Even compared to the severity: Lisa R. Pruitt, “Place Matters: Domestic Violence and Rural Difference,” Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender and Society 23, no. 2 (2008): 347, 351.
  111. Nearly one in five homicides: T. K. Logan, Lisa Shannon, and Robert Walker, “Protective Orders in Rural and Urban Areas: A Multiple Perspective Study,” Violence Against Women 11, no. 7 (July 2005): 876, 899, quoted in Pruitt, “Place Matters,” 350, 362, 379–80.
  112. Yet rural areas have fewer law enforcement officers: Ibid.
  113. A study of rural and urban counties: Pruitt, “Place Matters,” 381.
  114. 91 percent of restraining orders: Ibid.
  115. The county already had the highest rate of auto theft: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 21.
  116. Laurie Houston lost her twenty-one-year-old son: Kavanaugh, “Unsolved Josephine County Deaths.”
  117. Witnesses said the driver: Ibid.
  118. “I won’t let my son”: Ibid.
  119. “He was somebody”: Ibid.
  120. When these cuts went into effect: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, II.
  121. Alternative incarceration programs also closed: Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, 78.
  122. It also closed the non-secure juvenile residential facility: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 7.
  123. The district attorney’s office lost 40 percent: Ibid., 8.
  124. These “cite and release” policies: Governor’s Task Force, Final Report, Ex. E; Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, II.
  125. all three of the stages of prison abolition: This framework, known as the “Attrition Model,” dates back to the Prison Research Education Action Project in a 1976 pamphlet called “Instead of Prisons: A Handbook for Abolitionists.”
  126. The county’s mental health court reports impressive success: Options for Southern Oregon, “Mental Health Court,” http://www.optionsonline.org/mental-health-court.
  127. The Oregon State Police: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 9.
  128. But governors have long warned Josephine: Dave Hogan, “Loss of Timber Payments Cuts Across Oregon,” The Oregonian, June 25, 2008; Matt Cooper, “Timber Counties Make Plea to Salem,” The Register Guard, December 20, 2011, https://www.registerguard.com/article/20111220/NEWS/312209999; Eric Mortenson, “Loss of Federal Forest Payments Has Oregon Counties Looking for Revenue While Having Millions that Can’t be Tapped,” The Oregonian, January 21, 2012, https://www.oregonlive.com/environment/2012/01/loss_of_federal_forest_payment.html.
  129. State-level governmental task forces: Eric Mortenson, “Legislature Considers Rescue of Oregon Timber Counties if Services Fall Through the Crack,” The Oregonian, September 12, 2012, https://www.oregonlive.com/business/2012/09/legislature_considers_rescue_o.html.
  130. a journalist reported a drug dealer “hawk[ing] meth”: Kavanaugh, Unsolved Josephine County Deaths.
  131. Oregon has the sixth highest rate: Rachel N. Lipari et al., State and Substate Estimates of Nonmedical Use of Prescription Pain Relievers from the 2012–2014 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health, The CBHSQ Report (Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2017), https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_3187/ShortReport-3187.html.
  132. Josephine County had the highest rate: Prescription Drug Dispensing in Oregon: January 1, 2012–December 31, 2012 Schedules II—IV Medications Dispensed in Oregon: Josephine County, prepared by the Oregon Health Authority, Public Health Division, Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (Oregon, 2013), 21, table 20, http://www.orpdmp.com/orpdmpfiles/PDF_Files/Reports/Josephine.pdf. Data for 2012 is the most recent year for which county-level prescription data is available.
  133. nearly two and a half times as many prescriptions: Oregon Health Authority, Prescription Drug Dispensing in Oregon, 21 table 20. In 2012, 202,818 prescriptions were filled for the county’s total population—including kids—of 82,775. See also “Prescribing and Overdose Data for Oregon,” Opioid Overdose and Misuse, Oregon Health Authority Public Health Division, https://www.oregon.gov/oha/ph/PreventionWellness/SubstanceUse/Opioids/Pages/data.aspx. To use this tool, click “Prescribing by Drug Class”; then scroll to “Prescribing by County” and filter for Josephine County.
  134. Drug overdose mortality rates: Oregon Health Authority Public Health Division, “Prescribing and Overdose Data for Oregon.” See also the 2010-2014 data profile of Josephine County, Oregon, in “Drug Overdose Deaths in the United States,” NORC, https://opioidmisusetool.norc.org/.
  135. “Inside the cab of his pickup truck”: Town of Castle Rock, Colorado v. Gonzales, 545 U.S. 748, 754 (2005).
  136. “No State shall… deprive any person”: U.S. Constitution, amend. XIV, sec. 1.
  137. Indeed, nothing in the Constitution: Years before its decision in Castle Rock, the Supreme Court decided that the Due Process Clause does not affirmatively require the state to protect citizens against private actors if the state itself did not create those harms. DeShaney v. Winnebago County Dept. of Social Servs., 489 U.S. 189 (1989). Other cases affirm that citizens do not enjoy the right to a variety of discretionary government services. See Harrington v. City of Suffolk, 607 F.3d 31, 35 (2d Cir. 2010) (police investigations); Moses v. D.C., 741 F. Supp.2d 123, 125 (D.D.C. 2010) (emergency medical care); and Jackson v. Byrne, 738 F.2d 1443, 1447 (7th Cir. 1984) (“the Constitution does not guarantee to members of the public at large the adequacy of elementary protective services [including firefighting services].”). In 1973, the Supreme Court rejected claims for a federal right to education. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 US 1 (1973).
  138. Oregon has established a “mandatory arrest” law: Nearing v. Weaver, 670 P.2d 137 (Or. 1983).
  139. Budget-strapped municipalities cannot order employees: States have their own versions of these laws, but federal law demonstrates how tricky these issues can become. On the one hand, the Anti-Deficiency Act means Congress cannot authorize spending that has not yet been appropriated. On the other, the Fair Labor Standards Act, or FLSA, means that no one besides FLSA-exempt workers can be made to work without pay. Those laws came into conflict after a Trump Administration shutdown over the border wall in 2018. Current litigation is wrestling with whether it is legal for the federal government to force workers to continue working during shutdowns in which their pay has not yet been appropriated. See Rowe v. United States, 151 Fed. Cl. 268 (2020).
  140. syphilis, a dangerous but treatable STD: “National Overview—Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2019,” Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2019, Centers for Disease Control and Protection, https://www.cdc.gov/std/statistics/2019/overview.htm#Syphilis. The rates of primary and secondary syphilis have increased almost every year since 2002, increasing 11.2 percent from 2018 to 2019 alone. https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/ABOUT/Documents/sha/state-health-assessment-full-report.pdf, page 150.
  141. Although it found that the sheriff: Melissa McRobbie, “Called in for questioning: The sheriff’s changing resume,” Grants Pass Daily Courier, November 1, 2014.
  142. Tax opponents and other critics: Jonn Lilyea, “Daryld ‘Gil’ Gilbertson; embellishing Sheriff in Oregon,” This Ain’t Hell (blog), October 30, 2014, https://valorguardians.com/blog/?p=56124&cpage=1; Adrian Black, “Sheriff Gilbertson,” Rogue Territory: In Rural Southern Oregon, Josephine County’s Public Safety Crisis, last modified 2014, http://www.rogueterritory.org/sheriff-gilbertson.html; “Remove and prohibit any image of Sheriff Gil Gilbertson wearing the Master EOD badge,” https://www.change.org/p/the-commissioners-of-josephine-county-oregon-remove-and-prohibit-any-image-of-sheriff-gil-gilbertson-wearing-the-master-eod-badge.
