accolade—a sign or expression of high praise and esteem for somebody or some thing
The first speaker had the crowd’s attention, and roars of approval filled the air as he punctuated every accolade for the United States of America with his fist in the air.
belligerently—done in a hostile or aggressive manner
She stared belligerently at the preacher. She turned to voice her protest to her mother, but Mama patted her arm and whispered, “We’ll talk later.”
brigade—a group organized with a common goal, such as putting out a fire
Many carried buckets, and one man yelled above the roar of the crowd, “Form a line! Start a brigade!”
cholera—a serious, often fatal intestinal disease
“Dr. Drake says cholera is in England. “
constitution—the ability of someone’s body to stay healthy
“Any violent emotion could weaken a body’s constitution, “Dr. Drake said.
contagious—able to be passed from person to person
The articles in Dr. Drake’s magazines had said it was not contagious, so it couldn’t spread from one person to the next.
defiantly—done in a challenging or rebellious manner
Defiantly, Rob stepped off the sidewalk and sank knee-deep in mud and slime.
encompassed—encircled something
She made a gesture with her hands that encompassed the entire downtown.
foreboding—the feeling that something bad is going to happen
He continued giving a lecture about filth and the creeks and animal carcasses that filled Emma with an uneasy sense of foreboding.
gnarled—twisted, misshapen
He pointed a gnarled finger at Emma.
hackles—the hairs on the back of the neck and along the spine as on an animal; temper
She practically saw Rob’s hackles rise.
immersed—completely covered with liquid
Other two-story houses across the street looked like one-story houses, their first floors immersed in floodwater.
intemperate—lacking self-control; drinking excessively
“She was a … a derelict, an intemperate person.”
mercantile—relating to merchants or trading; a store
The shingle that jutted out over Barnett’s Mercantile was almost that high off the street, and only the tip of it was above the water.
pesthouse—a hospital for people with infections
“I have a pesthouse set up, and the red flag is ready. I’ll get a wagon. “
qualm—misgiving; uneasiness
But she knew Rob and Sue Ellen felt even stranger, so she marched down the road and into the small, dusty building as though she didn’t have a qualm.
rancid—having a strong a disagreeable smell or taste of decomposing fats or oils
A musty, rancid smell made her nose wrinkle.
reprimanded—scolded
She’d never been reprimanded for talking in class before.
resuscitating—reviving; bringing back to a state of breathing and consciousness
Dr. Drake knelt beside the unconscious man and took over the resuscitating procedure.
squalor—shabbiness and dirtiness resulting from poverty or neglect
She and Rob had passed near it when they went to the river to measure the depth, but both of their mothers had warned them to stay away from the squalor and degradation of that area.
succumbed—gave into; died from
Papa had explained how Miss Ruthann was old and frail and easily succumbed to the cholera.
Dr. Daniel Drake
Daniel Drake was born on October 20, 1785, in New Jersey. His family was extremely poor and moved to Kentucky in 1788 in an attempt to improve their situation. In 1798, Drake became a student of Dr. Wallace Goforth, one of the first physicians in Cincinnati. He thrived as a student and joined Dr. Goforth’s practice. In 1805, Goforth awarded Drake a formal diploma, which allowed him to practice on his own. This was the first medical diploma awarded west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Drake spent the next two years studying in Philadelphia. He moved to Kentucky and then, in 1807, returned to Cincinnati. He spent the next several years teaching and establishing medical schools and university departments in Ohio and Kentucky and was the cofounder of a scholarly journal designed to improve medical standards in the West. He wrote many books on the plants, animals, and diseases of Ohio. Daniel Drake died in 1852.
The Cholera Epidemic of 1832
The year 1832 brought the first cholera epidemic to the United States. Immigrants coming from Europe probably brought cholera into this country. Cholera was spread by drinking water or eating food that had been contaminated by sewage. Extremely poor sanitation practices in cities made them the site of the most widespread cholera outbreaks. In New York City between July and August, three thousand people died of cholera; in New Orleans, 4,340 people died of the disease in October.
The widely traveled Ohio and Mississippi rivers allowed cholera to spread throughout the United States. Canals, prevalent in many cities, held stagnant water that was fertile breeding grounds for the disease. Cholera most often struck in the fall, spring, and summer months; the extreme cold of the winter seemed to have reduced incidence of the disease in the northern states.
