Persecution of Jews and Jew-hatred have been the bane of Jewish existence for centuries.
Since their expulsion from Judea by the Romans in the first century A.D., Jews have wandered the world in disconsolate if hopeful dislocation and relocation. Denied land or even equal social standing in most of the regions they settled, Jews adopted the only lifestyles available to them—the portable professions. Finance and moneylending, buying and selling itinerantly or in shops, the arts and trades, transport, matters of intellect, and middlemanship of all things. These were the roles Jews were allowed to assume. These were the roles Jews did assume, and ones in which they generally achieved success.
Although the Jewish niche was small compared to the larger society, as outsiders they were often the first to be blamed by local populations when well water went bad, when plague arrived, when economies collapsed and, really, when anything adverse occurred. Germany was no exception; anti-Semitism had become part of the social grain as far back as the Reformation when in 1543, the leader of the Protestant movement, Martin Luther, published On the Jews and Their Lies.
Because Jews refused to convert, Luther exhorted the volatile population to fear and destroy their Jewish neighbors. Luther’s solution: “First to set fire to their synagogues or schools... Second, I advise that their houses also be razed and destroyed. For they pursue in them the same aims as in their synagogues. Instead they might be lodged under a roof or in a barn, like the gypsies. This will bring home to them that they are not masters in our country as they boast, but that they are living in exile and in captivity, as they incessantly wail and lament about us before God. Third, I advise that all their prayer books and Talmudic writings, in which such idolatry, lies, cursing, and blasphemy are taught, be taken from them.” Luther went to demand, “Fourth, I advise that their rabbis be forbidden to teach henceforth on pain of loss of life and limb. …Fifth, I advise that safe-conduct on the highways be abolished completely for the Jews. For they have no business in the countryside, since they are not lords, officials, tradesmen, or the like. Let them stay at home. Sixth, I advise that usury be prohibited to them, and that all cash and treasure of silver and gold be taken from them and put aside for safekeeping. The reason for such a measure is that, as said above, they have no other means of earning a livelihood than usury, and by it they have stolen and robbed from us all they possess.”
For centuries, Luther’s solution was resurrected and implemented in part or in whole by various towns and kingdoms when it was useful for the authorities or the local populace to do so. Whether through an unsourced tradition or direct acknowledgement, the Luther program of persecution underlay the bleakest parts of European Jewish history.
But Adolf Hitler took the theme of local Jew-hatred to a dramatic and odious new low. Luther’s solution was advocated by Hitler, not only chapter and verse, but with a new political imperative and rationale. No longer was it just a matter of medieval prejudice against an out-group—the Jews. Hitler inculcated a new intellectual anti-Jewish justification for the new intellectual century, and branded the Jew “an international menace” that had to be defeated and destroyed.
According to Hitler, Jews nefariously controlled and manipulated the media, the money, the militaries, and all the mischief in the world. The hidden Jewish goal, he insisted, was the domination of all mankind through conspiratorial organizations. “International Jewry” was a political demon that had to be actively opposed by all Germans as a rational act of defense, Hitler argued. Der Führer thus elevated anti-Semitism from a recurring local reaction to a global crusade, from an episodic backlash to a lasting political ideology. This ideology demanded Jewish purges and expulsion from every sector of society—and then communal and literal destruction. Modern anti-Semitism was no longer a manifestation of out-group fear, but the basis for a war for survival.
Where did Hitler discover his radical views on the so-called international Jewish menace? Answer: Henry Ford.
The richest man in America, whose name was stamped on every Model T, quickly catapulted to the forefront of global political anti-Semitism after he became convinced of the Jewish conspiracy cliché. Henry Ford’s nineteenth-century rural mentality didn’t adapt well to the complexities of the twentieth-century world. He did things in his own peculiar way—regardless of the cost. Ford was a clever if stubborn machine apprentice, production designer, and later a visionary businessman who had successfully cloned earlier hand-built European versions of the internal combustion machine and claimed them as his own inventions. To manufacture them cheaply, Ford literally invented mass production of motor vehicles. Abandoning the notion of hand-crafted excellence, Ford brought the Industrial Revolution’s assembly line to the “one-at-a-time” world of the automobile. Indeed, in his day, mass production of cars was known as “Fordism.” He singlehandedly revolutionized the field.