  143. The retired manager of a marina: “Armed Posse Patrols Timber Lands in Sheriff’s Place,” Fox News, October 17, 2012, https://www.foxnews.com/us/after-budget-cuts-reduce-sheriff-force-armed-posse-patrols-oregon-county.
  144. State and national media took hold: Stephanie McNeal, “Citizens take law into own hands after cash-strapped Ore. county guts sheriff’s office,” FoxNews, December 28, 2013, https://www.foxnews.com/politics/citizens-take-law-into-own-hands-after-cash-strapped-ore-county-guts-sheriffs-office.
  145. concealed carry permits reached historic highs: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 21. After 2012, concealed carry permits doubled from 712 to 1,382. Numbers continued to rise in subsequent years, and ultimately peaked at 2,147 in 2016. Permits last for four years in Oregon, so the number of new permits only represents a fraction of registered gun-carriers.
  146. common in Josephine as well: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 54–55. The major local private security company saw its business increase 252 percent between 2012 and 2014.
  147. The United States has a long history: “ ‘Policing the Police’: How the Black Panthers Got Their Start,” WBUR, September 23, 2015, https://www.wbur.org/npr/442801731/director-chronicles-the-black-panthers-rise-new-tactics-were-needed; David A. Sklansky, “The Private Police,” UCLA Law Review 46, no. 4 (April 1999): 1165n125, https://law.stanford.edu/publications/the-private-police/; Steven A. Holmes, “As Farrakhan Groups Land Jobs from Government, Debate Grows,” New York Times, March 4, 1994, https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/04/us/as-farrakhan-groups-land-jobs-from-government-debate-grows.html.
  148. these groups described their work: Joshua Bloom and Waldo E. Martin, Black against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party (Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2016).
  149. Oregon law grants citizens: Or. Rev. Stat. § 133.225 (2017) (granting private persons the power to arrest a person with probable cause or for crimes committed in their presence, and allowing that private person to use physical force under some circumstances).
  150. a second category: David H. Bayley and Clifford D. Shearing, “The Future of Policing,” Law and Society Review 30, no. 3 (1996): 585, 587, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054129. “[T]he acceptability of volunteer policing has been transformed in less than a generation. While once it was thought of as vigilantism, it is now popular with the public and actively encouraged by the police. Because these activities are uncoordinated, and sometimes ephemeral, it is hard to say how extensive they are.”
  151. the full responsibilities and constitutional limitations: Gloria Hillard, “In Tight Times, L.A. Relies on Volunteer Police,” NPR, May 19, 2011, https://www.npr.org/2011/05/19/136436405/in-tight-times-l-a-relies-on-volunteer-police. The International Association of Chiefs of Police estimates that 2,100 police departments have volunteer programs of this kind.
  152. State law requires: “How to be a reserve police officer,” Police One, May 1, 2011), https://www.policeone.com/police-jobs-and-careers/articles/4046999-How-to-be-a-reserve-police-officer/; Peter J. Gardner, “Arrest and Search Powers of Special Police in Pennsylvania: Do Your Constitutional Rights Change Depending on the Officer’s Uniform?,” Temple Law Quarterly 59, no. 2 (Summer 1986): 519–21, https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/temple59&i=529. Courts hold volunteer police to the same constitutional standards as regular police, but with more limited power to conduct searches and collect evidence on private property. In Commonwealth v. Eshelman, 477 Pa. 93, 383 A.2d 838 (1978), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court held that evidence seized pursuant to a warrantless search by auxiliary police is subject to exclusion under the fourth amendment. Notably, Eshelman treats auxiliary police as traditional police for Fourth Amendment purposes even when they are not on active duty and thus have no statutory authority.
  153. draw upon “merchant’s privilege statutes”: David A. Sklansky, “Private Police and Democracy,” American Criminal Law Review 43, no. 1 (Winter 2006): 89, 93.
  154. Josephine’s previous sheriff tried to expand: Reserve Police Officer, City of Grants Pass, Oregon, volunteer class certification posting prepared by City of Grants Pass, June 22, 2018. In Josephine, reserve deputies have typically responded to car crashes, property crimes, and other calls for service. Reserve corrections deputies help run the county jail.
  155. Speaking on public radio: “Think Out Loud,” Oregon Public Broadcasting, April 8, 2014, https://www.opb.org/radio/programs/thinkoutloud/segment/josephine-county-sheriff-asking-volunteers-to-help-investigate-crime/.
  156. In 2011, a California Highway Patrol: Gund v. County of Trinity, 24 Cal. App.5th 185 (Cal. Ct. App. 2018).
  157. The county argued, and the court agreed: Cal. Lab. Code § 3366 (West). The law is California Labor Code § 3366, which provides the exception to the general rule that workers’ compensation is not available for people providing voluntary services to a public agency.
  158. David Sklansky, a scholar: David Sklansky, Democracy and the Police (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 128–131.
  159. Concerned Fathers Against Crime: Bob Just, “Homeland defense: A call to the churches,” WorldNetDaily, January 8, 2002, https://www.wnd.com/2002/01/12290/.
  160. 700 volunteers passed through: Tay Wiles, “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff,” High Country News, February 2, 2016, https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine article; Ashley Powers, “The Renegade Sheriffs,” New Yorker, April 23, 2018, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/04/30/the-renegade-sheriffs.
  161. When self-appointed volunteers: Joseph Margulies, “How the Law Killed Ahmaud Arbery,” Boston Review, July 7, 2020, http://bostonreview.net/race-law-justice/joseph-margulies-how-law-killed-ahmaud-arbery; Sharon Finegan, “Watching the Watchers: The Growing Privatization of Criminal Law Enforcement and the Need for Limits on Neighborhood Watch Associations,” University of Massachusetts Law Review 8, no. 1 (2013): 88, https://scholarship.law.umassd.edu/umlr/vol8/iss1/3; Adeoye Johnson, “Neighborhood Watch: Invading the Community, Evading Constitutional Limits,” University of Pennsylvania Journal of Law and Social Change 18, no. 5, (2016): 459, https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jlasc/vol18/iss5/3/. Ahmaud Arbery, a twenty-five-year-old African American out jogging not far from his home, was followed and murdered by armed white men in a south Georgia neighborhood on February 23, 2020. Trayvon Martin, a seventeen-year-old African American teen walking home from a convenience store, was killed by a neighborhood watch volunteer on patrol on February 26, 2012.
  162. In Jackson County, just forty-five minutes: April Ehrlich, “Oregon Town Grapples with Shooting Death of 19-Year-Old Aidan Ellison,” NPR, December 4, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/12/04/942946598/oregon-town-grapples-with-shooting-death-of-19-year-old-aidan-ellison.
  163. health and elder care industry: Global Diversity Rankings by Country, Sector and Occupation (New York, NY: Forbes Insights, 2012), 19, https://images.forbes.com/forbesinsights/StudyPDFs/global_diversity_rankings_2012.pdf.
  164. There is no indication that: Ryan Lenz, “Leader of Josephine County Oath Keepers Breaks with Stewart Rhodes Over Leadership Style,” Southern Poverty Law Center, May 16, 2017, https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/05/16/leader-josephine-county-oath-keepers-breaks-stewart-rhodes-over-leadership-style.
  165. higher rate of food stamps, welfare, and Medicaid: “A picture of poverty in Oregon,” Oregonian, August 14, 2014, https://projects.oregonlive.com/maps/poverty/. Recently available data from 2019 and 2020 shows that, just as in 2014, Josephine County residents continue to rely on public benefits at a higher rate than their Jackson County neighbors. “Data and Reports,” Oregon Department of Human Services, https://www.oregon.gov/dhs/assistance/pages/data.aspx.
