INTRODUCTION
1. Dean I. Radin,
The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena (San Francisco: Harper Edge, 1997), 13–21. See also Thomas S. Hall,
Ideas of Life and Matter: Studies in the History of General Physiology, 600 B.C.–1900 A.D., 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969); Christopher U. M. Smith,
The Problem of Life: An Essay in the Origins of Biological Thought (New York: Wiley, 1976); Norman Kemp Smith,
New Studies in the Philosophy of Descartes (London: Macmillan, 1952).
2. D. Stempel, “Angels of Reason: Science and Myth in the Enlightenment,”
Journal of the History of Ideas 36 (1975): 63–78; J. Roger, “The Mechanistic Conception of Life,” in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, eds.,
God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 277–95; J. S. Haller Jr., “The Great Biological Problem: Vitalism, Materialism, and the Philosophy of Organism,”
New York State Journal of Medicine 86 (1986): 81–88. According to Anne Harrington, Descartes was not so much the raison d’être for the insensibilities of mind–body medicine as “more or less a symbol of modern errors, a foil against which modern champions of one or another story of mind–body integration express their nostalgia for a fantasized premodern past when we all were whole and integrated, mind and body.” Anne Harrington,
The Cure Within: A History of Mind–Body Medicine (New York: Norton, 2008), 21.
3. M. S. Goldstein et al., “Holistic Physicians: Implications for the Study of the Medical Profession,”
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 28 (1987): 103–19; M. S. Goldstein et al., “Holistic Doctors: Becoming a Non-traditional Medical Practitioner,”
Urban Life 14 (1986): 17–44.
4. Read John S. Haller Jr.,
Swedenborg, Mesmer, and the Mind/Body Connection: The Roots of Complementary Medicine (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2010); Catherine L. Albanese,
A Republic of Mind and Spirit: A Cultural History of American Metaphysical Religion (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).
5. Haller,
Swedenborg, Mesmer, and the Mind/Body Connection, 158–87. See also John S. Haller Jr.,
American Medicine in Transition, 1840–1910 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981),
Medical Protestants: The Eclectics in American Medicine, 1825–1939 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1994), and
The People’s Doctors: Samuel Thomson and the American Botanical Movement, 1790–1860 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000).
6. Horatio W. Dresser,
The Spirit of the New Thought (London: Harrap, 1917), 4–6; Robert Peel,
Health and Medicine in the Christian Science Tradition (New York: Crossroad, 1988), 23–31, 45–54. Read also John S. Haller Jr.,
The History of New Thought: From Mind-Cure to Positive-Thinking and the Prosperity Gospel (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2012); Albanese,
A Republic of Mind and Spirit; C. Alan Anderson and Deborah G. Whitehouse,
New Thought: A Practical American Spirituality (Bloomington, IN: self-published, 2002).
7. William James,
The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (New York: Modern Library, 1902), 77–124.
8. Harrington,
The Cure Within, 122–25. See also Herbert Benson,
The Relaxation Response (New York: HarperTorch, 1975) and
The Mind/Body Effect (New York: Berkley, 1979); Larry Dossey,
The Extraordinary Healing Power of Ordinary Things (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006) and
The Power of Premonitions (New York: Dutton, 2009); and Bernie Siegel,
Love, Medicine, and Miracles: Lessons Learned About Self-Healing from a Surgeon’s Experience with Exceptional Patients (New York: HarperCollins, 1986).
9. A. K. Shapiro, “A Contribution to a History of the Placebo Effect,”
Behavioral Science 5 (1960): 109–35; J. W. Estes, “Medical Skills in Colonial New England,”
New England Historical and Genealogical Register 134 (1980): 259–75.
10. H. K. Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,”
Journal of the American Medical Association (
JAMA) 159 (1955), 1602–6.
11. J. A. Turner et al., “The Importance of Placebo Effects in Pain Treatment and Research,”
JAMA 271 (1994): 1609–14; C. R. B Joyce, “Placebos and Complementary Medicine,”
Lancet 334 (1994): 1279–81; V. M. S. Oh, “The Placebo Effect: Can We Use It Better?”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 69–70.
12. James C. Whorton,
Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
13. Norman Gevitz, ed.,
Other Healers: Unorthodox in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988).