Cholera was a disease in which the cure could be as fatal as the disease itself. Prior to the Civil War, the most frequently used drug for treatment was calomel. Unfortunately, calomel contained mercury, and many people survived cholera only to die from mercury poisoning, caused by taking that drug.
Pesthouses
Pesthouses were not new with the cholera epidemic. These hospitals or shelters have a long history, extending back at least as far as ancient Egypt. Cities have always seen the need to have “someplace” to put citizens with contagious diseases. These have included cholera, bubonic plague, smallpox, and in some areas today, AIDS.
Few people left pesthouses alive; they were mostly places where people could be sent to wait to die while not infecting others. The pesthouses were often the most dilapidated buildings that could be found. Abandoned warehouses and slaughterhouses were popular sites in many cities. Rather than being located in the center of town or near medical facilities, most were in isolated areas or on the outskirts of town. In many cases, nuns were those who tended to the sick.
January 1, 1808—Importation of slaves to America is banned.
1820—In Salem, Massachusetts, General Robert Johnson eats a tomato in public to prove it is not poisonous.
November 17, 1820—Captain Nathaniel Palmer becomes the first American to see Antarctica.
March 19, 1831—The first bank robbery in United States history occurs at City Bank of New York with $245,000 taken.
June 1, 1831—James Clark Ross discovers the North Pole on the Boothia Peninsula in the Arctic Ocean.
August 31, 1831—Edwin Beard Budding is granted a patent for the invention of the lawn mower.
February 12, 1832—A serious cholera epidemic begins in London, England. Deaths continue to occur through May 1832. There are at least 3,000 victims of the epidemic.
July 24, 1832—The first wagon train is led across the Rocky Mountains.
November 1832—Andrew Jackson defeats Henry Clay for the presidency of the United States.
November 29, 1832—American author Louisa May Alcott (author of Little Women) is born.
December 28, 1832—John C. Calhoun becomes the first U.S. vice president to resign.
June 6, 1833—Andrew Jackson becomes the first U.S. president to ride a train.
1845—Irish potato famine begins, leading to mass migration to the United States.
July 19, 1848—Two-day Women’s Rights Convention is held in Seneca Falls, New York.
January 23, 1849—Elizabeth Blackwell is awarded an M.D. (doctor of medicine) from the Medical Institute of Geneva, New York, making her the first woman doctor in the United States.
aerie—the nest of a bird on a cliff or mountaintop
“We will find some along the way,” Nellie said. “I’ll help you climb to their aerie.”
assassinated—killed
Those who had signed the false treaty that forced the 1838 removal of the Cherokee were assassinated.
acreage—area of land in acres
Later legislation took tribal ownership from the Cherokee and gave acreage to individual Indians.
bilious fever—a general term for fevers of the intestines
Surely Morning Sun didn’t have the bilious fever or whooping cough.
blowgun—a tube through which a projectile such as a dart may be forced through by breath
And he liked hunting with his blowgun.
council—an assembly or meeting for discussion and/or advice
The council, lead by Chief John Ross, decided it was time to prepare.
edoda—Cherokee word for father
“We don’t carry,” one of the soldiers said. “Orders.” As if that explained not helping a girl and her edoda pack a wagon.
enslavement—to be forced to be a slave
But enslavement was enslavement. And she agreed with Reverend Bushyhead. It was wrong.
established—settled or founded
In 1907, the state of Oklahoma was established from Indian Territory.
etsi—Cherokee word for mother
“Etsi, we’ll pick some berries,” Nellie called to her etsi, who had headed a different direction into the woods.
lawlessness—having no control by law
A time of lawlessness reigned for several years.
lean-to—a wing or extension of a shelter, which has a slanted roof
The temperature was frigid, but the men made a short lean-to from the canvas flap on the wagon and built afire to keep blankets warmed.
massive—large, solid, or heavy in structure
John looked up as they passed under the heavy branches of a massive oak tree.
oral language—language that is spoken
Many students study their oral language and Sequoyah’s syllabary.
peddling—selling
At the stockade, they had tried to keep white alcohol merchants from peddling their whiskey to Cherokee men.