  166. Given increases in closed and open-carry weapons: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 54. The county issued 712 concealed carry permits in 2012, but that number kept climbing after the cuts, rising to a peak of 2,147 new permits issued in 2016. The totals from 2012–2016 mean that more than 10 percent of the eligible, over-eighteen population in Josephine got a new permit between 2012–2016.
  167. Sheriff Daniel and the school district: Josephine County, Oregon, Primary Election Results, prepared by the County Clerk and Recorder, May 17, 2016, 7, https://www.co.josephine.or.us/Files/16MAYPRIMARY.pdf. The levy results were reported as Question 17–71.
  168. Josephine’s rate was the lowest: Oregon Secretary of State, 2012 Financial Condition Review, 7–8.
  169. After the deep cuts in 2012: Jarvis and Lucas, Study of the Reduction in Law Enforcement Funding, 6.
  170. county still had to release one-third: Ibid., 38.
  171. After the cuts of 2012: Ibid., II.
  172. Back in 2012, Josephine’s sheriff: Jeff Barnard, “Josephine County accelerates sentences to avoid jail releases,” Mail Tribune, May 30, 2012, https://mailtribune.com/archive/josephine-county-accelerates-sentences-to-avoid-jail-releases.
  173. Voters had passed two other tax levies as well: Shaun Hall, “Passage of Tax Measures Surprises Many,” Mail Tribune, May 18, 2017, https://www.mailtribune.com/top-stories/2017/05/18/passage-of-tax-measures-surprises-many/; Josephine County, Primary Election Results, https://www.co.josephine.or.us/Files/16MAYPRIMARY.pdf.

CHAPTER THREE: Lawrence

  1. More than one hundred relatives and friends: I attended this graduation on June 6, 2019.
  2. Thirty percent of the workforce: “Commuting Characteristics by Sex,” 2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Subject Table S0801, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=commuting&t=Commuting&g=1600000US2534550&tid=ACSST5Y2017.S0801&hidePreview=true.
  3. Nearly one of every four Lawrence residents: “QuickFacts: Lawrence City, Massachusetts,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/lawrencecitymassachusetts.
  4. median monthly rent: “Financial Characteristics,” 2015–2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, Subject Table S2503, https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=housing&g=1600000US2534550&tid=ACSST5Y2019.S2503&hidePreview=true.
  5. Bread and Roses Strike of 1912: Bruce Watson, Bread & Roses: Mills, Migrants, and the Struggle for the American Dream (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 1–4, 163–77.
  6. “My people are not in America”: Watson, Bread & Roses, 26.
  7. In the late 1800s and early 1900s: Ibid., 22.
  8. On so-called “coffin ships”: Donald B. Cole, Immigrant City: Lawrence, Massachusetts 1845–1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963) 11, 68.
  9. Soon came exiles of poverty: Ibid.
  10. these migrants produced: Thomas S. Dublin, Lowell: The Story of an Industrial City (Washington, D.C.: Dept. of the Interior, 1992); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Vintage Books, 2014), 147, 280–92; Schinto, Huddle Fever, 86. As producers of cotton cloth, early industrialists in Massachusetts (particularly the founders of the town of Lowell, but also Abbott Lawrence) spent the nineteenth century tied to Southern slavery. Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner called it an “unholy union” between “the cotton-planters and flesh-mongers of Louisiana and Mississippi and the cotton-spinners and traffickers of New England—between the lords of the lash and the lords of the loom.” Clergy and millworkers in Lowell made their city a hub for antislavery activism in the state and supported the Union war effort, though Massachusetts mills continued to purchase cotton generated through systems of debt peonage, sharecropping, convict leasing, and racial violence.
  11. a few inches smaller: “The Ayer Mill Clock Tower,” Essex Family Community Foundation, http://eccf.org/ayer-mill-clock-tower/. The Ayer Mill belltower and weathervane are 267 feet tall.
  12. conditions in the textile industry killed: Watson, Bread & Roses, 9.
  13. The deafening machines: Dublin, Lowell: The Story of an Industrial City, 85–89. At the Boott Cotton Mill Museum in the Lowell National Historical Park, staff will turn on a few of the machines in the weavers’ room for visitors to hear. I found the sound shocking—like jackhammers sped up to a blur, at a volume so loud it hurt inside my brain. A sign on the wall quotes a millworker poet named Lucy Larcom, who wrote in 1889 that she trained herself to tune out the “incessant discords” so “that it became like a silence… And I defied the machinery to make me its slave.”
  14. one report in 1912: Francis McLean et al., The Report of the Lawrence Survey: Studies in Relation to Lawrence, Massachusetts, Made in 1911 (Lawrence: The Andover Press, 1912), 63.
  15. The mortality record: Robert Forrant and Susan Grabski, Images of America: Lawrence and the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike (Charleston: Arcadia Publishing, 2013), 26.
  16. Giant pipes shot: McLean et al., Lawrence Survey, 226–36.
  17. An innovative water treatment system: David Sedlak, Water 4.0: The Past, Present, and Future of the World’s Most Vital Resource (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 48, 52. Emblematic of the region’s technological prowess, in 1896 Lawrence became the first city in the United States to install drinking water filtration that minimized typhoid fever bacteria.
  18. a 1912 report: McLean et al., Lawrence Survey, 39.
  19. The richest one percent: Watson, Bread & Roses, 132.
  20. average wages in Lawrence mills: Ibid., 72, 132.
  21. a single party: Ibid., 133.
  22. Billy Wood: Watson, Bread & Roses, 20, 24; Edward G. Roddy, Mills, Mansions, and Mergers: The Life of William M. Wood (Lowell: American Textile History Museum, 1997), 34–38, 122, 125. Billy Wood funded a senior citizen’s home and an elite planned community in Andover, but otherwise spent his fortune on family homes and possessions. Wood was admired, however, for his humble origins. He grew up in a poor immigrant family and began working in mills at age twelve, but he managed to teach himself math at the public library and move into an office job. He married the daughter of the mill owner and went on to build a multimillion dollar empire of woolen mills. Being an uneducated, Roman Catholic, second-generation American made Wood an outsider in the world of his wife and wealthy contemporaries, to the point that he denied the truth of his upbringing.
  23. after sixty years of debate: Watson, Bread & Roses, 32. As early as the 1840s, elites in Boston considered actions to improve the working conditions of, as Thoreau put it, the “wage slaves” of the Merrimack River.
  24. A new law: Ibid., 12.
  25. mill owners implemented the law: Ibid., 13.
  26. record-setting low temperatures: Ibid., 123.
  27. Marches featured American flags: Ibid., 91, 183.
  28. as broke as its people: Ibid., 25. The year of the strike, Lawrence was heading toward bankruptcy, unable to pay its bills.
  29. “We will either break this strike”: Forrant and Grabski, Lawrence and the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike, 44.
  30. The state dispatched armed militia: Watson, Bread & Roses, 110–11.
  31. The U.S. Marines: Ibid.
  32. Elizabeth Gurley Flynn: Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, The Rebel Girl: An Autobiography, My First Life (1906–1926) (New York: International Publishers, 1955), 128.
  33. As the strike dragged on: Ibid.
  34. “pale, emaciated, dejected” state: Ibid., 142.
  35. Facing cavalry, billy clubs: Watson, Bread & Roses, 78, 108, 111, 156.
  36. one woman flashed: Ibid., 177.
  37. At a 1912 Congressional hearing: Ibid., 194.
  38. They debated: Ibid., 196.
  39. Education was important: Ibid.
  40. Carmela Teoli testified: Ibid., 192–93.
  41. “foreign operatives”: Ibid., 47.
