SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND NOTES

A NOTE ON NAMES

The classification system is one described in a number of books, including Phil Schappert, A World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior, and Future (Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000); and in Rod and Ken Preston-Mafham, Butterflies of the World (London: Blandford Books, 1999), with the exception of the Riodinidae, which is listed as a family rather than a subfamily. A good case for that listing can be found in Philip DeVries, The Butterflies of Costa Rica and Their Natural History, vol. 2, Riodinidae (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). The epigraph is from Alfred Russel Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (London: Macmillan and Company, 1869).

OBSESSION WITH BUTTERFLIES

An important book for any butterfly enthusiast in North America is James A. Scott, The Butterflies of North America: A Natural History and Field Guide (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986). I also found information on the Western Tiger Swallowtail in the Peterson Field Guide Series: Paul A. Opler, A Field Guide to Western Butterflies, illustrated by Amy Bartlett Wright (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), and in J. Mark Scriber, “Tiger Tales: Natural History of Native North American Swallowtails,” American Entomologist (spring 1996).

Eleanor Glanville’s quote on the fritillary’s pupa comes from Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, “Elizabeth Glanville: An Early English Entomologist,” Entomologist’s Gazette, vol. 17 (October 1966), as does the quote from the “well-known entomologist.”

A wonderful and well-researched book on British collectors is Michael Salmon, The Aurelian Legacy: British Butterflies and Their Collectors (Great Horkesley, Essex: Harley Books, 2000). From there I took the quote on the Glanville Fritillary, which was originally written by the Reverend J. F. Dawson in 1846. The Aurelian Legacy also tells the story of Eleanor Glanville and her disputed will, as does W. S. Bristowe, “The Life of a Distinguished Woman Naturalist, Eleanor Glanville (circa 1654-1709),” Entomologist’s Gazette, vol. 18 (November 1966). Other sources include C. E. Goodricke, The History of the Goodricke Family (London, 1885); and P.B.M. Allan, “Mrs. Glanville and Her Fritillary,” Entomologist’s Records Journal, vol. 63 (1951).

A good book on the associations of religious and mythical figures with butterflies is Maraleen Manos-Jones, The Spirit of Butterflies: Myth, Magic, and Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000). I also used material from Miriam Rothschild, Butterfly Cooing Like a Dove (New York: Doubleday, 1991).

The quote on those “deprived of their Senses” is from Moses Harris, The Aurelian or Natural History of English Insects, Namely Moths and Butterflies (1766; reprint, Salem House Publishers, 1986).

The quote by David Allan is from his The Naturalist in Britain: A Social History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976). Information on the names and history of field clubs comes from Salmon, The Aurelian Legacy. Material on Lord Rothschild comes primarily from Miriam Rothschild, Dear Lord Rothschild: Birds, Butterflies and History (Glenside, Pa.: Balaban Publishers, 1983).

Information on and quotes by A. S. Meek come from his A Naturalist in Cannibal Land (London: Adelphi Terrace, 1913). The quote by Theodore Mead is from Grace Brown, ed., Chasing Butterflies in the Colorado Rockies with Theodore Mead in 1871, as Told Through His Letters, annotated by F. Martin Brown (Colorado Outdoor Education Center, Bulletin Number 3, 1996). The author of the guide on eastern butterflies in 1898 is Samuel Scudder.

The numbers concerning lepidoptera come from Phil Schappert’s beautifully illustrated A World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior, and Future (Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000); other sources, such as Rod and Ken Preston-Mafham, Butterflies of the World (London: Blandford Books, 1999), have slightly different numbers (160,000 species of lepidoptera with 20,000 being butterflies).

The quote from Chuang Tze is well-known. I took my version from Manos-Jones, The Spirit of Butterflies. The modern interpreter of Chuang Tze is Kuang-ming Wu and the quotes come from his The Butterfly as Companion: Meditations on the First Three Chapters of the Chuang Tze (New York: State University of New York Press, 1990). The quote from Marcel Roland comes from a translation by Judith Landry of his Vues sur le monde animal: Amour, harmonie, beauté, published in 1943.