ritual—something done over and over again as a tradition or ceremony
Eating a meal had been a ritual, a time of thanking God for the food, and a time of fellowship with her family.
salt pork—meat from a pig that is treated with salt to keep it from going bad
Nellie feared she was not eating enough, and sometimes she said she was not hungry and give her meager share of salt pork and corn bread to her etsi.
scavenger—one that takes things that have been left behind
“It won’t matter,” Lieutenant Seward said. “Scavengers will take it. “
silhouette—a shadow image of a figure
Many had already lost their leaves, and when she looked up, she saw their winter silhouettes pressed against the blue sky.
skitter—to run quickly with tiny steps
She opened her eyes and saw a mouse skitter across the dead leaves on the trail ahead of her.
stockade—a military structure used for protection against attackers and sometimes to enclose prisoners
Wagons were lined up along the log walls of a stockade.
syllabary—a set of written symbols that represent syllables, which make up words
And she’d write in Cherokee language, using Sequoyah’s syllabary, not English, so the soldiers wouldn’t know what she was writing.
whooping cough—a contagious bacterial infection that causes severe coughing spells
The cough didn’t sound like the deep whoop and wheeze of whooping cough, and Nellie had heard that enough to know the sound, so she was reassured by Morning Sun’s words.
Indian Removal Act of 1830
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law passed by the United States Congress to help make American Indian tribes who lived east of the Mississippi River move to lands farther west. The Removal Act was part of a U.S. government policy known as Indian Removal. It was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830.
The Removal Act did not actually order any Native Americans to leave their land, but it did allow the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties with tribes who lived within the boundaries of existing U.S. states.
The treaties that resulted from the Indian Removal Act of 1830 were not always supported by all the Native Americans who were affected by them. One example of this was the 1835 Treaty of New Echota that was signed by a minority group of Cherokee who agreed to give up their land in Georgia in exchange for money and land in present-day Oklahoma. The majority did not agree to this and called it a false treaty, but they were forced to leave their homes, anyway, and traveled reluctantly to their new land on what became known as the Cherokee Trail of Tears.
John Ross
John Ross, or Kooweskoowe as he was known in Cherokee, was born in Tennessee in 1790 to Scottish and Cherokee parents. In 1828, he was elected the principal chief of the eastern Cherokee and struggled to help his people keep their land in Georgia. But because of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the 1835 Treaty of New Echota, he was not able to do so. From 1838–1839, he led his people on the long, hard journey known as the Trail of Tears to their new land in present-day Oklahoma. And from 1839 until he died in 1866, John Ross was chief of the United Cherokee Nation.
The Bushyhead Family
Reverend Jesse Bushyhead was a devout Cherokee preacher and a trail leader on the Trail of Tears. On January 3, 1839, Reverend Bushyhead’s wife, Eliza Wilkinson Bushyhead, gave birth to a daughter and named her Eliza Missouri after the state she was born in—on the Missouri side of the Mississippi River, in what is now the Trail of Tears State Park. Reverend Bushyhead continued his work as a preacher after his family reached Oklahoma and raised Eliza Missouri in a Christian home.
Sequoyah
Sequoyah was a Native American leader who invented the Cherokee syllabary. His exact birthdate and place are not known, but he was probably born around 1766. Most Americans knew him as George Guess, but the Cherokee knew him as Sogwali. The name Sequoyah was given to him by missionaries.
Sequoyah was a trader and a silversmith in Cherokee country in Georgia, and he wanted to create a system of writing for the Cherokee oral language. So, he compiled a table of eighty-five characters to symbolize the sounds of their spoken language. In 1822, Sequoyah visited the Cherokee in Arkansas and taught thousands of the Native Americans there to read and write. He moved with them to present-day Oklahoma. Parts of the Bible were soon printed in Cherokee, and in 1828, a weekly newspaper, The Cherokee Pheonix, was begun. Sequoyah’s great achievement helped to unite the Cherokee and make them leaders among other Native Americans.
Sequoyah died around 1843 while on a trip to visit Cherokees who had moved to Mexico. The giant redwood tree sequoia is named for him.
March 19, 1831—The first recorded U.S. bank robbery occurs in New York.
November 30, 1835—Samuel Clemens, also known as Mark Twain, is born in Florida, Missouri.