14. William Rothstein,
American Physicians of the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972); Paul Starr,
The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); John Harley Warner,
The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Charles E. Rosenberg, ed.,
No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
15. Jeanne Daly,
Evidence-Based Medicine and the Search for a Science of Clinical Care (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).
16. J. Rosser Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
17. Harry Marks,
Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
18. Read Marcia Angell,
The Truth About the Drug Companies: How They Deceive Us and What to Do About It (New York: Random House, 2005); Jerome P. Kassirer,
On the Take: How Medicine’s Complicity with Big Business Can Endanger Your Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); R. Smith, “Medical Journals and the Pharmaceutical Companies: Uneasy Bedfellows,”
British Medical Journal 326 (2003): 1202, and “Medical Journals Are an Extension of the Marketing Arm of Pharmaceutical Companies,”
PLOS Med 2 (2005): 1371; Fiona Godlee and Tom Jefferson,
Peer Review in Health Sciences (London: BMJ Books, 2003); Ray Moynihan and Alan Cassels,
Selling Sickness: How the World’s Biggest Pharmaceutical Companies Are Turning Us All Into Patients (New York: Nation Books, 2005); Nortin M. Hadler,
Worried Sick: A Prescription for Health in an Overtreated America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Ben Goldacre,
Bad Science (London: Harper Perennial, 2009).
19. J. H. Warner, “‘The Nature-Trusting Heresy’: American Physicians and the Concept of the Healing Power of Nature in the 1850’s and 1860’s,”
Perspectives in American History 11 (1977–1978): 291–324; Arthur K. Shapiro and Elaine Shapiro,
The Powerful Placebo: From Ancient Priest to Modern Physician (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997) and
Ethical Controversies About the Use of Placebos, the Double-Blind, and Controlled Clinical Trials (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Sissela Bok,
Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life (New York: Vintage, 1978).
20. Anne Harrington, ed.,
The Placebo Effect: An Interdisciplinary Exploration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
21. Howard Spiro,
The Power of Hope: A Doctor’s Perspective (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998); W. Grant Thompson,
The Placebo Effect and Health: Combining Science with Compassionate Care (Amherst, MA: Prometheus Books, 2005); Richard Kradin,
The Placebo Response and the Power of Unconscious Healing (New York: Routledge, 2008); Ted J. Kaptchuk and Michael Croucher,
The Healing Arts: A Journey Through the Faces of Medicine (London: Guild, 1986); Ted J. Kaptchuk,
The Web That Has No Weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine (Chicago: Contemporary Press, 2000).
22. Robert Burton,
The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621),
http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burton/robert/melancholy/S1.2.3.html, accessed May 25, 2012; John Lukacs,
At the End of an Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002); Irving Kirsch,
The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressent Myth (New York: Basic Books, 2010); Michel Foucault,
The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973); Thomas Kuhn,
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962); Susan Lederer,
Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); R. Barker Bausell,
Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
23. T. Kaptchuk, “Subjectivity and the Placebo Effect in Medicine: An Interview by Bonnie Horrigan,”
Alternative Therapies 7 (2001): 108.
24. L. Dossey, “How Should Alternative Therapies Be Evaluated? An Examination of Fundamentals,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 1 (1995): 6; C. J. Schneider and W. B. Jonas, “Are Alternative Treatments Effective? Issues and Methods Involved in Measuring Effectiveness of Alternative Treatments,”
Subtle Energies 5 (1994): 69; L. A. Moye et al., “Research Methodology in Psychoneuroimmunology: Rationale and Design of the IMAGES-P Clinical Trial,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 1 (1995): 34.
25. I. Smith, “Commissioning Complementary Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 310 (1995): 1151. See also T. A. Sheldon, “Please Bypass the PORT,”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 142–43.
1. EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE
1. Abraham Flexner,
Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation on the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1910), 156.
2. As late as 1900, there were estimates of 8,000 to 10,000 eclectics and a comparable number of homeopaths, along with smaller numbers of other sectarians practicing their respective systems of healing among the 117,749 physicians self-identified in the US Census. See US Department of Commerce,
Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, vol. 2:
Work and Welfare (Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce, 1975), 541. According to a survey taken in 1894, regulars numbered 72,028; eclectics, 10,292; homeopaths, 9,648; and physios, 1,553. See “Statistics,”
Eclectic Medical Journal 54 (1894): 396; R. G. Leland,
Distribution of Physicians in the United States (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1936), 7. Read also William G. Rothstein,
American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 305–26; William G. Rothstein,
American Medical Schools and the Practice of Medicine: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); W. I. Wardwell, “Alternative Medicine in the United States,”
Social Science and Medicine 31 (1994): 913–23; John S. Haller Jr.,
Sectarian Reformers in American Medicine, 1800–1910 (New York: AMS Press, 2011),
The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 1820–1935 (New York: Haworth Press, 2005), and
Kindly Medicine: Physio-medicalism in America, 1836–1911 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1997).