Material on Miriam Rothschild comes from her Dear Lord Rothschild, as well as Salmon, The Aurelian Legacy. The brief discussion of her work and her quote come from her essays in Butterfly Gardening: Creating Summer Magic in Your Garden (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1998), which is also the source for the last quote in this chapter.

The material and quotes from John Tennent are from personal correspondence.

TOUGH LOVE

Bert Orr is the source for some of the images in this chapter, such as the squashed golf ball and the skipper larva rearing up like a cobra.

General information on the biology of larvae can be found in Malcolm Scoble, The Lepidoptera: Form, Function, and Diversity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Amy Bartlett Wright, Peterson’s First Guide to Caterpillars (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993); James Scott, The Butterflies of North America: A Natural History and Field Guide (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986); and Philip DeVries, The Butterflies of Costa Rica and Their Natural History, vol. 2, Riodinidae (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). The estimate that some caterpillars gain 3,000 times their hatching weight comes from Phil Schappert, A World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior, and Future (Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000).

More information about swallowtails can be found in J. Mark Scriber, Yoshitaka Tsubaki, and Robert Lederhouse, eds., Swallowtail Butterflies: Their Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (Gainesville, Fla.: Scientific Publishers, 1995).

More information about the defenses of caterpillars and of plants can be found in Nancy Stamp and Timothy Casey, eds., Caterpillars: Ecological and Evolutionary Constraints on Foraging (London: Chapman and Hall, 1993). Particularly useful essays in this book are David Dussord, “Foraging with Finesse: Caterpillar Adaptations for Circumventing Plant Defenses”; Bernd Heinrich, “How Avian Predators Constrain Caterpillar Foraging”; M. Deane Bowers, “Aposematic Caterpillars: Life-Styles of the Warningly Colored and Unpalatable”; and Nancy Stamp and Richard Wilkens, “On the Cryptic Side of Life: Being Unapparent to Enemies and the Consequences for Foraging and Growth of Caterpillars.”

The material on caterpillar locomotion comes primarily from John Brackenbury, “Fast Locomotion in Caterpillars,” Journal of Insect Physiology, vol. 45 (1999).

The experiment with wasps and Asian swallowtails is described by Masami Takagi et al., “Antipredator Defense in Papilio Larvae: Effective or Not?” in Scriber, Tsubaki, and Lederhouse, Swallowtail Butterflies.

The architecture of skipper larvae is discussed in Martha Weiss et al., “Ontogenetic Changes in Leaf Shelter Construction by Larvae of Epargyreus Clarus (Hesperidae), the Silver-spotted Skipper,” Journal of the Lepidoptera Society, vol. 54, no. 3 (2001). Information about the ejection of frass also came from personal correspondence with Martha as well as from May Berenbaum, “Shelter-Building Caterpillars: Rolling Their Own,” Wings: Essays on Invertebrate Conservation (Portland, Ore.: The Xerces Society, fall 1999).

The quote from Miriam Rothschild comes from the essay by David Dussord in Stamp and Casey, Caterpillars.

More information on chemical defenses in plants and signaling among plants and insects can be found in my Anatomy of a Rose (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2001), and in my discussion of Ian Baldwin’s work in “Talking Plants,” Discover Magazine, vol. 23, no. 4 (April 2002); this article includes work by Consuelo DeMoraes et al., described in the article “Caterpillar-Induced Nocturnal Plant Volatiles Repel Conspecific Females,” Nature, vol. 410 (March 2001). The main source for the theory concerning bacteria in a caterpillar’s gut is the article by Wilhelm Bolland et al., “Gut Bacteria May Be Involved in Interactions Between Plants, Herbivores, and Their Predators,” Biological Chemistry, vol. 381 (August 2000).

YOU NEED A FRIEND

The material on Philip DeVries, ants, and butterflies is from personal correspondence, as well as the following works by Phillip DeVries: The Butterflies of Costa Rica and Their Natural History, vols. 1 and 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), and “Singing Caterpillars, Ants and Symbiosis,” Scientific American (October 1992). The species name of the metalmark described is Thisbe irenea.