March 6, 1836—The Alamo is captured by Mexican forces during the Texas Revolution.
February 5, 1837—D. L. Moody, founder of Moody Bible Institute, is born.
September 3, 1838—Frederick Douglass makes his escape from slavery in Baltimore, Maryland, and lives as a free man to become a famous writer, abolitionist, and human rights activist.
1843—The first commercial Christmas cards are printed and sold in London, England.
May 24, 1844—Samuel F. B. Morse dispatches the first paper tape code message over an experimental telegraph line.
1845–1849—The Irish Potato Famine takes hundreds of thousands of lives in Ireland.
1847—The United States Post Office issues its first postage stamps.
January 24, 1848—The California Gold Rush begins at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma, California.
annexation—addition of a country or a territory to another
“The newspaper is still full of talk about the annexation of Texas. The presidential candidates keep arguing whether it should be a slave state or free. “
chuckle—to laugh quietly
A chuckle escaped from Susannah’s lips.
conjugate—to give the different forms of a verb
As she listened to Mrs. Gravitt drone on about conjugating verbs, Meg’s pen scratched out swirls and curlicues at the edge of her copybook.
daguerreotype—an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered copper plate
At the throat of her black silk dress, the teacher wore a brooch with a small daguerreotype of her deceased husband.
davenport—a large type of couch or sofa
She was lying on a davenport with a quilt over her.
edifice—a large building
Two long lines of students stood waiting outside the large stone edifice of the Ohio Mechanic’s Institute.
fob—a chain attached to a watch to carry in a pocket
Meg wasn’t sure if it was due to the dust or the cigar smoke from a well-dressed gentleman with a shiny gold watch fob.
frivolous—of little importance
Meg had wanted to come to the institute and see the galleries ever since it opened the year before, but there never seemed to be time in their household for such frivolous things.
gawk—to stare stupidly
Meg was gawking about so much, she nearly stumbled on the small stone steps that led up to the lodge.
highboys—tall chests of drawers on legs
Handcrafted Buehler highboys, desks, poster beds, and china closets graced the rooms of many plantation mansions all across the South.
immigrant—a person who moves to a new country to live permanently
The two sisters, Hulga and Ida, like many of the German immigrants, spoke with heavy accents.
lathe—a machine for shaping wood or metal
This particular evening, Fred explained to his papa how a stationary steam engine could power the lathes in the factory.
nasturtiums—a trailing plant with round edible leaves and bright orange, red, or yellow flowers
“That blasted rooster in my nasturtiums again? Tell your ma the next time he’s in my yard, I’m gonna make chicken and dumplings out of him. “
prodigy—a person who has exceptional talent or abilities
“It says here that the young child prodigy, Damon Pollard, has been brought to Cincinnati by his uncle, John P. Foote, president of the Ohio Mechanic’s Institute, to study under the famous black artist, Robert Scott Duncanson.”
pullet—a young hen, especially one less than a year old
The larger hens pushed the younger pullets out of the way as they greedily pecked at the feed, clucking softly as they went.
quill—a pen made of a large feather
She thought a moment before dipping the quill into the ink.
reprimand—a severe or formal criticism or scolding
She was sorry she’d caused Susannah to receive a reprimand.
rotunda—a circular hall or room
Later, as they emerged from yet another gallery, they came to the rotunda area in the center of the institute where the open balconies from the second and third stories looked down on the first floor.
salve—a healing cream or ointment
Mama rubbed salve on Meg’s hand, then wrapped it in a clean piece of white cloth, tying a little knot to hold it fast.
swoon—to be filled with delight
She swooned over every picture.
taunt—to say things to anger, hurt, or ridicule a person
As the class walked back to the schoolhouse from the institute, Meg could hear several of the boys behind them taunting two young German girls.
veranda—a covered porch attached to a building
A wide veranda wrapped around the front of the lodge, trimmed out in elegant stone arches.
Robert Scott Duncanson
Robert Scott Duncanson was an African American artist whose landscape paintings were considered among the best produced in America during the mid-1800s. Duncanson was born in 1821 or 1822 in upstate New York and lived most of his childhood with his father in Canada, where he received a public education and developed a love for literature and art. When he was nineteen, he moved near his mother in Cincinnati, Ohio, a city that had become a center for the arts. Soon, his artwork was showing in many local exhibits, and he was sought after to paint portraits and murals. Duncanson was the first African American to show his work among non-African Americans in competition. One of his most famous works is Blue Hole, Little Miami River, finished in 1852, a depiction of a site along the route of the Underground Railroad. Duncanson died on December 21, 1872, leaving a body of work that greatly influenced future artists.