  42. “a war against”: Ibid., 174.
  43. “[W]e were not considered”: Forrant, Lawrence and the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike, 45; Katherine Paterson, Bread and Roses, Too (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006), 64. In Katherine Paterson’s young adult novel set during the Lawrence strike, a child tries to stop her mother from marching, afraid that she’ll end up in jail. The mother reassures her: “Can they put ten, twenty thousand peoples in jail?” the mother asks. “Only jail big enough is the mills, and we already been in those.”
  44. 15 percent average wage increase: Watson, Bread & Roses, 205–6, 208.
  45. The settlement required: Ibid., 94–95, 210. Labor leader Emma Goldman delighted in sending Teddy Roosevelt a telegram that read “Undesirable citizens victorious. Rejoice!” It was a comeuppance for Roosevelt’s reference to Big Bill Haywood as an “undesirable citizen,” which provoked labor activists to wear buttons proclaiming themselves undesirable citizens.
  46. The phrase was first published in: Helen M. Todd, “Getting Out the Vote,” American Magazine, May/October 1911, 611, 619. Todd’s speech argued that women’s votes “will go toward helping forward the time when life’s Bread, which is home, shelter and security, and the Roses of life, music, education, nature and books, shall be the heritage of every child that is born in the country, in the government of which she has a voice.”
  47. Oppenheim’s poem describes: James Oppenheim, “Bread and Roses,” American Magazine, November/April 1911–12, 214.
  48. a man was fatally crushed: Watson, Bread & Roses, 214.
  49. “We are a new people”: Forrant, Lawrence and the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike, 9.
  50. By 1921, these ideas: Cole, Immigrant City, 10. Cole describes prejudiced reactions to the strike, their connection to Madison Grant’s 1914 book Passing of the Great Race, and anti-immigrant legal reform.
  51. Most of the strike’s leaders: Watson, Bread & Roses, 244-46. Strike leaders such as Flynn, Emma Goldman, Joe Ettor, and Auturo Giovannitti went on to lead similar but unsuccessful strikes in other states, ultimately scattering. Flynn was arrested repeatedly for labor organizing and opposition to World War I, leading her to help establish the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) to defend people accused of political crimes. Goldman was later convicted under the Espionage Act for speaking out against World War I. Ettor, after being booted out of Lawrence and then falling out with other organizers, retired to start a wine business in California. Giovannitti turned to poetry and ultimately sunk into a depression.
  52. Strike leader Big Bill Haywood: Ibid., 247-48; “Big Bill Haywood Weds; Can’t Speak Russian and Russian Wife Can’t Speak English,” New York Times, January 14, 1927, https://www.nytimes.com/1927/01/14/archives/big-bill-haywood-weds-cant-speak-russian-and-russian-wife-cant.html.
  53. survived by a Russian wife: Ibid.
  54. Billy Wood: Watson, Bread & Roses, 24, 252–53.
  55. In the years after the strike: Ibid.
  56. In 1926, grief-stricken: Ibid., 252–53.
  57. Lawrence did nothing: Ibid., 255–56; “Strikers’ Monument (Lawrence, MA),” Queen City, MA, https://queencityma.wordpress.com/2014/09/08/strikers-monument-lawrence-ma/; Cole, Immigrant City, 195–96. In 1912 and the decade following, citizen and business groups in Lawrence tried to distance the city from the strike, for instance with a pamphlet calling for readers to see “Lawrence As It Really Is, Not As Syndicalists, Anarchists, Socialists, Suffragists, Pseudo Philanthropists and Muckraking Yellow Journalists Have Painted It.” A 1962 “God and Country” parade protested the IWW and its perceived association with atheism and anarchism. The first city event celebrating the strike took place in 1980, and the first memorial to it (the Strikers’ Monument on the central common) was unveiled in 2012.
  58. first public playground: Watson, Bread & Roses, 219, 221.
  59. Regulations reduced child labor: John A. Fliter, Child Labor in America: The Epic Legal Struggle to Protect Children (Lawrence: University of Kansas, 2018), 69–220. After the strike, Congress established the Children’s Bureau to investigate child welfare. In the years following, federal laws progressed and regressed in restricting child labor, until finally the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 prohibited child labor before age fourteen, excluding on farms.
  60. built civic infrastructure: “Projects in Lawrence,” The Living New Deal, https://livingnewdeal.org/us/ma/lawrence-ma/; “Bridges (Lawrence, MA),” Queen City Massachusetts, last modified July 1, 2014, https://queencityma.wordpress.com/category/bridges/page/2/. These projects included Den Rock Park, the Gilbert Memorial Bridge across the North Canal, and the Kershaw Bridge spanning the South Canal.
  61. Racial discrimination: Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005); Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic, June 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, public works programs and social reforms incorporated and enabled racial discrimination.
  62. The Lawrence mills remained: Edward G. Roddy, Mills, Mansions, and Mergers: The Life of William M. Wood (Lowell: American Textile History Museum, 1997), 79.
  63. “rich in the aroma of leather”: Louise L. Schiavone, letter to the Editor, “A City’s Better Days,” New York Times, June 4, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/05/opinion/lawrence-mass-a-citys-better-days.html.
  64. In his closing speech: Watson, Bread & Roses, 207.
  65. Laws there permitted: John F. Kennedy, “New England and the South,” Atlantic, January 1954, 33.
  66. Southern state regulations: James C. Cobb, The Selling of the South: The Southern Crusade for Industrial Development, 1936–1990 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2d ed. 1993), 28–29, 214–15; Kennedy, “New England and the South,” 36. One town, for example, offered a $51 million incentive package to one company, which amounted to more than $5,000 in public debt per capita (counting every town resident, including children), even though that number was more than double the annual income of a minimum wage worker at that time.
  67. 18,000 textile jobs: Llana Barber, Latino City: Immigration and Urban Crisis in Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1945–2000 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 43.
  68. One in five Lawrence workers: Kennedy, “New England and the South,” 36.
  69. John F. Kennedy admonished Southern officials: Cobb, Selling of the South, 42; Ibid., 33.
  70. “their newfound (industrial) benefactors”: Cobb, Selling of the South, 43.
  71. the textile industry has hemorrhaged: David Koistinen, “The Causes of Deindustrialization: The Migration of the Cotton Textile Industry from New England to the South,” Enterprise & Society, September 2002, 502–3; Alexander Von Hoffman, House by House, Block by Block: The Rebirth of America’s Urban Neighborhoods (Oxford University Press, 2003), 232–34.
  72. forty-two countries: Elizabeth L. Cline, Overdressed: The Shockingly High Cost of Cheap Fashion (New York Portfolio/Penguin, 2012), 52, 48–56.
  73. Ayer Mill’s grand bell tower: Essex Family Community Foundation, “The Ayer Mill Clock Tower.”
  74. rang for the last time: Ibid.
  75. publicly traded textile giant: Textron helped invent and popularize synthetic materials such as rayon for parachutes, clothing, and lingerie. It also devised new ways to reduce production costs, becoming one of the first sizable American companies to relocate its manufacturing strategically in a game of global leap-frog for tax advantages.
  76. By the end of the 1950s: Cobb, Selling of the South, 42.
  77. Ownership of the American Woolen Company: “Our Story,” American Woolen, https://americanwoolen.com/our-story.
  78. For most of the late twentieth century: Ibid.
  79. someone stole the tower’s: Keith Eddings, “Ayer Mill Clock Tower, a Lawrence Icon, Turns 100,” Eagle Tribune, September 18, 2010, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/local_news/ayer-mill-clock-tower-a-lawrence-icon-turns/article_f541a790-2975-528b-b148-f4489fb2ac45.html.