Material on the Australian Bright Copper comes from J. Hall Cushman et al., “Assessing Benefits to Both Participants in a Lycaenid-Ant Association,” Ecology, vol. 75, no. 4 (1994). Material on the Common Imperial Blue is from Mark Travassos and Naomi Pierce, “Acoustics, Context, and Function of Vibrational Signaling in a Lycaenid Butterfly Ant Mutualism,” Animal Behavior, vol. 60 (2000). Information on the carnivorous blue larva that eats aphids is from personal correspondence with Bert Orr. Material on the European blue, which resembles a monstrous ant grub, is from J. C. Wardlaw et al., “Do Maculinea rebeli Caterpillars Provide Vestigial Mutualistic Benefits to Ants When Living as Social Parasites Inside Myrmica Ant Nests?” Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, vol. 95 (2000). I referred to other articles as well, including Thomas Damm et al., “Adoption of Parasitic Maculinea Alcon Caterpillars by Three Myrmica Ant Species,” Animal Behavior, vol. 62 (2001).

The problems and natural history of the English Large Blue are discussed in Phil Schappert, A World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior, and Future (Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000), and John Feltwell, The Natural History of Butterflies (London: Facts on File Publications, 1986). The quote from Vladimir Nabokov comes from The Gift, translated by Michael Scammel in 1952, quoted in Robert Michael Pyle, Nabokov’s Butterflies: Unpublished and Uncollected Writings (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000). The quotes from Sir Compton McKenzie are in Patrick Matthews, The Pursuit of Moths and Butterflies: An Anthology (London: Chatto and Windus, 1957).

Information on the Madrone caterpillar comes primarily from Terrence D. Fitzgerald, “Nightlife of Social Caterpillars,” Natural History (February 2001). General information on the longevity of caterpillars, social caterpillars, and signals for molting can be found in James Scott, The Butterflies of North America: A Natural History and Field Guide (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986), and Malcolm Scoble, The Lepidoptera: Form, Function, and Diversity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).

In The Natural History of Butterflies, John Feltwell mentions the role of carotenoid pigments in the yellow blood of caterpillars and the ability of the Large White to count hours of light.

METAMORPHOSIS

An excellent book on Vladimir Nabokov is Robert Michael Pyle, Nabokov’s Butterflies: Unpublished and Uncollected Writings (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000). The lecture quoted can be found in this book and was originally given in March 1951 at Cornell University in a Masterpieces of European Fiction class. Other sources for Nabokov’s work and life are Vladimir Nabokov, Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited (New York: Putnam, 1966), and Kurt Johnson and Steven Coates, Nabokov’s Blues: The Scientific Odyssey of a Literary Genius (Cambridge, Mass.: Zoland Books, 1999).

More information on metamorphosis can be found in general books by James Scott and Malcolm Scoble, and in H. Frederik Nijhout, The Development and Evolution of Butterfly Wing Patterns (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991).

The folktale concerning the Hindu god Brahma is a common one. The story of Pope Gelasius I, as well as other mythic facts and tidbits, are collected in Maraleen Manos-Jones, The Spirit of Butterflies: Myth, Magic, and Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000), and in Miriam Rothschild, Butterfly Cooing Like a Dove (New York: Doubleday, 1991). The material on convicts in China is from the Web site True Buddha School Net at www.tbsn.org/ebooks/satira/convicts.htm.

The quote from Elizabeth Kubler-Ross is from her memoir The Wheel of Life: A Memoir of Living and Dying (New York: Touch-stone Books, 1997). The quote from Miriam Rothschild is from her Butterfly Cooing Like a Dove. Material on the Aztec relationship with butterflies can be found in many sources, including Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water: Thought and Religion in Ancient Mexico (Berkeley: Shambhala Books, 1976). Philip DeVries’s quote comes from his The Butterflies of Costa Rica, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Information on the emergence of the adult butterfly can be found in the general books already listed.