William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison was an American abolitionist—a person who disagreed with slavery and sought to end it in the United States. He was born on December 10, 1805, in Massachusetts. When Garrison was fourteen years old, he became an apprentice to a printer, and by the time he was twenty-two, he was an expert printer and an experienced journalist. He edited the National Philanthropist, the world’s first paper supporting temperance, a movement to eliminate alcoholic beverages. In 1831, he began publishing The Liberator, an antislavery newspaper that had a small circulation in Boston but a wide influence. He also traveled the country opening free-labor stores that would sell only products made by free people, not slaves. Garrison continued his fight until 1865 when the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ended slavery. He later fought for equal rights for women, justice for Native Americans, and for prohibition of tobacco and alcohol. William Lloyd Garrison died in New York City on May 24, 1879.
James K. Polk
James Knox Polk was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from 1845–1849. He was born on November 2, 1795, in North Carolina, the oldest of ten children. Polk graduated from the University of North Carolina, becoming a lawyer and then active in politics. On New Year’s Day in 1824, he married Sarah Childress, who encouraged his political career and became his closest political advisor. The next year, Polk was elected to he U.S. House of Representatives, and in 1839, he was elected as governor of Tennessee. In 1844, he won the election as president of the United States against Senator Henry Clay. Polk enjoyed great success during his presidency, during which the United States added the greatest amount of new territory to the country, but he became the first president not to seek reelection. After his retirement, Polk returned to his home in Tennessee. He died from cholera on June 15, 1849.
1831—Cyrus Hall McCormick invents the first reaping machine.
February 23, 1836—The famous fort known as the Alamo falls to Mexican armies in the Texan war for independence.
1837—American inventor Samuel Morse creates the telegraph.
May 24, 1844—Samuel Morse sends the first public telegram using Morse Code.
December 29, 1845—Texas joins the United States of America.
1846–1848—The Mexican War
1861–1865—The American Civil War
January 1, 1863—President Abraham Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring many U.S. slaves to be free.
1863—President Abraham Lincoln declares the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. April 14, 1865—President Abraham Lincoln is shot and killed at the Ford Theater in Washington, DC by John Wilkes Booth.
1868—Chicago’s Lincoln Park Zoo is the first zoo in the United States to open to the public.
abhorred—hated
Papa abhorred any and all uses of tobacco.
arrogant—overly proud
He could talk about almost anything, yet he never did so in an arrogant manner.
askance—a side-glance
But some people still looked askance at him.
audacity—uncommon boldness
Who would have thought those few little states in the South would fight with such pluck and audacity?
blockade—a restrictive measure designed to obstruct the commerce and communications of an unfriendly nation
Other businesses folded due to the blockade against shipping to the Rebel states.
cholera—any of several diseases that usually cause symptoms like stomach cramping and severe diarrhea
“My parents and sister died of cholera a few years ago. “
countenance—expression; face
As March warmth began to chase winter’s barrenness from the air, Mama’s countenance changed. The worry lines were vanishing.
deployed—spread out or arranged
He drew lines and diagrams, explaining where all the troops were deployed.
dunce—someone slow-witted or stupid
“If you’re willing, Andrew would be a dunce to refuse. “
dysentery—a disease, usually caused by infection, that causes severe diarrhea mixed with blood and mucous
I treat many cases of dysentery, typhoid, and flu.
elite—the best of the best
Instead, she would join the elite Guthrie Grays like Edward Stephens, Jenny’s beau, had done.
elocution—the art of public speaking
Of what use was it to learn about literature and elocution and mathematics, when the entire country was at war?
entrenchment—a strong defensive position, often consisting of trenches dug into the ground
Hearing voices up ahead, Daria knew they were drawing near to the entrenchments that the home guards had erected.
fortification—something that strengthens, defends
The rumors proved untrue, but fortification plans in the city were sped up considerably.