  80. In the thirty-five years: Eddings, “Ayer Mill Clock Tower.”
  81. When a hazardous waste company: Ibid.
  82. “Among workers there is only one”: Watson, Bread & Roses, 66.
  83. New York City’s conditions: Kim Phillips-Fein, Fear City: New York’s Fiscal Crisis and the Rise of Austerity Politics (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2017), 21–22, 35, 54.
  84. Caribbean trail: Dávila, Barrio Dreams, 6; Ramon Borges-Mendez, “Migration, Settlement and Incorporation of Latinos in Lawrence, Massachusetts,” The Making of Community: Latinos in Lawrence, Massachusetts, ed. Jorge Santiago and James Jennings (2005), 232; Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York: Penguin Books, 2000), 83. Nearly half of Puerto Rico’s active workforce migrated from the island to the mainland between 1945 and 1965. Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., who was the island’s governor from 1929–1932, observed the poverty of Puerto Rican landowners reduced to “lean, underfed women and sickly men” barely subsisting as seasonal sugar workers.
  85. language, music, food, and culture: Junot Díaz, illustrations by Leo Espinosa, Islandborn (New York: Penguin Young Readers Group, 2018). In this moving children’s book, a Dominican-American schoolgirl gathers remembrances of her family’s lost nation. Family members tell stories of “[b]at blankets, more music than air, fruit that makes you cry, beach poems, and a hurricane like a wolf.”
  86. Rafael Trujillo’s thirty-one-year reign of terror: Frank Moya Pons, The Dominican Republic: A National History (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishing, 2010), 320–61.
  87. Trujillo rose to power: Ibid.
  88. “He was our Sauron”: Junot Díaz, The Brief and Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao (New York: Penguin Random House, 2007), 2.
  89. U.S. military again invaded: Pons, Dominican Republic, 381–404.
  90. under U.S. command: For a history of the U.S. entanglement in the island’s turbulent history, see ibid., 279–444.
  91. 400,000 other Dominicans fled: Gonzalez, Harvest, 117–19.
  92. Decades of terror: Pons, Dominican Republic, 361–67, 378–79, 434. Describing the Trujillo years as “deformed economic growth,” with “a very poor, large working and peasant class, a very rich and very small upper class, and a total lack of democratic institutions,” Pons also describes the doubling of the number of households living under the poverty line between 1984 and 1989.
  93. “harvest of empire”: Gonzalez, Harvest.
  94. A video of the factory: “Lawrence Maid Footwear,” Boston TV News Digital Library, Ten O’Clock News, March 7, 1977, http://bostonlocaltv.org/catalog/V_6CRTUZHVUDNUU38.
  95. Lawrence Maid paid: Barber, Latino City, 77–79.
  96. decades of steady wage decline: Lawrence Mishel, Elise Gould, and Josh Bivens, “Wage Stagnation in Nine Charts,” Economic Policy Institute, January 6, 2015, https://www.epi.org/publication/charting-wage-stagnation/#:~:text=Ignored%20is%20the%20easy-to,workers%20over%20the%20past%20generation, Figure 4. The authors define low-wage workers as workers whose wages fall in the bottom 10 percent nationally.
  97. Middle-wage workers also: Ibid. The authors define middle-wage workers as falling in the fiftieth percentile nationally.
  98. Latinos in Massachusetts: Barber, Latino City, 186.
  99. Their median household income: Ibid. Latino household income was also diverging further downward from that of white households. In 1979, Latino households made half of what the average white household made; within ten years, they were making only a quarter for every white household’s dollar.
  100. the income of high-wage earners: Mishel et al., “Wage Stagnation in Nine Charts,” Figure 4.
  101. Llana Barber documents: Barber, Latino City, 27, 90–120. Barber offers lessons larger than Lawrence, presenting a compelling urban history for understanding postindustrial, multiracial America in general.
  102. the Dominican share of Lawrence’s population: Ramona Hernández and Glenn Jacobs, “Beyond Homeland Politics: Dominicans in Massachusetts,” Latino Politics in Massachusetts: Struggles, Strategies, and Prospects, ed. by Carol Hardy-Fanta and Jeffrey N. Gerson (New York: Routledge, 2002), 283; A.K. Sandoval-Strausz, Barrio America: How Latino Immigrants Saved the American City (New York: Basic Books, 2019). The growth of its Latino population across this period situates Lawrence among a number of American cities, suburbs, and rural areas where Latinos were instrumental in stabilizing or expanding areas in decline. Sandoval-Strausz focuses on Dallas and Chicago, but relates them to changes nationwide.
  103. Throughout two nights: Barber, Latino City, 127–28, 130.
  104. “We can’t even ride”: Ibid., 151.
  105. “police officers treat us”: Ibid.
  106. Only two of Lawrence’s ninety-six: Ibid., 139.
  107. One white religious leader suggested: Ibid., 165.
  108. Hate crimes and white nativism: Ibid., 124.
  109. Lawrence city officials resisted: Ibid., 137.
  110. reinforce anti-Latino narratives: Anna Adams, Hidden From History: The Latino Community of Allentown, Pennsylvania (Allentown: Lehigh County Historical Society, 2000), 1. In this, Lawrence is similar to other smaller northeastern cities such as Allentown and Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and Hartford, Connecticut, where a poorly paid supply of Puerto Rican workers supported the cities’ postwar economies, which in turn attracted Latino newcomers from the 1980s to 1990s even as manufacturing sectors shrank. “Economic decline,” writes Adams, “is causing xenophobic feelings among the longtime Anglo natives who identify violence, noise and litter with the arrival of Latinos.”
  111. “Giving the city back”: Barber, Latino City, 167.
  112. “If you work”: Ibid.
  113. the “undeserving poor” script: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 194. In a first-person account of Lawrence in the 1980s and 1990s, the journalist Jeanne Schinto observed that white people classified Lawrence’s Puerto Ricans and Dominicans as Black, regardless of whether those groups saw themselves that way. Schinto quoted the poet Martín Espada’s “From an Island You Cannot Name”: “… grabbing at the plastic / identification bracelet / marked Negro, / shouting ‘I’m not! / Take it off! / I’m Other!’ ”
  114. “most vicious population”: Cole, Immigrant City, 33.
  115. In 1856, the Lawrence American described: Ibid., 40; Schinto, Huddle Fever, 213. In light of this history, I found it especially poignant to read the following account from Terri Kelley, a Lawrence High School teacher in the 1990s, recalling a Vietnamese student who had changed his name to Patrick: “ ‘I want to have an American name,’ he said. ‘Patrick is an Irish name, you know,’ Terri told him. ‘Yes, that, too,’ said Patrick.”
  116. an assistant principal: Barber, Latino City, 178.
  117. Lawrence’s immigrant history intensified: Ibid., 145.
  118. Such claims overlooked: Ibid., 146–47.
  119. “They forget, too”: Ibid., 173.
  120. favor suburbs over cities: Barber, Latino City, 23–32, 44–49, 170. Barber describes the rise of “a distinctly suburban political agenda” from the 1970s through mid-1990s, and “rejected shared responsibility for what were considered urban problems.”
  121. Yet in the suburbs: L. Owen Kirkpatrick and Chalem Bolton, “Austerity and the Spectacle,” Cities Under Austerity: Restructuring the U.S. Metropolis, ed. Mark Davidson and Kevin Ward (Albany: SUNY Press 2018), 50. Federal money, for example, was often funneled instead to suburban projects like the construction of highways.