BUTTERFLY BRAINS

Material on Martha Weiss and her work comes from personal correspondence, as well as the following articles by Martha Weiss: “Innate Colour Preference and Flexible Colour Learning in the Pipevine Swallowtail,” Animal Behavior, vol. 53 (1997); “Brainy Butterflies,” Natural History, vol. 109, no. 6 (July/August 2000); “Ontogenetic Changes in Leaf Shelter Construction by Larvae of Epargyreus Clarus (Hesperidae), the Silver-spotted Skipper,” Journal of the Lepidoptera Society, vol. 54, no. 3 (2001); and Martha Weiss and Dan Papaj, “Colour Learning in Two Behavioral Contexts: How Much Can a Butterfly Keep in Mind?” (manuscript in preparation). Other sources include Susan Milius, “How Bright Is a Butterfly?” Science News, vol. 153 (11 April 1998); Dave Goulson et al., “Foraging Strategies in the Small Skipper Butterfly, Thymelicus favus: When to Switch?” Animal Behavior, vol. 53 (1997); C. M. Penz and H. W. Krenn, “Behavioral Adaptations to Pollen-Feeding in Heliconius Butterflies,” Journal of Insect Behavior, vol. 13, no. 6 (2000); and Camille McNeely and Michael Singer, “Contrasting the Roles of Learning in Butterflies Foraging for Nectar and Oviposition Sites,” Animal Behavior, vol. 61 (2002).

Quotes and information from Dan Papaj come from personal correspondence, as well as some of the articles already noted.

Information on bees comes from various sources, including Frederich Barth’s Insects and Flowers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

BUTTERFLY MATISSE

More information on the design and colors of butterfly wings can be found in the general books already noted, as well as Rod and Ken Preston-Mafham, Butterflies of the World (London: Blandford Books, 1999), and H. Frederik Nijhout, The Development and Evolution of Butterfly Wing Patterns (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991). That book is the source of the quote by Nijhout.

The experiment with sulphurs is described in Richard Vane-Wright and Michael Boppre, “Visual and Chemical Signaling in Butterflies: Function and Phylogenetic Perspectives,” Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London, vol. 340 (1993).

Information on the African butterfly, whose species name is Bicyclus anynana, comes from Sean Carroll, “Genetics on the Wing: Or How the Butterfly Got Its Spots,” Natural History, vol. 2 (1997), and Paul Brakefield et al., “The Genetics and Development of an Eyespot Pattern in the Butterfly Bicyclus anynana: Response to Selection for Eyespot Shape,” Genetics, vol. 46 (May 1997), as well as other articles on Bicyclus butterflies by Paul Brakefield. This African species is not to be confused with the African species Precis octavia, whose wet-season form is blue and dry-season form orange-red.

LOVE STORIES

Love stories among butterflies can be found in the general books already noted. N. Tinbergen first described the Grayling’s courtly bow in The Study of Instinct (Folcroft, Pa.: Folcroft Press, 1951). I also read Robert Lederhouse, “Comparative Mating Behavior and Sexual Selection in North American Swallowtail Butterflies” and Kazuma Matsumoto and Nobuhiko Suzuki, “The Nature of Mating Plugs and the Probability of Reinsemination in Japanese Papilionidae,” both in J. Mark Scriber, Yoshitaka Tsubaki, and Robert Lederhouse, eds., Swallowtail Butterflies: Their Ecology and Evolutionary Behavior (Gainesville, Fla.: Scientific Publishers, 1995), as well as Darrell J. Kemp and Christer Wiklund, “Fighting Without Weaponry: A Review of Male-Male Contest Competition in Butterflies,” Behavorial Ecology Sociobiology, vol. 49 (2001).

Material on the eyes in a swallowtail’s genitalia can be found in the following articles by Kentaro Arikawa: “Hindsight of Butterflies,” Bioscience, vol. 51, no. 3 (March 2001), and “The Eyes Have It,” Discover Magazine, vol. 17 (November 1996).

More information on chemical signaling in milkweed butterflies and their use of alkaloids can be found in Richard Vane-Wright and Michael Boppre, “Visual and Chemical Signaling in Butterflies: Function and Phylogenetic Perspectives,” Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London, vol. 340 (1993), and in Michael Boppre, “Sex, Drugs, and Butterflies,” Natural History, vol. 103 (January 1994). An important book on these butterflies is P. R. Ackery and R. I Vane-Wright, Milkweed Butterflies: Their Cladistics and Biology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984). The observation of monarchs drinking dew is from Susan Milius, “Male Butterflies Are Driven to Drink,” Science News (24 August 2002).