foundry—a place where metals are processed
“Do you realize,” he said, “that most all the older boys have either gone off to fight or are working at the foundry?”
game—lame
But when the corporal reached the stairway that led up from the front hall, he looked at them and said, “What excellent exercise this will be for a game leg. “
hobbled—describes a horse’s legs, fastened together to prevent straying
Even when Bordeaux was hobbled and grazing in the orchard, he always came when Andrew or Daria whistled.
howitzer—a short cannon
The major described the howitzers, mortars, and cannons brought in to destroy the fort.
livery—an establishment that provides for the feeding, stabling, and caring for horses for pay
“If I like the place, I’ll have the livery bring the rest of my books and clothes later. “
malarious fever—a symptom of malaria, a human disease caused by parasites in the red blood cells and characterized by periodic bouts of chills and fever
Malarious fever, scurvy, and diarrhea attack so many of our number.
martial law—law administered by military forces in an emergency when civilian law enforcement agencies cannot maintain public order and safety
“I heard the alarm bells sounding, and then a man came in saying there might be martial law.”
militia—a group of citizens organized for military service
“How he’d gone about the country rallying men for his elite militia while everyone else was saying there’d never be a war.”
morale—mental and emotional condition of an individual or group
Morale is low; discouragement high.
mortar—a muzzle-loading cannon
The major described the howitzers, mortars, and cannons brought in to destroy the fort.
mustered—convened; caused to gather.
Daria marveled that so many volunteers could have been mustered so quickly.
omnibus—a large vehicle designed to carry a large number of people; a bus
Mrs. Ryan caught the omnibus each morning to go to the hospital and be with her husband.
palpable—capable of being felt
No one said a word, yet the worry was palpable.
pell-mell—with confused haste
The three raced pell-mell, laughing as they went.
pontoon bridge—a floating temporary bridge made from a flat-bottomed or portable float
Daria knew that Andrew didn’t sleep or even stop by the house for the first twenty-four hours while he was helping to build a pontoon bridge.
ragtag—sloppily put together
Being part of the Guthrie Grays meant Edward had a full uniform, with brass buttons and epaulets, unlike the ragtag Walnut Hills Home Guard.
recruits—newly drafted or enlisted members of the armed forces
They could hear the shouts of the recruits from several blocks away.
regalia—decorations or insignia indicating a membership or office
Later, all the military companies of the city turned out in full regalia for the parade through the downtown streets.
regiment—a military unit
Ever since April, every group of men in Cincinnati that could be called a group had organized into some sort of regiment.
routed—defeated completely
General Lee had routed the Union forces, driving them back from Richmond, Virginia.
scurvy—a disease caused by lack of vitamin C; symptoms are spongy gums, loose teeth, and bleeding into the skin and mucous membranes
Malarious fever, scurvy, and diarrhea attack so many of our number.
seceded—withdrew from an organization
Miss Epstein had put colored pieces of paper on the states that had seceded from the Union since April. secretary—a writing desk with a top section for books
The big piano sat in a corner of the room, with Mama’s secretary standing by the windows.
settee—a long seat with a back
A cluster of chairs, a couple of settees, and the davenport were clustered nearer the fireplace.
smug—self-satisfied
Daria felt almost smug.
sterling—conforming to the highest standard
“But know this from me, he is a fine man and a sterling leader. “
tack—saddle and bridle for a horse.
Daria pulled a tack box over near the stall and sat on it as she worked oil into the harnesses to keep them soft and supple.
tender car—a train car that carried fuel and water for the steam engine
Daria’s thoughts were interrupted by the sight of a figure standing up on the tender car, waving wildly.
typhoid—a communicable disease, that causes headache, fever, diarrhea, weakness, and intestinal inflammation
I treat many cases of dysentery, typhoid, and flu.
wrapper—a robe
Mrs. Gartner opened the door, still dressed in her wrapper.
Salmon Chase
Salmon Chase was born on January 13, 1808, in Cornish, New Hampshire. When his father died, Salmon moved to Ohio to live with an uncle. He graduated from Dartmouth College in 1862. After graduation, he moved to Washington, DC, where he ran a school and studied law. After passing the bar examination in 1829, Salmon moved to Cincinnati to practice law. It was there that he became involved with antislavery and other reform movements. He defended many escaped slaves, even in the U.S. Supreme Court. He helped form the Liberty Party and the Free Soil Party, both antislavery parties. Salmon Chase was elected to the U.S. Senate from Ohio in 1849, then as governor of Ohio in 1855 and 1857, and to the Senate again in 1860. His alliance with Abraham Lincoln led to his appointment as Lincoln’s Secretary of the Treasury, a position he held from 1861 until 1864. Chase died on May 7, 1873.