3. J. B. McKinlay and L. D. Marceau, “The End of the Golden Age of Doctoring,”
International Journal of the Health Sciences 32 (2002): 379–416; R. L. Numbers, “The Fall and Rise of the American Medical Profession,” in Nathan O. Hatch, ed.,
The Professions in American History (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985), 57–67; J. H. Warner, “Ideals of Science and Their Discontents in Late 19th Century American Medicine,”
Isis 82 (1991): 454–78. See also John Harley Warner,
The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Rosemary Stevens,
American Medicine and the Public Interest: A History of Specialization (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971); Kenneth M. Ludmerer,
Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Richard H. Shryock,
Medical Licensing in America, 1650–1965 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Charles E. Rosenberg and Morris J. Vogel, eds.,
The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, eds.,
The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
4. William Osler,
The Principles and Practice of Medicine (New York: Appleton, 1892). See P. J. Edelson, “Adopting Osler’s Principles: Medical Textbooks in American Medical Schools, 1891–1906,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68 (1994): 67–84.
5. Some sixty-nine eclectic colleges were organized in the United States, twenty-six before 1860, thirty-two during the remainder of the century, and eleven in the early twentieth century. The last of the eclectic colleges closed its doors in 1939. The schools eschewed theories and dogmas, preferring an approach to medical therapeutics that was cumulative, drawing from all theories and practices that proved beneficial and using only those therapies that best served the needs of the patient. Over time, however, the schools settled on a more nativistic approach consisting of herbal medicines as substitutes for mineral-based drugs, a distrust of foreign influences, and a distinctly democratic approach to education. See Haller,
Sectarian Reformers in American Medicine, 88–91.
7. T. A. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine: The American Medical Profession Confronts Alternative Therapies,”
Social Problems 52 (2005): 40.
8. D. C. Swain, “The Rise of a Research Empire: NIH, 1930–1950,”
Science 138 (1962): 1233–37. See also Stevens,
American Medicine and the Public Interest; Joseph D. Bronzino, Vincent H. Smith, and Maurice L. Wade,
Medical Technology and Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990); Richard H. Shryock,
American Medical Research, Past and Present (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1947); Harry M. Marks,
The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900–1990 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); George W. Corner,
A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 1901–1953: Origins and Growth (New York: Rockefeller Institute Press, 1965).
9. Read Edward Shorter,
Bedside Manners: The Troubled History of Doctors and Patients (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985).
10. Charles Rosenberg,
The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 166–89, 348; G. Laderman, “The Cult of Doctors: Harvey Cushing and the Religious Culture of Modern Medicine,”
Journal of Religion and Health 45 (2006): 533–48. See also R. Stevens, “The Curious Career of Internal Medicine: Functional Ambivalence, Social Success,” in Russell C. Maulitz and Diana E. Long, eds.,
Grand Rounds: One Hundred Years of Internal Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 339–64.
11. Claude Bernard,
An Introduction to the Study of the Experimental Method (New York: Dover, 1957); William Coleman and Frederick Holmes, eds.,
The Investigative Enterprise: Experimental Physiology in 19th Century Medicine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Charles Rosenberg,
No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (1976; reprint, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997); Bruno Latour,
Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Peter Achinstein and Owen Hannaway, eds.,
Observation, Experiment, and Hypothesis in Modern Physical Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1955); Marks,
The Progress of Experiment, 17–41; G. L. Geison, “Divided We Stand: Physiologists and Clinicians in the American Context,” in Rosenberg and Vogel, eds.,
The Therapeutic Revolution, 67–90.
12. C. Rosenberg, “The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in 19th Century America,” in Rosenberg and Vogel, eds.,
The Therapeutic Revolution, 3–25; P. Beeson, “Changes in Medical Therapy During the Past Half Century,”
Medicine 59 (1980): 79–99. See also Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay, eds.,
Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science (London: Sage, 1983); Lewis Thomas,
The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher (New York: Viking Press, 1983).