Mud-puddling is discussed in many sources, including Carol Boggs and Lee Ann Jackson, “Mud-Puddling by Butterflies Is Not a Simple Matter,” Ecological Entomology, vol. 16 (1991).

Pupal mating is also mentioned in many books and articles, including Larry Gilbert, “Biodiversity of a Central American Heliconius Community: Pattern, Process, and Problems,” in Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1991).

Material on the sphragis comes from personal correspondence with Bert Orr, as well as his chapter “The Evolution of the Sphragis in the Papilionidae and Other Butterflies,” in Scriber, Tsubaki, and Lederhouse, Swallowtail Butterflies. I also used A. G. Orr and Ronald Rutowski, “The Function of the Sphragis in Cressida Cressida,” Journal of Natural History, vol. 25 (1991), and A. G. Orr, “The Sphragis of Heteronympha penelope Waterhouse: Its Structure, Formation and Role in Sperm Guarding,” Journal of Natural History, vol. 36 (2002). The butterfly that produces an internal stalk is Acraea natalica.

More information on the Cabbage White can be found in Johan Anderson et al., “Sexual Cooperation and Conflict in Butterflies: A Male-Transferred Anti-Aphrodisiac Reduces Harassment of Recently Mated Females,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 267 (2001).

THE SINGLE MOM

More material on oviposition can be found in J. Mark Scriber, Yoshitaka Tsubaki, and Robert C. Lederhouse, eds., Swallowtail Butterflies: Their Ecology and Evolutionary Behavior (Gainesville, Fla.: Scientific Publishers, 1995), particularly in the following chapters: Mark Rausher, “Behavorial Ecology of Oviposition in the Pipevine Swallowtail, Battus Philenor”; Yoshitaka Tsubaki, “Clutch Size Adjustment by Luehdorfia Japonica”; and Ritsuo Nishida, “Oviposition Stimulants of Swallowtail Butterflies.” Dan Papaj also provided information through personal correspondence. In addition, I used a variety of articles, including Camille McNeeley and Michael Singer, “Contrasting the Roles of Learning in Butterflies Foraging for Nectar and Oviposition Sites,” Animal Behavior, vol. 61 (2001). The species name for Texas Dutchman’s pipe is Aristolochia reticulata; the species name for Virginia snakeroot is Aristolochia serpentaria.

ON THE MOVE

Material on the migration of Snouts is taken from personal correspondence with Larry Gilbert, as well as his “Ecological Factors Which Influence Migratory Behavior in Two Butterflies of the Semi-Arid Shrublands of South Texas,” Contributions in Marine Science, vol. 27 (Austin, Tex.: Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, September 1985). I also consulted Charles Gable and W. A. Baker, “Notes on a Migration of Libythea bachmanni,” The Canadian Entomologist, vol. 12 (December 1922).

The quote from Vladimir Nabokov is from his memoir Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited (New York: Putnam, 1966).

Material on the Painted Lady can be found in general sources, as well as Derham Giuliani and Oakley Shields, “Large-scale Migrations of the Painted Lady Butterfly, Vanessa cardui, in Inyo County, California, During 1991,” Bulletin of Southern California Academic Sciences, vol. 94, no. 2 (1995). The quote on the migration of Painted Ladies on the Sudanese Red Coast was taken from Torben Larsen, “Butterfly Mass Transit,” Natural History, vol. 102 (June 1993). In this article, Larsen also wrote about migrating butterflies willing to “batter down the house” as they flew straight to their goal.

Material on Monarchs comes from many general sources. I recommend Sue Halpern, Four Wings and a Prayer (New York: Pantheon Books, 2001), and Lincoln Brower, “New Perspectives on the Migration Ecology of the Monarch Butterfly,” Contributions in Marine Science, vol. 27 (Austin, Tex.: Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, September 1985). Material on navigation in Monarchs comes from the following articles by Sandra Perez et al.: “A Sun Compass in Monarch Butterflies,” Nature, vol. 387 (May 1997), and “Monarch Butterflies Use a Magnetic Compass for Navigation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences at the United States of America, vol. 96, no. 24 (23 November 1999); and from Laura Tangley, “Butterfly Compasses,” US News and World Report, vol. 127, no. 22 (6 December 1999), as well as from other articles.