  122. The Massachusetts suburbs of the Route 128 area: Lily Geismer, Don’t Blame Us: Suburban Liberals and the Transformation of the Democratic Party (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 1. Historian Lily Geismer tells the story of this political transition with great care in her history of five wealthy suburbs in the Route 128 economy.
  123. “Anti-Snob Zoning Act”: Barber, Latino City, 30.
  124. only about 8 percent: Geismer, Don’t Blame Us, 196–97, 284.
  125. Proposition 2 ½: Ibid., 261–62.
  126. Lawrence took deep cuts:
  127. fallen ever since: Ibid., 266–67; Municipal Finance Task Force, Local Communities at Risk: Revisiting the Fiscal Partnership Between the Commonwealth and Cities and Towns (2005). An override provision of Proposition 2 ½ required municipalities to obtain voter approval to raise taxes over a set limit, which has further intensified the inequality in municipal services funding between smaller, wealthier suburbs able to obtain such approval and poorer or larger cities that lack a voter majority that is able or willing to fund public investments.
  128. Massachusetts ranked forty-seventh: Municipal Finance Task Force, Local Communities at Risk, xiii.
  129. eleventh lowest state income tax: Jared Walczak, Scott Drenkard, and Joseph Bishop-Henchman, 2019 State Business Tax Climate Index, Tax Foundation, https://files.taxfoundation.org/20180925174436/2019-State-Business-Tax-Climate-Index.pdf, 29 (ranking based on 2019 figures).
  130. one-fifth of spending per pupil: Barber, Latino City, 159–62. Per pupil spending dropped from $2,307 to $1,839.
  131. funding for the state’s gateway cities: Ibid., 176.
  132. City staff started taping: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 230.
  133. “Massachusetts Miracle”: Barber, Latino City, 42, 45–46.
  134. exuberant, colorful light displays: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 44.
  135. John J. Buckley: Barber, Latino City, 115–16.
  136. “Lawrence cannot afford”: Ibid.
  137. speculative real estate investment: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 220.
  138. increasingly absentee set of landowners: Ibid. Lawrence-based journalist Jeanne Schinto described how her local paper in the early 1990s identified the owners of these dilapidated, unsafe “nuisance properties.” Each owner’s primary address was listed too, and they seemed to live just about anywhere except Lawrence.
  139. Deep budget cuts: Barber, Latino City, 162.
  140. Arson offered an answer: Ibid., 188–91.
  141. In 1989, a businessman invented: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 34.
  142. Then he abandoned: Ibid.
  143. Lawrence became known: Barber, Latino City, 161, 188, 190.
  144. 2 percent of the city’s jobs: U.S. Department of Census, General Population Characteristics, Massachusetts, https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1990/cp-1/cp-1-23.pdf, D-1, 224; Barber, Latino City, 165.
  145. An antiquated city council system: Barber, Latino City, 162–63.
  146. “rotten with patronage”: Ibid.
  147. “Nothing speaks louder”: Ibid., 165; William A. Lindeke, “Latino Political Succession and Incorporation: Lawrence,” Latino Politics in Massachusetts: Struggles, Strategies, and Prospects, edited by Carol Hardy-Fanta and Jeffrey N. Gerson (New York: Routledge, 2002), 79. The few Latinos who made it into public administration were rarely Dominican or Puerto Rican. As a sizable share of the Lawrence electorate, these groups would pose a greater threat to the political status quo if they became city leaders.
  148. “Ethnic Tensions in Lawrence”: “Ethnic Tensions in Lawrence,” Boston TV News, filmed March 28, 1991, http://bostonlocaltv.org/catalog/V_DLJ0DBUKV6TTYAO.
  149. “Southern bigotry”: Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism & Wrecked the Middle Class, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). The clip is like a textbook case of “strategic racism” from Ian Haney López’s book. López offers a detailed account of how politicians regularly deploy coded racial appeals to obtain support for policies that entrench inequality.
  150. major nonprofit educational organization: “About Us,” Right Question Institute, https://rightquestion.org/about/. Santana is the co-director of The Right Question Institute, an educational and advocacy organization that empowers people to advocate for themselves.
  151. ethnic clubs: Dengler et al., Images of America: Lawrence, 110. Between 1847 and 1947, for example, a network of more than 600 immigrant organizations established in Lawrence a “network of mutual aid [that] served as medical, life, and unemployment insurance for many years.”
  152. “Where rows of textile”: Schinto, Huddle Fever, 214.
  153. By 2000, services: “SOCDS Census Data: Output for Lawrence City, MA,” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development State of the Cities Data Systems (SOCDS), https://socds.huduser.gov/Census/industry.odb?msacitylist=14460*2500934550*0.0&metro=cbsa.
  154. Centro and other Latino organizations helped create ties: Laura E. Gómez, Inventing Latinos: A New Story of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2020); Arlene Dávila, Barrio Dreams, 169–73. These books offer a rich and textured portrayal of the way that citizenship status, cultural stereotypes, scarcity, and skin color have operated to segment the Latino community.
  155. faced colorism and anti-Black bias: Tanya Katerí Hernández, “The Afro-Latino Story of Latino Anti-Blackness,” Al Día News (Feb. 19, 2020), https://aldianews.com/articles/politics/opinion/afro-latino-story-latino-anti-blackness/57664; Tanya Katerí Hernández, On Latino Anti-Black Bias: “Racial Innocence” & The Struggle for Equality (Boston: Beacon Press, 2022). Among legal scholars, Tanya Katerí Hernández has been an important analyst of anti-Black bias within the Latino community and its negative socio-economic effects on Latinos of African descent.
  156. Lawrence residents from Latin America: Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Hispanics with Darker Skin Are More Likely to Experience Discrimination than Those with Lighter Skin,” Pew Research Center, July 2, 2019, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/07/02/hispanics-with-darker-skin-are-more-likely-to-experience-discrimination-than-those-with-lighter-skin/.
  157. Centro’s diverse mix of caseworkers and clientele: Rodolfo O. De La Garza and Alan Yang, Americanizing Latino Politics, Latinoizing American Politics (New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2020). Across the country, the 1990s and early 2000s were important years in the process of Latino political and identity formation across sub-groups based on national origin.
  158. shared communications like Rumbo: Lindeke, Latino Political Succession, 81; G. Cristina Mora, Making Hispanics: How Activists, Bureaucrats, and Media Constructed a New American (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).
  159. Latinos began winning elected offices: Lindeke, Latino Political Succession, 73–74.
  160. civil rights lawsuit: Lindeke, Latino Political Succession, 90; “Cases Raising Claims Under Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act,” U.S. DOJ, https://www.justice.gov/crt/cases-raising-claims-under-section-2-voting-rights-act-1. The U.S. Department of Justice lawsuit against Lawrence successfully invoked the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to establish that Lawrence’s district boundaries weakened Latino voting power, and that the city had made inadequate efforts to translate campaign materials, hire Latino pollworkers, and prevent interference with Latino voting. In a 1999 settlement, the city agreed, among other reforms, to hire new Latino pollworkers and establish better procedures for bilingual election information.
  161. Two additional voting rights lawsuits: These cases were, respectively, United States v. City of Lawrence, No. 1:98-cv-12256 (D. Mass. Nov. 5, 1998) and Morris v. City of Lawrence, 01-CIV-11889 (Prelim. Injunction Nov. 5, 2001).
  162. Andors, Kotelchuck, and Harol, along with Maggie Super Church: LCW remained home for Andors, and she is now its executive director. Kotelchuck, Harol, and Church ended up leaving LCW and Groundwork to support Lawrence from within other organizations. Kotelchuck helps lead the Boston Federal Reserve’s research and support for Massachusetts Gateway Cities. Harol is the president of the Life Initiative, an impact investment fund that supports Lawrence and other communities in Massachusetts. Church authored the city’s current land use plan and is now fighting to clean up the city’s canals (as well as supporting infrastructure and climate resilience) as vice president of Conservation Law Foundation. After more than a decade as the executive director of LCW, Traynor left Lawrence in 2011 to start up a network organizing project called Trusted Space Partners.