13. J. Rosser Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 10–13, 86–130.
14. J. P. Bull, “The Historical Development of Clinical Therapeutic Trials,”
Journal of Chronic Diseases 10 (1959): 218–48.
15. Ted Kaptchuk notes confusion and inaccuracy in Abraham M. Lilienfeld’s article “
Ceteris paribus: The Evolution of the Clinical Trial,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 56 (1982): 1–18; see T. Kaptchuk, “Intentional Ignorance: A History of Blind Assessment and Placebo Controls in Medicine,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 72 (1998): 389–433. See also J. P. Bull, “The Historical Development of Clinical Therapeutic Trials,”
Journal of Chronic Diseases 10 (1959): 218–48; M. D. Rawlins, “Development of a Rational Practice of Therapeutics,”
British Medical Journal 301 (1990): 729–33; Scott H. Podolsky,
Pneumonia Before Antibiotics: Therapeutic Evolution and Evaluation in Twentieth Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 147–49; Ian Hacking,
The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
16. Edward Kremers and George Urdang,
The History of Pharmacy (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1963), 4–5; Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis,
Researches on the Effects of Bloodletting in Some Inflammatory Diseases and on the Influence of Tartarized Antimony and Vesication in Pneumonitis (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, 1836) (interestingly, Louis did not compare patients who underwent venesection and those who did not, but rather those bled early rather than those bled late in their treatment); Ulrich Tröhler, “Quantification in British Medicine and Surgery, 1750–1830, with Special Reference to Its Introduction Into Therapeutics,” PhD diss., University of London, 1978; Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty; Michael J. Cullen,
The Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain: The Foundations of Empirical Social Research (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1975); Abraham Lilienfeld, ed.,
Times, Places, and Persons: Aspects of the History of Epidemiology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Lorenz Krüger, Gerd Gigerenzer, and Mary S. Morgan, eds.,
The Probabilistic Revolution, vol. 2:
Ideas in the Sciences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987); Theodore M. Porter,
The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); British Parliamentary Papers,
Reports on the Epidemics of 1854 and 1856 and Other Reports on Cholera with Appendices 1854–96. Report on the Results of the Different Methods of Treatment Pursued in Epidemic Cholera (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1970), 657–84; Lorraine J. Daston,
Classical Probability in the Enlightenment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); John E. Lesch,
Science and Medicine in France: The Emergence of Experimental Physiology, 1790–1855 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 100–165.
17. I. P. Semmelweis, “The Etiology, the Concept, and the Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever,”
Medical Classics 5 (1941): 350–734.
18. P. Greenwald et al., “Vaginal Cancer After Maternal Treatment with Synthetic Estrogens,”
New England Journal of Medicine 285 (1971): 390.
19. L. E. Moses, “The Series of Consecutive Cases as a Device for Assessing Outcomes of Interventions,” in John C. Bailar and Frederick Mosteller, eds.,
Medical Uses of Statistics (Waltham, MA: New England Journal of Medicine Books, 1992), 125; Kenneth W. Goodman,
Ethics and Evidence-Based Medicine: Fallibility and Responsibility in Clinical Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 33; N. E. Breslow, “Statistics in Epidemiology: The Case–Control Study,”
Journal of the American Statistical Association 91 (1996): 14–28; Norman E. Breslow and Nicholas E. Day,
Statistical Methods in Cancer Research I: The Analysis of Case–Control Studies (Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1980).
20. J. P. Bunker,
The National Halothane Study: Report of the Subcommittee on the National Halothane Study of the Committee on Anesthesia, Division of the Medical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences—
National Research Council (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1969).
21. “Retrospective Studies,” in Samuel Kotz, Norman L. Johnson, and Campbell B. Read, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, 16 vols. (New York: Wiley, 1982), 8:120; R. B. D’Agostino and H. Kwan, “Measuring Effectiveness: What to Expect Without a Randomized Control Group,”
Medical Care 33 (1995), 100; C. R. Weinberg and S. Wacholder, “The Design and Analysis of Case–Control Studies with Biased Sampling,”
Biometrics 46 (1990): 963; N. E. Breslow and W. Powers, “Are There Two Logistic Regressions from Retrospective Studies?”