Whereas, Ford was a brilliant businessman who excelled in a vast array of commercial efforts, he was intellectually “gullible.” Fundamentally, he was uneducated. Ford never graduated from high school. Not a few branded Ford an idiot. Sugar frightened him because he was convinced the sharp edges of the crystals would tear up the stomach, and when his chemist showed him how easily it dissolved, an angry Ford refused to speak to him for weeks.
During a libel deposition, Ford was asked if he knew about the American Revolution. Ford: “I understand there was one in 1812.” When pressed for any other dates, he replied, “I don’t know of any others.” Ever heard of Benedict Arnold? Ford: “Heard the name… I have just forgotten just who he is. He is a writer, I think.” Read any good books? Ford: “I don’t like to read books, they muss up my mind.”
Yet Ford, the populist and new-age hero, was one of the most esteemed and powerful men in America.
Shortly after the Great War began in Europe, Ford claimed he had discovered “proof” that Jews were behind the world’s troubles. No one is really sure where Ford obtained the basis for his fraudulent allegations or his determination to lead a crusade against the Jews. Certainly, for years during litigious battles against other automakers and investors, he struggled against Wall Street and bankers both of Jewish descent and of the non-Jewish, J.P. Morgan variety. But through it all, Ford showed friendship to Jewish people—both the Jewish Eastern European immigrant factory workers who he treated with equality and his Jewish friends such as his next door neighbor, Rabbi Leo M. Franklin, who received a free custom-built automobile each year as a birthday present.
The first glimmer of the anti-Jewish Ford might have been early in April 1915 during an interview with New York Times Magazine. Reflecting on the mass killing underway in Europe during the Great War, Ford quipped, “Moneylenders and munitions makers cause wars… The warmongers urging military preparedness in America are Wall Street bankers.” Moneylenders, munitions makers, and Wall Street bankers were all Ford euphemisms for “the Jews.”
A few months later in 1915, Ford summoned reporters to a press conference where he denounced “the parasite known as the absentee owner” as the culprit who “fosters war.” He added, “New York wants war, but the United States doesn’t.” Jotting in his personal notebook, Ford scribbled, replete with misspellings and fragments, “people who profit from war must go… War is created by people who have no country or homes Hadies Hell and live in every other country.” All these public outbursts and private remarks were allusions to the Jewish stereotype.
During a morning gathering in his office on November 11, 1915, Ford stunned his guests by breaking free from hazy innuendoes. When the topic of the Great War arose, Ford, as though mesmerized, blurted uncontrollably, “I know who caused the war. The German-Jewish bankers. I have the evidence here. Facts. The German-Jewish bankers caused the war.”
Ford began devoting much of his energy, wealth, and prestige to spreading a venomous “revelation” that the Jews were behind all the evils in the world. Within a year, unable to convince the establishment, he set about starting his own newspaper and printing house that he could command at will. He acquired the financially unviable Dearborn Independent, placing it under the control of a new company called The Dearborn Publishing Company to be located on Ford Motor Company property in a building near the tractor plant. Ford temporarily left the presidency of the automobile company to become president of the printing company. His wife was appointed vice-president. His son, Edsel, was secretary-treasurer.
Ford dove into the project. He dominated many of the Dearborn Independent’s editorial meetings, often scrutinized and approved the lead-hued linear lines of type, and even hand-polished the brass knobs on the printing press until they glistened.
On January 11, 1919, the first issue rolled off Ford’s vintage nineteenth century presses. The grey-ghost main feature of the broadsheet was “Mr. Ford’s Own Page,” an assemblage of strident observations about what was wrong with the world. For about a year, the drab Dearborn Independent would plod along as a paper and ink extension of Ford’s time-warped “plain folks” persona. Ford and his newspaper extolled the virtues of rural life and religion, true grit and good tractors, hunting and horses. At the same time, the paper denounced Wall Street and Wilson, the “Babylons of Jazz” and the Bolsheviks of Moscow, actresses who showed their undergarments, and of course the dark agents of hidden enemies conspiring against the world. The weekly was just plain boring to a War-demobilized, suffragette-ascending, proto-Roaring Twenties bathtub ginning society—but at five cents per copy via a “please take one” distribution, thousands read and then tossed it.
Everything changed when Ford received a copy of the notorious anti-Jewish hate tale, the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion.