First Battle of Bull Run
The First Battle of Bull Run, also known as the First Battle of Manassas, was fought on July 21, 1861. (The Confederates refer to the battle as the First Battle of Manassas because they named battles after the nearest city or town. The Union army named battles after the nearest river or other body of water.) This was the first major land battle of the American Civil War. General Winfield Scott was pushed to make a move against Southern troops, even though he felt the Union troops were not prepared. He ordered General Irvin McDowell to attack the Confederate troops, under Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, stationed at Manassas Junction, Virginia. Although the Union forces were initially successful, Confederate reinforcements arrived, and the Union troops were forced to retreat.
Zouave Cadets
The Zouave Cadets were organized by Elmer E. Ellsworth in 1860. They were named after the Zouaves of the French army who were the subjects of many paintings and illustrations after they fought in the Crimean War. The American Zouave Cadets were engaged primarily in the Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana. After the war, members of the cadets formed a veterans’ organization that held summer camps and other events that featured military pageantry. The Zouave Cadets were well known for their skills at drill formations. They performed many exhibitions, featuring gymnastic drill formations.
General George McClellan
George McClellan was born December 3, 1826, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1846, he graduated second in his class at West Point. After graduation, he was sent to study European armies during the Crimean War. While there, he developed a saddle—the McClellan saddle—which was used as long as the U.S. Horse Cavalry existed. McClellan resigned his commission in 1857 and went into the railroad business, then rejoined the army in 1861, initially commanding the Ohio militia. He became commander of the Army of the Potomac, and ultimately supreme commander over all Union forces on November 1, 1861. His perceived slowness to move on the Confederate forces led to him being called cowardly and incompetent. Although his leadership in battle was questioned, his organization skills were not. However, his reluctance to engage in battle and his frequent refusal to follow orders from President Abraham Lincoln led to his removal from command on November 5, 1862. George McClellan ran for president against Lincoln in 1864 and lost, but served as governor of New Jersey from 1878 until 1881. George McClellan died on October 29, 1885.
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant was born Hiram Ulysses Grant on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. He received an appointment to West Point when he was seventeen years old. His congressman registered him as Ulysses S. Grant, the name by which he would be known from that day forward. Grant graduated from West Point in 1843, ranked number twenty-one in a class of thirty-nine students. After serving in the Mexican-American War, Grant left the army and began a civilian life that included farm work, real estate sales, and finally participation in his father and brother’s leather business. He rejoined the army after the fall of Fort Sumter in 1861. On August 7, 1861, he was appointed a Brigadier General of volunteers. On February 6, 1862, Grant gave the Union forces their first victory by capturing Fort Henry, Tennessee. On March 17, 1864, he assumed the command of all of the armies of the United States. After the Civil War, Congress appointed him to the new position of General of the Army. A Republican, Grant served two terms as president, 1869–1877. Ulysses S. Grant died on July 23, 1885, and is buried in Grant’s Tomb in New York, the largest mausoleum in the United States.
1850–1860—Former slave Harriet Tubman leads approximately three hundred people to freedom through the Underground Railroad.
June 5, 1851—Installments of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin begin to appear in the Washington National Era, an antislavery weekly.
February 4, 1861—The Confederate States of America are formed. Jefferson Davis is elected Provisional President the next day.
March 4, 1861—Abraham Lincoln becomes President of the United States. April 12, 1861—The Civil War begins at Fort Sumter, South Carolina.
January 1, 1863—Abraham Lincoln delivers the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring slaves in seceded states free.
August 22, 1864—The International Red Cross is founded in Geneva, Switzerland.
April 9, 1865—The Civil War ends with Robert E. Lee’s surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox.
April 14, 1865—Abraham Lincoln is assassinated at Ford’s Theater in Washington, DC, by actor John Wilkes Booth.
July 4, 1865—Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland published.