  163. an article for Shelterforce magazine: Jessica Andors and William Traynor, “Network Organizing: A Strategy for Building Community Engagement,” Shelterforce, March 1, 2005, https://shelterforce.org/2005/03/01/network-organizing-a-strategy-for-building-community-engagement/.
  164. LCW began setting up three-part group dinners: The first NeighborCircles dinner is mostly a social event, structured around a map exercise in which participants share how their family came to Lawrence, often revealing common origins abroad or common patterns (such as similar jobs held by an older Italian-American and a younger Puerto Rican). At the second dinner, hosts facilitate a discussion about neighborhood quality of life and ways to improve it. At the third dinner, groups plan a small action or event to improve their block.
  165. In 1921, Robert Frost had described it: Robert Frost, “A Brook in the City”; Schinto, Huddle Fever, 30–31. Literary criticism links the poem to the Spicket River.
  166. Italian multinational company: Jon Chesto, “Lawrence Dam Owner Faces Federal Complaint Over Dilapidated Canals,” Boston Globe, June 7, 2017, https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2017/06/07/lawrence-dam-owner-faces-federal-complaint-over-dilapidated-canals/Wh2l7hmg3lMvYa5aFqByqO/story.html. Italian company Enel Green Power acquired the canals as part of its purchase of a hydroelectric plant on the Merrimack River.
  167. “place to dispose”: Keith Eddings, “New Life for an Empty Red Brick Relic, 73 affordable apartments planned for historic Duck Mill,” Eagle Tribune, July 12, 2015, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/new-life-for-an-empty-red-brick-relic/article_3dbd355e-1ec6-5da6-a614-f6f8caad4806.html.
  168. The city elected its first Latino mayor: Barber, Latino City, 248.
  169. “City of the Damned”: Jay Atkinson, “Lawrence, MA: City of the Damned,” Boston, February 28, 2012, https://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/2012/02/28/city-of-the-damned-lawrence-massachusetts/. The article’s opening reads like a caricature of poverty-as-spectacle writing: “Crime is soaring, schools are failing, government has lost control, and Lawrence, the most godforsaken place in Massachusetts, has never been in worse shape. And here’s the really bad news: it’s up to controversial Mayor William Lantigua to turn it all around.”
  170. a “hollow prize”: H. Paul Friesema, “Black Control of Central Cities: The Hollow Prize,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35 (1969): 75. Historian H. Paul Friesema first coined this term, but wider and deeper empirical analysis of its truth arose in later work. Here are some other sources: Neil Kraus and Todd Swanstrom, “Minority Mayors and the Hollow Prize Problem,” PS: Political Science and Politics 34 (2001): 99; Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 313–27.
  171. “A regular pattern of overestimating revenues”: Locke Lord LLP, Bond Counsel, “Preliminary Official Statement and Notice of Sale,” August 8, 2019 (City of Lawrence, Massachusetts General Obligation Bonds).
  172. During Lantigua’s first year: Chris Camire, “Along with Lantigua probe, Lawrence confronts fiscal, crime struggles,” Lowell Sun, June 12, 2011, https://www.lowellsun.com/2011/06/12/along-with-lantigua-probe-lawrence-confronts-fiscal-crime-struggles/.
  173. The city police staffing ratio: City of Lawrence Police Department and State of Massachusetts police-to-population ratio, 1985–2019, on file with author, created from FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Police Employee data, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/police-employee-data.
  174. The state of Massachusetts intervened: While not as strong as a control board or a receivership, both of which have been deployed before in Massachusetts, the overseer did have the power to trigger the appointment of a control board if the city refused to work constructively with the overseer.
  175. misusing campaignn funds: Travis Andersen, “AG Sues Mayor William Lantigua over Donations,” Boston Globe, August 28, 2013, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/08/27/lawrence-mayor-william-lantigua-sued-over-alleged-campaign-finance-violations/7gvRSHEb0qFKUbXchQboPM/story.html; Alex Bloom, “Outrage, Cynicism over Fuel Aid for Mayor’s Low-Income Housing,” Eagle-Tribune, May 15, 2011, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/outrage-cynicism-over-fuel-aid-for-mayors-low-income-housing/article_baf14a0e-2805-594c-a56c-a924893ceebd.html; Anthony Pappalardo, “Is William Lantigua the Most Corrupt Mayor in America?” Vice, August 18, 2012, https://www.vice.com/en/article/5gwkbk/is-william-lantigua-the-most-corrupt-mayor-in-america.
  176. The rally drew hundreds: Jess Bidgood, “After Seeing a Dismal Reflection of Itself, a City Moves to Change,” New York Times, May 23, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/30/us/a-massachusetts-city-tries-to-change-its-image.html.
  177. In 2014, Massachusetts senator Elizabeth Warren: Maria Cramer, “Daniel Rivera Sworn in as Lawrence Mayor,” Boston Globe, January 5, 2014, https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/01/04/dan-rivera-sworn-lawrence-new-mayor/J0oLtCfQByFlPsJrkIYO0I/story.html.
  178. As would also happen: Editorial Board, “Lawrence Should Scrap Mayoral Recount Vote,” Boston Globe, September 14, 2015, https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/editorials/2015/09/13/lawrence-should-scrap-rivera-recall-vote/LfExmsJDFENLNcef08rK8K/story.html; Lisa Kashinsky, “Mayor Responds to Recall Effort: Affidavits Filed,” Eagle-Tribune, September 3, 2015, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/mayor-responds-to-recall-effort-affidavits-filed/article_e4cd56fd-1c62-5397-b736-d0bf29fdc1c6.html.
  179. In 2015, a group called: Ibid.
  180. The group included: Ibid.
  181. Signature collectors for the recall: Keith Eddings, “From the Dominican Republic, Lantigua joins effort to recall Rivera,” Eagle-Tribune, November 25, 2015, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/from-the-dominican-republic-lantigua-joins-effort-to-recall-rivera/article_34a96fdb-2fed-5aef-865a-4e7634b73e8c.html.
  182. The recall failed: Daniel Rivera, “Rivera: Lawrence is Strong, People Are Talking about City,” Commonwealth Magazine, February 5, 2016, https://commonwealthmagazine.org/politics/rivera-lawrence-is-strong-people-are-talking-about-city/.
  183. This included the addiction crisis: Anise Vance and Luc Schuster, “Opioid Addiction Is a National Crisis. And It’s Twice as Bad in Massachusetts,” 2018, https://www.bostonindicators.org/reports/report-website-pages/opioids-2018 This documents the addiction and overdose crisis across all six New England states and shows the statewide spike in deaths from opioid overdoses from 2012 to 2016, pages 2–6.
  184. reported twice in The New York Times: Katharine Q. Seelye, “Addicted Parents Get Their Fix, Even with Children Watching,” New York Times, September 27, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/28/us/addicted-parents-get-their-fix-even-with-children-watching.html.
  185. The woman depicted in the Family Dollar overdose video: Katharine Q. Seelye, Julie Turkewitz, Jack Healy, and Alan Blinder, “How Do You Recover After Millions Have Watched You Overdose?” New York Times, December 11, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/us/overdoses-youtube-opioids-drugs.html.