The incredible Protocols told of a sinister—and imaginary— Zionist conclave, during which a cabal of powerful Jews planned to overtake all mankind by manipulating all media, governments, and economies. Through a combination of Capitalism, Communism, stage-managed revolution, and secretly fomented warfare among nations, the Jew would emerge as the victor. The Jewish conspiracy was the hidden force that chewed and tore at the world. These ideas were stolen in part from an 1864 French precursor satire, penned by Maurice Joly and directed not against the Jews but against Napoleon. Titled Dialogues in Hell between Machiavelli and Montesquieu, Joly’s fantasy-infused diatribe included a misty Prague cemetery scene, complete with satanic rituals, chats with ghosts, and references to Jewish powers.
Decades later, Czarist agents recast sections of Joly’s satire as a genuine document, added contemporary references, and forged the fundamentals of the modern Protocols. From the end of the nineteenth century, these fake Protocols began circulating in Europe, principally Russia, in various forms; sometimes as an underground typescript, sometimes a pamphlet, and from time to time, an excerpted article series. During the so-called Red Scare of 1919, which followed the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, an English translation of Protocols made its way into several British and American publications cast mainly as a Bolshevik manifesto. Virtually every time the forged Protocols appeared, authoritative figures and journalistic inquiries proved it to be a fantastic, rambling group libel without any merit or factual basis.
Most laughed off the scurrilous Protocols. Ford did not. When a copy made its way to him in 1920, he grappled it to his heart as gospel. A misguided and misinformed Ford took it upon himself to spread its gospel to a world wracked by post-War economic and political chaos. Now the Dearborn Independent would be Ford’s clarion to the world, a call to arms against the Jewish menace, an intrepid voice against an entire race of masterminds clandestinely steering the most sinister plot in history.
In May 1920 it began. A series of Dearborn Independent articles and editorials launched, publicizing the Protocols and a host of other anti-Semitic slanders and accusations under the general heading, “The International Jew—The World’s Problem.” Ford’s series described a vast Jewish conspiracy to subvert and subjugate America and the world. Ford accused American Jewish leaders such as Louis Marshall and Louis Brandeis of using Presidents Taft and Wilson as their puppets. Other prominent Jews were accused of perpetrating World War I for the benefit of “Jewish Bankers” and fomenting the 1905 Russian Revolution for racial imperialism. The defamations continued for 91 provocative weeks, as Ford’s paper denounced the Jewish conspiracy for corruption on Wall Street, in labor, in big media, in cotton and in tobacco. Jews were also allegedly responsible for Benedict Arnold, the Civil War, and even the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. What Jews could not achieve by money, media, or manipulation, they would achieve by pandering to the sexual perversions of the powerful and prominent.
Everything was the fault of the Jews, according to Ford’s pronouncements and publications. On baseball: “If fans wish to know the trouble with American baseball, they have it in three words: too much Jew.” On post-War problems: “Jews caused the War, the Jews caused the outbreak of thieving and robbery all across the country, the Jews caused the inefficiency of the Navy.” On housing problems: “Jews are the largest and most numerous landlords.” On jazz: It was just “Jewish moron music.” On a perceived flavor change in his favorite candy: “The Jews have taken hold of it.”
Ford’s accusations were not just the rambling libels of The Dearborn Independent. They were in fact a product of the Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford listed his name at the top of every front page. Ford dealers were compelled to buy and sell subscriptions as part of their commercial commitment. Dealers who filled their subscription quotas received Ford cars as prizes. Those falling short were assured that The Dearborn Independent was “just as much of a Ford product as the car or tractor.” Many reluctant dealers received threatening legalistic letters from the corporation insisting they sell the tabloid. Reprints were bound into booklets and distributed to libraries and YMCAs through the nation. Ultimately, using the techniques of mass production, Ford was able to escalate the Protocols from a negligible and disorganized irritant of random circulation to a national sensation of 500,000 copies.
Devoting the national sales force and the assets of Ford Motor Company to spreading Jew hatred made Henry Ford the first to organize anti-Semitism in America. Indeed, he was the hero of anti-Semites the world over. His newspaper series was published as a book, The International Jew, translated into many languages, and widely disseminated as authentic fact. Although the work was just a compilation of the hodgepodge Protocols, it was proliferated as the work of Henry Ford himself and prominently featured his byline.