For more information on migration, I also read Robert Srygley, “Compensation for Fluctuations in Crosswind Drift Without Stationary Landmarks in Butterflies Migrating Over Seas,” Animal Behavior, vol. 61 (2001); Ilkka Hanski et al., “Metapopulation Structure and Migration in the Butterfly Melitaea cinxia,” Ecology, vol. 75, no. 3 (1994); Constanti Stefanescu, “The Nature of Migration in the Red Admiral Butterfly, Vanessa atalanta: Evidence from the Population Ecology in Its Southern Range,” Ecological Entomology, vol. 26 (2001); and the following articles by Thomas Walker: “Butterfly Migrations in Florida: Seasonal Patterns and Long-Term Change,” Environmental Entomology, vol. 30, no. 6 (December 2001), and “Butterfly Migration from and to Peninsular Florida,” Ecological Entomology, vol. 16 (1991).

IN THE LAND OF BUTTERFLIES

More on the life of Henry Walter Bates can be found in George Woodcock, Henry Walter Bates: Naturalist of the Amazons (London: Faber and Faber, 1969). Most of the quotes by Bates are from his The Naturalist on the River Amazon (London: John Murray, 1876). The description of his attire, however, is from his “Proceedings of Natural History Collectors in Foreign Countries,” The Zoologist, vol. 15 (1857). A good article on his collecting adventures and techniques in the field is Kim Goodyear and Philip Ackery, “Bates, and the Beauty of Butterflies,” The Linnean, vol. 18 (2002). The quote concerning entomologists being “a poor set” comes from that article. I also quote from Bates’s lecture “Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley,” read before the Linnean Society on 21 November 1861.

Information on mimicry can be found in many general sources. Phil Schappert, A World for Butterflies: Their Lives, Behavior, and Future (Buffalo, N.Y.: Firefly Books, 2000), has a good description and illustration of mimicry rings. I also consulted James Marden, “Newton’s Second Law of Butterflies,” Natural History, vol. 1 (1992); H. Frederick Nijhout, “Developmental Perspectives in Evolution of Butterfly Mimicry,” Bioscience, vol. 44, no. 3 (March 1994); Peng Chai and Robert Srygley, “Predation and the Flight, Morphology, and Temperature of Neotropical Rainforest Butterflies,” The American Naturalist, vol. 135, no. 6 (June 1990); Larry Gilbert and James Mallet, “Why Are There So Many Mimicry Rings? Correlations Between Habitat, Behavior, and Mimicry in Heliconius Butterflies,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. 55 (1995); Peng Chai and James Marden, “Aerial Predation and Butterfly Design: How Palatability, Mimicry, and the Need for Evasive Flight Constrain Mass Allocation,” The American Naturalist, vol. 158, no. 1 (July 1991); David Ritland, “Variation in Palatability of Queen Butterflies and Implications Regarding Mimicry,” Ecology, vol. 75, no. 3 (1994); Angus MacDougall and Marian Stamp Sawkins, “Predator Discrimination Error and the Benefits of Mullerian Mimicry,” Animal Behavior, vol. 55 (1998); Robert Srygley and C. P. Ellington, “Discrimination of Flying Mimetic, Passion-Vine Butterflies Heliconius,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 266 (1999); David Ritland and Lincoln Brower, “The Viceroy Butterfly Is Not a Batesian Mimic,” Nature, vol. 350 (11 April 1991); Richard Vane-Wright, “A Case of Self-Deception,” Nature, vol. 350 (11 April 1991); and David Kapan, “Three-Butterfly System Provides a Field Test of Mullerian Mimicry,” Nature, vol. 409 (18 January 2001).

Larry Gilbert’s theory comes from his “Biodiversity of a Central American Heliconius Community: Pattern, Process, and Problems,” Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1991).