Biometrics 34 (1978): 100; N. Mantel and W. Haenszel, “Statistical Aspects of the Analysis of Data from Retrospective Studies of Disease,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute 22 (1959): 719–48. See also “Link Between Hair Loss and Treatment Success?”
http://altmed.creighton.edu/HIV/retrovspro.htm, accessed May 29, 2012.
22. “Historical Control,” in Kotz, Johnson, and Read, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, 2:13; “Clinical Trials,” in Kotz, Johnson, and Read, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, 2:640; R. Micciolo, P. Valagussa, and E. Marubini, “The Use of Historical Controls in Breast Cancer,”
Controlled Clinical Trials 6 (1985): 259; E. A. Gehan, “The Evaluation of Therapies: Historical Control Studies,”
Statistics in Medicine 3 (1984): 315–24; L. E. Moses, “Statistical Concepts Fundamental to Investigations,” in Bailar and Mosteller, eds.,
Medical Uses of Statistics, 5.
23. S. M. McKinlay, “The Design and Analysis of the Observational Study: A Review,”
Journal of the American Statistical Association 70 (1975): 503; “Observational Studies,” in Kotz, Johnson, and Read, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, 6:397; W. G. Cochran, “The Planning of Observational Studies of Human Populations,”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (1965): 234; R. Doll, “Proof of Causality: Deduction from Epidemiological Observation,”
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 45 (2002): 499–515.
24. “Prospective Studies,” in Kotz, Johnson, and Read, eds.,
Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, 7:315; M. Olschewski, M. Schumacher, and K. B. Davis, “Analysis of Randomized and Nonrandomized Patients in Clinical Trials Using the Comprehensive Cohort Follow-up Study Design,”
Controlled Clinical Trials 13 (1992): 226. See also Brian MacMahon, Thomas F. Pugh, and Johanes Ipsen,
Epidemiologic Methods (Boston: Little, Brown, 1960).
25. Alison Lingo, “Empirics and Charlatans in Early Modern France: The Genesis of the Classification of ‘Other’ in Medical Practice,”
Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 583–604. Read also Robert C. Fuller,
Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982); Robert Darnton,
Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); Joseph P. F. Deleuze,
Practical Instructions in Animal Magnetism (New York: Wells, 1843); Charles Poyen,
Progress of Animal Magnetism in New England (Boston: Weeks, Jordan, 1837); Franz Anton Mesmer,
Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical Writings of F. A. Mesmer, comp. and trans. George J. Bloch (Los Angeles: Kaufmann, 1980).
26. Kaptchuk, “Intentional Ignorance”; C-A. Lopez, “Franklin and Mesmer: An Encounter,”
Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 66 (1993): 325–31. See also Vladimir A. Gheorghiu and Klaus Fiedler, eds.,
Suggestion and Suggestibility: Theory and Research (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 1989); Mark A. Best, Duncan Neuhauser, and Lee Slaven, eds.,
Benjamin Franklin: Verification and Validation of the Scientific Process in Health Care as Demonstrated by the “Report of the Royal Commissioner on Animal Magnetism and Mesmerism” (Victoria, Canada: Trafford, 2003).
27. R. Barker Bausell,
Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 33.
28. Read Alan Gaud,
A History of Hypnotism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Jan Ehrenwald,
The History of Psychotherapy: From Magic Healing to Encounter (New York: Aronson, 1976); Donald K. Freedheim,
History of Psychotherapy: A Century of Change (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992); John C. Norcross, Gary H. R. Vanden Bos, and Donald K. Freedheim,
History of Psychotherapy: Continuity and Change (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2011); Philip Gushman,
Constructing the Self, Constructing America: A Cultural History of Psychotherapy (Boston: Addison-Wesley, 1995).