After worldwide travels, Jewish activist attorney Samuel Unter-meyer complained, “Wherever there was a Ford car, there was a Ford agency not far away, and wherever there was a Ford agency, these vile libelous books in the language of the country were to be found. They, coupled with the magic name of Ford, have done more than could be undone in a century to sow, spread, and ripen the poisonous seeds of anti-Semitism and race hatred.”
The marquee name of “Henry Ford” was revered worldwide. He was a larger-than-life figure, hailed a hero for the Tin Lizzie inventiveness that made cars available to the average man; his dramatic advances in employment conditions, including the celebrated $5 per day “living wage” for long-neglected factory workers; his reputation for standing up to the fat cats; and his stubborn independence. From 1916 to 1923, Ford was a constant and prominent mention as a candidate for president. In 1916, he won the Nebraska primary without even campaigning. In 1923, two polls showed him as a distinct front-runner against the biggest party politicians. In the minds of many, the fact that the anti-Semitic accusations bore the gold-plated name “Henry Ford” legitimized—even exalted—the anti-Jewish precepts.
In Germany, where Ford was venerated, The International Jew was translated and published in February 1921. It enjoyed six editions in two years with thousands of copies in print. Ford’s book quickly became the bible of German anti-Semites and early incarnations of the Nazi party.
Munich Nazis sent Ford’s book throughout the country “by the carload,” according to the Berlin correspondent of the Chicago Tribune. Ford Motor Company in America acknowledged the adoption by producing and shipping thousands of swastika pins to early organizing Nazis in Germany for their own distribution. He met leading Nazi agents in his Detroit office as a sign of solidarity.
Baldur von Schirach was typical of key Germans who were rapt by The International Jew. As the doctrinaire head of the Hitler Youth and later the infamous anti-Jewish governor of Nazi-occupied Vienna, he testified at the Nuremburg Trials that long before he joined Hitler’s movement, Ford’s publication had created his personal anti-Jewish turning point: “The decisive anti-Semitic book which I read at that time,” admitted von Schirach, “and the book which influenced my comrades was Henry Ford’s book, The International Jew. I read it and became anti-Semitic. This book made in those days a great impression on my friends and myself, because we saw in Henry Ford the representative of success, also the representative of a progressive social policy. In the poverty-stricken and wretched Germany of the time, youth looked toward America, and … it was Henry Ford who, to us, represented America... If he said the Jews were to blame, naturally we believed him.”
It was the same for Adolf Hitler himself. Der Führer was massively influenced by Ford’s book. He read the work at least two years before Mein Kampf was written. It shows. In Mein Kampf, chapter 11, Hitler wrote, “To what extent the whole existence of this people is based on a continuous lie is shown incomparably by the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, so infinitely hated by the Jews. They are based on a forgery, the Frankfurter Zeitung moans and screams once every week: [that is] the best proof that they are authentic. …The important thing is that with positively terrifying certainty they reveal the nature and activity of the Jewish people and expose their inner contexts as well as their ultimate final aims.”
Other passages in Mein Kampf showed Hitler’s fascination with American racial eugenics and either emulated or invoked the concepts he had read in Ford’s publications.
Hitler was so entranced with Ford’s struggle against Jewish economic power that he hung a large portrait of Ford beside his desk and spoke of him incessantly.
When Hitler was interviewed by a Chicago Tribune reporter in 1923 about Ford’s chances of winning the U.S. presidency, the Nazi leader enthusiastically declared, “I wish that I could send some of my shock troops to Chicago and other big American cities to help in the elections. We look on Heinrich Ford as the leader of the growing Fascist Party in America.” Hitler praised The International Jew to the Chicago Tribune bragging, “The book is being circulated to millions throughout Germany.”
Just before Christmas 1931, der Führer admitted to a Detroit News reporter, “I regard Henry Ford as my inspiration.” Once the Third Reich came to power, millions of Ford’s books were circulated to every school and party office in the Germany, many featuring the names Hitler and Ford emblazoned on the cover side-by-side. Ford’s work helped warp German minds in every corner of the Reich.