  186. She later told the Times: Ibid.
  187. Lawrence became a popular scapegoat: “Gov. LePage: Non-White Dealers From Lowell And Lawrence Are Fueling Maine’s Drug Problems,” WBUR News, August 29, 2016, http://www.wbur.org/news/2016/08/29/lepage-lowell-lawrence-drug-problems. Mayor Rivera responded: “The governor would be better off finding a solution for the many people in his state that are in desperate need of detox beds, counseling and treatment.” Keith Eddings, “Rivera Blasts Maine Governor for Blaming Lawrence for Opioid Crisis,” Eagle-Tribune, August 30, 2016, http://www.eagletribune.com/news/rivera-blasts-maine-governor-for-blaming-lawrence-for-opioid-crisis/article_d91de160-6ec5-11e6-ab88-474a10579e31.html.
  188. Paul LePage blamed Lawrence: Ibid.
  189. “The heroin-Fentanyl arrests”: Ibid.
  190. “They’re Hispanic”: Ibid.
  191. New Hampshire governor: KCRA Staff, “New England Gov. Blames Mass. City for Majority of Drugs,” WCVB, last modified March 1, 2017, https://www.wcvb.com/article/new-england-gov-blames-mass-city-for-majority-of-drugs/9081009.
  192. Then–President Trump in a speech blamed: Nik DeCosta-Klipa, “Donald Trump Blamed Two Massachusetts Cities for New Hampshire’s Opioid Problem. Their Mayors Shot Back,” Boston.com, March 19, 2018, https://www.boston.com/news/local-news/2018/03/19/donald-trump-blamed-two-massachusetts-cities-for-new-hampshires-opioid-problem-their-mayors-shot-back.
  193. police staffing levels: FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Police Employee data, on file with author, https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/police-employee-data. City of Lawrence Police Department and State of Massachusetts police-to-population ratio, 1985–2019.
  194. Ingesting lead is extremely hazardous: Mona Hanna-Attisha, What the Eyes Don’t See: A Story of Crisis, Resistance, and Hope in an American City (New York: One World, 2018), 156, chapter 11. As Mona Hanna-Attisha explains in her study on lead poisoning caused by toxic water in Flint, Michigan, lead paint has a sweet taste that attracts children. But science has concluded “there is no safe level of lead in the human body” and lead paint’s developmental effects have been linked to school dropout rates and crime.
  195. lead abatement: Jill Harmacinski, “Lawrence Receives $5.1M in Lead Paint Removal Grant Money,” Eagle-Tribune, October 6, 2020, https://www.eagletribune.com/news/merrimack_valley/lawrence-receives-5-1m-in-lead-paint-removal-grant-money/article_cf732677-a7b9-5a87-b36a-50f501877124.html; Vilma Martínez-Dominguez and Daniel Rivera, City of Lawrence FY2020 Action Plan (Draft) (2020), https://cityoflawrence.com/DocumentCenter/View/10448/HUDs-Annual-Action-Plan-FY2020-PDF. Vilma Martínez-Dominguez has been working to reduce lead paint in the city’s housing, including while she served as the city’s community development director.
  196. police told The New York Times: Katharine Q. Seelye, “One Son, Six Hours, Four Overdoses: A Family’s Anguish,” New York Times, January 21, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/21/us/opioid-addiction-treatment-families.html.
  197. A man walking his dog along the Merrimack: Spencer Buell, “Beheaded Lawrence Teenager Identified as Missing 16-Year-Old,” Boston Magazine, December 2, 2016, http://www.bostonmagazine.com/news/blog/2016/12/02/beheaded-teenager-lawrence/.
  198. Investigation and prosecution later revealed: Elizabeth Llorente, “Massachusetts Teen Beheaded Classmate in Jealous Rage: Prosecutor,” Fox News, May 1, 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/us/massachusetts-teen-beheaded-classmate-jealous-rage. Police determined that a fifteen-year-old teenager had killed the victim, his high school classmate, over a petty conflict about a girl.
  199. Crime fell dramatically: Lawrence Police Department 2019 Annual Report, January 29, 2020, https://www.cityoflawrence.com/DocumentCenter/View/27328/2019_Annual-Report-.
  200. Murthy explains that we: Vivek H. Murthy, Together: The Healing Power of Human Connection in a Sometimes Lonely World (New York: HarperCollins, 2020), 12–13, 28–41.
  201. Loneliness and social isolation: Ibid.
  202. They also build on themselves: Ibid., 37–41.
  203. Low-income immigrants living: Ibid., 126.
  204. deepest gains in people’s health and well-being: Ibid., 8.
  205. “[t]he real therapeutic synergy”: Ibid., 167.
  206. “doing good makes us feel good”: Ibid., 167 (emphasis in original).
  207. Strong social networks also deliver: Ibid., 51, 175, 241.
  208. social science research demonstrating: Chris Benner and Manuel Pastor, Equity, Growth, and Community: What the Nation Can Learn from America’s Metro Areas (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015). Here are some examples of how this kind of decentralized community engagement can bring economic growth and diverse local solutions to global problems.
  209. Working Cities Challenge (WCC) Initiative: Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Working Cities Challenge, https://www.bostonfed.org/community-development/supporting-growth-in-smaller-industrial-cities/working-cities-challenge.aspx#:~:text=The%20Working%20Cities%20Challenge%20(WCC,of%20their%20low-income%20residents.&text=This%20ultimately%20led%20to%20the,after%20Living%20Cities’%20Integration%20Initiative.
  210. intensive community collaboration: Ibid.
  211. “civic and social crisis”: Sean Safford, Why the Garden Club Couldn’t Save Youngstown: The Transformation of the Rust Belt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 5.
  212. a “skills mismatch”: Peter Cappelli, Skill Gaps, Skill Shortages and Skill Mismatches: Evidence for the U.S. (Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2014).
  213. Tamar Kotelchuck cataloged: Tamar Kotelchuck, Less-Skilled Workers & the High-Technology Economy: A Regional Jobs Strategy for Lawrence, MA (MIT Libraries: 1999), https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/urban-studies-and-planning/11-423-information-and-communication-technologies-in-community-development-spring-2004/study-materials/kotelchuck1_28.pdf.
  214. “skills predict growth”: Edward L. Glaeser and Jesse M. Shapiro, “Urban Growth in the 1990s: Is City Living Back?” Journal of Regional Science 43, no. 1 (March 2003): 142.
  215. Dozens of empirical analyses: Yolanda K. Kodrzycki and Ana Patricia Muñoz, “Economic Distress and Resurgence in U.S. Central Cities: Concepts, Causes, and Policy Levers,” Economic Development Quarterly 29, no. 2 (January 2015) (cataloguing sources).
  216. labor economist Enrico Moretti: Moretti, New Geography, 222–31.
  217. Even in the ordinary case: Dengler et al., Images of America, 68. Rodriguez’s tailored, culturally informed approach to teaching is reminiscent of the adaptation and investment that went into earlier generations of immigrants to Lawrence. Lawrence’s school system in the late 1800s required “a very flexible educational system” in multiple lanuguages, adapted to the “large number of immigrants with no English skills and the need for many children to go to work.”
  218. “weighs a lot on our children”: Ibid.
  219. released from ten years of state fiscal oversight: Shira Schoenberg, “State Ends Oversight of City of Lawrence’s Finances,” Mass Live, October 24, 2019, https://www.masslive.com/news/2019/10/state-ends-oversight-of-city-of-lawrences-finances.html.
  220. more than half the city’s police officers: Lawrence Police Department, Quarterly Report, July–September 2020, October 1, 2020, https://lawpd.com/DocumentCenter/View/41171/Third-Quarter-Report.
  221. A formal evaluation: Mt. Auburn Associates/Lawrence Evaluation Case Study, 8.