Bert Orr provided me with information in personal correspondence.

The final quote from Alfred Russel Wallace is from his My Life: A Record of Events and Opinions (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1906).

THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM

Most of the material in this chapter comes from personal interviews with Jeremy Holloway, Richard Vane-Wright, Phil Ackery, and David Carter.

I also read J. D. Holloway and N. E. Stork, “The Dimensions of Biodiversity: The Use of Invertebrates as Indicators of Human Impact,” The Biodiversity of Microorganisms and Invertebrates: Its Role in Sustainable Agriculture, ed. D. L. Hawksworth (CAB International, 1991); Richard Vane-Wright, “Taxonomy, Methods Of,” in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, vol. 3 (San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 2001); David Carter and Annette Walker, Care and Conservation of Natural History Collections (Newton, Mass.: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997); “The Diversity of Moths: An Interview with J. D. Holloway,” Malayan Naturalist, vol. 51, no. 1 (August 1997); Kim Goodyear and Philip Ackery, “Bates, and the Beauty of Butterflies,” The Linnean, vol. 18 (2002); and Phil Ackery, “The Lepidoptera Collections at the Natural History Museum (BMNH) in South Kensington, London,” Holarctic Lepidoptera, vol. 6, no. 1 (1999).

More material on the history of the museum can be found at the Web site of the Natural History Museum, as well as in John Thackery and Bob Press, The Natural History Museum: Nature’s Treasurehouse (London: Natural History Museum, 2001); and Mark Girouard, Alfred Waterhouse and the Natural History Museum (London: Natural History Museum, 1981).

The quotes about eating insects come from Vincent M. Holt, Why Not Eat Insects? (1885; reprint, London: Natural History Museum, 1967).

The brief quotes on age come from Edward O. Wilson, “A Grassroots Jungle in a Vacant Lot,” Wings: Essays on Invertebrate Conservation (Portland, Ore.: The Xerces Society, fall 1995); Miriam Rothschild, “Ages Five to Fifteen: Wildflowers, Butterflies, and Frogs,” by Miriam Rothschild in Wings: Essays on Invertebrate Conservation (Portland, Ore.: The Xerces Society, fall 1995); and Robert Michael Pyle, The Thunder Tree: Lessons from an Urban Wildland (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993).

The quote from the naked collector is by Charles Morris Woodford and can be found in his A Naturalist Among the Head-hunters (London: George Philip and Son, 1890).

The quote by Eleanor Glanville is from Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, “Elizabeth Glanville, an Early English Entomologist,” Entomologist’s Gazette, vol. 17 (October 1966).

NOT A BUTTERFLY

A good source of information about moths is Mark Young, The Natural History of Moths (London: T&AD Poyser Natural History, 1997), and Charles Covell, A Field Guide to the Moths of Eastern North America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984).

I also read Frederich G. Barth, Insects and Flowers: The Biology of a Partnership (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Michael Robinson, “An Ancient Arms Race Shows No Sign of Letting Up,” Smithsonian, vol. 23, no. 1 (April 1992); Richard Connif, “Purple, Orange, Oooh, He’s Oozing Poison at Me,” Smithsonian, vol. 26, no. 11 (February 1966); Darlyne Murawski, “Moths Come to Light,” National Geographic, vol. 191, no. 3 (1997); Susan Milius, “Butterfly Ears Suggest a Bat Influence,” Science News, vol. 157, no. 4 (22 January 2000); and Jens Rydell, “Echolocating Bats and Hearing Moths: Who Are the Winners?” Oikos, vol. 73, no. 3 (1995).

TIMELINE

Much of the material in this chapter comes from personal interviews and correspondence with Rudi Mattoni. More information can also be found in Rudi Mattoni, “The Endangered El Segundo Blue Butterfly,” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera, vol. 29, no. 4 (1990); Rudi Mattoni et al., “Analysis of Transect Counts to Monitor Population Size in Endangered Insects,” Journal of Insect Conservation, vol. 5 (2002); Leslie Mieko Yap, “Brightening a Butterfly’s Future,” National Wildlife (October/November 1993); Rudi Mattoni and Travis Longcore, “Arthropod Monitoring for Fine-scale Habitat Analysis: A Case Study of the El Segundo Sand Dunes,” Environmental Management, vol. 25, no. 4 (2000); Rudi Mattoni, “Rediscovery of the Endangered Palos Verdes Blue Butterfly, Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis,” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera, vol. 31, nos. 3-4 (1992); Connie Isball, “Green Teens Save the Blues,” Audubon (September/October 1996); and Rudi Mattoni and Nelson Powers, “The Palos Verdes Blue: An Update,” Endangered Species Bulletin (November/December 2000).