American Jewish reaction to the Henry Ford threat was swift. Within a few months of The Dearborn Independent’s inaugural anti-Semitic issue in 1920, a spontaneous Jewish boycott movement against Ford erupted. Libel suits were launched against Ford personally. A Jewish-led campaign to legally ban the sale or distribution of the publication began in Chicago, Boston, St. Louis, and other cities. Where legislated bans were overturned by court action, angry mobs often greeted Dearborn Independent street vendors.
The backlash campaign started hurting Ford by late 1920, within months of initial publication. Jews en masse began refusing to purchase any vehicle bearing a Ford emblem. Typical was a Connecticut Jewish community’s 400-car parade in early 1921 honoring Albert Einstein and Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann. Parade rules included the proviso “Positively no Ford machines permitted in line.” This movement eventually reached Ford’s backyard when his annual birthday gift of a new automobile to neighbor Rabbi Franklin arrived. After the Dearborn Independent’s articles began, the rabbi emphatically refused Ford’s gift.
Even the staunchly conservative American Jewish Committee encouraged the anti-Ford boycott. The Committee opposed proclaiming an “official” boycott, reluctant to openly answer Ford’s charges of an economic conspiracy with a coordinated economic weapon. But Committee leader Louis Marshall felt a “silent boycott” would be equally effective, maintaining that any self-respecting Jew would know what to do without being told when purchasing an automobile.
In reality, the Jewish boycott of Ford products was probably not statistically effective. While Ford’s sales in urban centers did decrease significantly, equally important sales in small towns and rural areas either remained constant or increased. In truth, the recorded urban sales slumps were only partially due to the Jewish-led boycott. A sharp economic downturn coupled with the declining popularity of the Model T were equally potent factors. But in the early and mid-1920s, Ford people were convinced that the Jewish-led boycott was in large part responsible for their troubles. But boycotts are not measured in dollars and cents as much as by ergs of fear. The very idea bit into the Ford network.
The precise figures were guarded by Ford’s corporate sales hierarchy even as dealers and regional sales managers continually pleaded for Ford’s campaign to cease. For example, New York sales manager Gaston Plaintiff, a personal friend of Ford, wrote numerous letters bemoaning the boycott. Ford would stubbornly reply, “If they want our product, they’ll buy it.”
In 1927, the advent of a competitive Chevrolet made the Jewish boycott an unacceptable liability for Ford Motor Company. Any lost product loyalty would now be lost forever to the competition, Ford officials believed. The black and bleak Model T was obsolete. Everyone knew that. The company’s future was precariously stacked on a snazzy new Model A, available in colors and featuring enormous technical improvements. At the same time, Ford desperately sought to avoid humiliating public trials with libeled Jews who had sued.
In the summer of 1927, Ford’s representatives approached Nathan Perlman, a vice-president of the American Jewish Congress, seeking a truce. Congress president Stephen Wise was in Europe, so Perlman referred Ford’s people to the committee. Louis Marshall prepared an embarrassing retraction cum apology for Ford to sign and publish. Close advisers cautioned the carmaker that the humiliating apology might be too much for Ford’s pride. But the global leader of anti-Semites had endured boycotts, legal actions, and political abrasions long enough.
It was time to make money, secure the future, stop fighting the Jews, and take up arms against Chevrolet.
On July 7, 1927, in the last year of the outmoded Model T—as Ford acknowledged a decline of about a half million fewer cars sold, and as he prepared for a major financial effort to introduce his new Model A—the proud gladiator of anti-Semites released to the press his contrite plea for forgiveness for wronging the Jews and misleading all mankind.
“I have given consideration,” wrote Ford, “to the series of articles concerning Jews which have since 1920 appeared in the Dearborn Independent… and in pamphlet form under the title The International Jew. …To my great regret, I have learned that Jews generally, and particularly those of this country, not only resent these publications as promoting anti-Semitism, but regard me as their enemy… I am deeply mortified. …I deem it to be my duty as an honorable man to make amends for the wrong done to the Jews as fellowmen and brothers, by asking their forgiveness for the harm that I have unintentionally committed, by retracting, so far as lies within my power, the offensive charges laid at their door by these publications, and by giving them the unqualified assurance that henceforth they may look to me for friendship and goodwill.”