Information on Arthur Bonner comes from personal communications, as well as Michael Lipton, “Butterfly Man,” People Weekly, vol. 49 (26 January 1998); America’s Endangered Species, a National Geographic Special originally aired 24 January 1996 on NBC; and Tom Dworetzky, “In Helping Save Endangered Species, He Also Saved Himself,” National Wildlife, vol. 35 (October /November 1997).

THE BUSINESS OF BUTTERFLIES

Bill Toone of the San Diego Museum gave me good background information, as did Daryl Loth of Tortuguero, Costa Rica. I also read Brent Davies, “Field Notes from a Costa Rican Butterfly Farm” and Bill Toone, “How a Bird Man Became a Butterfly Farmer in Costa Rica,” both articles in Wings: Essays on Invertebrate Conservation (Portland, Ore.: The Xerces Society, spring 1995).

The quote from Miram Rothschild comes from her Butterfly Cooing Like a Dove (New York: Doubleday, 1991). The material from Philip DeVries comes from his The Butterflies of Costa Rica and Their Natural History, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).

More information on butterfly houses can be found in Robert Lederhouse et al., “Butterfly Gardening and Butterfly Houses and Their Influence on Conservation in North America,” in J. Mark Scriber, Yoshitaka Tsubaki, and Robert C. Lederhouse, eds., Swallowtail Butterflies: Their Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (Gainesville, Fla.: Scientific Publishers, 1995).

More material on butterfly conservation in Papua New Guinea is in Larry Orsak, “Killing Butterflies . . . to Save Butterflies,” on the Web site www.aa6g.org/Butterflies/pngletter.html; Michael Parsons, “Butterfly Farming and Trading in the Indo-Australian Region and Its Benefits in the Conservation of Swallowtails and Their Tropical Forest Habitats,” in Scriber, Tsubaki, and Lederhouse, Swallowtail Butterflies; Thomas Hanscom, “Papua New Guinea: A Butterfly Farming Success Story,” Wings: Essays on Invertebrate Conservation (Portland, Ore.: The Xerces Society, spring 1995); and Michael Parsons, “Butterfly Conservation and Commerce in Papua New Guinea,” in The Butterflies of Papua New Guinea: Their Systematics and Biology (San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press, 1999). Butterfly ranching in Kenya is discussed in Don Borough, “On the Wings of Hope,” International Wildlife, vol. 30, no. 4 (July/August 2000), as well as in other articles.

Information on CRES is from personal correspondence with Joris Brinckerhoff and from his Web site, www.butterflyfarm.co.cr.

More material on the Barra del Colorado biology field station can be found at the COTREC Web site.

The quote by Evelyn Cheeseman is from her Hunting Insects in the South Seas (London: Philip Allan and Company, 1948).

A discussion on the commercial release of butterflies is in Judith Kirkwood, “Do Commercial Butterfly Releases Pose a Threat to Wild Populations?” National Wildlife, vol. 37, no. 1 (December 1998/January 1999), and June Kronholz, “Butterflies Are Free? Well, Not Under Rules Lepidopterists Debate,” Wall Street Journal, 14 January 2002.

AIR AND ANGELS

The association of cultural and religious ideas with butterflies comes from many different sources, including Maraleen Manos-Jones, The Spirit of Butterflies: Myth, Magic, and Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2000); Miriam Rothschild, Butterfly Cooing Like a Dove (New York: Doubleday, 1991); and numerous articles and Web sites. The idea of butterflies as “air and angels” and “stray, familiar thoughts” is repeated from quotes mentioned earlier in Chapter 1.