Within weeks the retraction appeared in The Dearborn Independent itself. Shortly thereafter, Ford’s advertising agencies were instructed to spend about 12 percent of the Model A’s $1.3 million introductory advertising in Yiddish and Anglo-Jewish newspapers—the only minority press included in the campaign. Ford also directed that five truckloads of The International Jew be burned, and ordered overseas publishers to cease publication.
Ford’s capitulation was hit the hardest in Germany among Nazi circles. Nazi anti-Jewish boycott leader Theodor Fritsch wrote to Ford lamenting the loss of both book sales and “the inestimable mental goods” Ford had bestowed upon civilization. “The publication of this book remains the most important action of your life,” he stated. Yet now, as Fritsch put it, Ford was capitulating to the financial might of the Jews.
Adolf Hitler, when informed of the retraction, tried to avoid comment. Henry Ford was the man who the Nazi party and der Führer himself lionized as the quintessential fighter of the so-called Jewish economic conspiracy. Hitler had once told reporters in Germany that “the struggle of international Jewish finance against Ford… has only strengthened (Nazi) sympathies… for Ford.” In an early edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler had declared that “only a single great man, Ford,” was able to stand up to Jewish economic power.
Ford’s unexpected surrender was so powerful a loss to Hitler’s movement that the Nazis preferred to ignore the retraction as a mere expediency. Fritsch continued printing The International Jew. Nonetheless, the tribute to Ford in Mein Kampf was changed in its second edition. The words “only a single great man, Ford,” were replaced with the phrase “only a very few” could stand up to Jewish economic power.
Despite the public retraction, Ford’s feelings did not change. The Ford Motor Company went on to collaborate with the Third Reich in its efforts to destroy the Jews and conquer neighboring countries, setting up factories to produce vehicles in large part for the SS and the military in preparation for the invasion of Europe. In 1938, in a festive Berlin ceremony, Hitler bestowed upon Ford his special medal of honor, the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle, for “foreigners who have been of special service to the Reich.” When awarded, the great sash festooned with swastikas wrapped across Ford’s chest from shoulder to hip. The award sparked an outcry from the Jewish community, which demanded he repudiate the medal. Ford simply said to an associate, “They told me to return it or else I’m not American. I’m going to keep it.”
After World War II broke out, Ford Motor Company in Detroit helped the Nazis by ordering parts made in Ford’s Cologne plant for use in Ford’s factories in Latin America and Japan. Even after the U.S. entered the war, and the Reich by necessity placed American companies in receivership as enemy property, the Ford-Nazi relationship was one of global cooperation, awaiting the outcome of the hostilities when Detroit would be able to collect on massive wartime profits. During the war years, Ford’s pre-war management was kept in place. Only the profits were temporarily frozen in secure accounts. Ultimately, about a third of the Reich’s trucks were manufactured by Ford. A 1945 U.S. Army report called Ford “the arsenal of Nazism” with the “consent” of the company in Dearborn.
With these trucks, Hitler was able to roll across the invaded countries and scoop up victims. It was self-sustaining. Innocent civilians, mainly young people, were kidnapped, transported back to Germany and forced to work in the Ford plant in Cologne. Conditions were brutal, approximating that of some concentration camps. Elsa Iwanowa was one of hundreds of young women kidnapped from her Russian village in 1942 to labor at Ford’s Cologne factory. “The conditions were terrible,” she recalled in a post-war comment published in the Washington Post. “They put us in barracks, on three-tier bunks,” adding, “It was very cold; they did not pay us at all and scarcely fed us. The only reason that we survived was that we were young and fit.”
Through it all, from the first combative moments in which Hitler discovered unshakeable proof of the Jewish conspiracy to the smoke-filled years when Ford allied with the Reich against all humanity, a lesson had been learned by the Nazis. Jewish boycotts and economic influence, in the Nazi view, held the power not only to subvert governments, but to silence the most indomitable challengers—even Ford himself. It would take something extraordinary to defeat this global pest. What could that be?
Henry Ford’s International Jew, volume 4, suggested the method in a quoted letter. “Imagine for a moment that there were no Semites in Europe. Would the tragedy be so terrible now? Hardly! …Some day they will reap what they have sown.”
Sources: Primary documentation for this chapter is mainly taken from The Transfer Agreement by Edwin Black. Additional sources: American Axis by Max Wallace, Henry Ford and the Jews by Neil Baldwin, and Henry Ford and the Jews by Albert Lee.