29. W. Guy, “On the Value of the Numerical Method as Applied to Science, but Especially to Physiology and Medicine,”
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 2 (1839): 26–38; J. H. Warner, “Therapeutic Explanation and the Edinburgh Bloodletting Controversy: Two Perspectives on the Medical Meaning of Science in the Mid–19th Century,”
Medical History 24 (1980): 241–58; J. S. Haller Jr., “The Decline of Bloodletting: A Study in 19th Century Ratiocinations,”
Southern Medical Journal 79 (April 1986): 469–75; J. S. Haller Jr., “The Use and Abuse of Tartar Emetic in the 19th Century Materia Medica,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 49 (1975): 235–57; J. S. Haller Jr., “Samson of the Materia Medica: Medical Theory and the Use and Abuse of Calomel in 19th Century America,”
Pharmacy in History 12 (1971): 27–34, 67–76. See also James H. Cassedy,
American Medicine and Statistical Thinking, 1800–1860 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), chap. 3, and
Medicine and American Growth, 1800–1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); Erwin H. Ackerknecht,
Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty, 8–38; Stephen M. Stigler,
The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Charles Bartlett,
An Essay on the Philosophy of Medical Science (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1844).
30. “Homeopathic Organization,”
American Homeopathic Review 6 (1865–66): 394; Haller,
The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 111–20.
31. Dr. F. W. Irvine, “M. Andral’s Homeopathic Experiments at La Pitié,” in William Henderson,
Homeopathy Fairly Represented: A Reply to Professor Simpson’s “Homeopathy” Misrepresented (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1854), appendix, 289–91, 295–98; “Statistics of Homeopathic and Allopathic Hospitals,”
North American Journal of Homeopathy 13 (1865): 516–21; “Hospital Reports,”
North American Journal of Homeopathy 4 (1855): 293–98; J. Hooper, “Homeopathy: What Are Its Claims on Public Confidence?”
American Homeopathic Observer 3 (1866): 87; “Homeopathic Statistics,”
North American Homeopathic Journal 3 (1853): 146; Haller,
The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 93–120. See also Jean-Paul Tessier,
Clinical Researches Concerning the Homeopathic Treatment of Asiatic Cholera. Preceded by a Review on the Abuse of the Numerical Method in Medicine (New York: Radde, 1855).
32. A. Trousseau, “Expériences homéopathiques tentées a l’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris,”
Journal des Connaissances Médico-Chirurgicales 8 (1834): 238–41; M. E. Dean, “A Homeopathic Origin for Placebo Controls: ‘An Invaluable Gift of God,’”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 6 (2000): 58–66. See also Jean-Paul Tessier,
Lectures on Clinical Medicine, Delivered in the Hospital Saint-Jacques, of Paris (London: New Sydenham Society, 1872).
33. G. Rankin, “Professional Organization and the Development of Medical Knowledge: Two Interpretations of Homeopathy,” in Roger Cooter, ed.,
Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1988), 46–62.
34. Sir John Forbes,
Homeopathy, Allopathy, and Young Physic (New York: Radde, 1846), 17.
35. John S. Haller Jr.,
Swedenborg, Mesmer, and the Mind/Body Connection: The Roots of Complementary Medicine (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2010), 152–57. Read also R. Laurence Moore,
In Search of White Crows: Spiritualism, Parapsychology, and American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Janet Oppenheim,
The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); and James McClenon,
Deviant Science: The Case of Parapsychology (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984).
36. Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty, 62–85. See also Bernard,
An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine; Stanley Joel Reiser,
Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Carl Auguste Wunderlich,
On the Temperature in Diseases: A Manual of Medical Thermometry (London: New Sydenham Society, 1871); Gustav Radicke,
On the Importance and Value of Arithmetic Means (London: New Sydenham Society, 1861).
37. A. Flint, “A Contribution Toward the Natural History of Articular Rheumatism; Consisting of a Report of Thirteen Cases Treated Solely with Palliative Measures,”
American Journal of Medical Science 46 (1862): 17–36.
38. C. E. Brown-Séquard, “Notes on the Effect Produced on Man by Subcutaneous Injections of a Liquid Obtained from the Testicles of Animals,”
Lancet 2 (1889): 105–7; Merriley Bonell, “Brown-Séquard’s Organotherapy and Its Appearance in America at the End of the 19th Century,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 50 (1976): 309–20.
39. E. Behring, O. Boer, and H. Kossel, “Zur Behandlung Diphtheriekranker Menschen mit Diphtherieheil-Serum,”
Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 19 (1893): 399–418; J. Fibiger, “Om Serumbehandling af difteri,”
Hospitalstidende 6 (1898): 309–25; A. Hrøbjartsson, P. C. Gøtzsche, and C. Gluud, “The Controlled Clinical Trial Turns 100 Years: Fibiger’s Trial of Serum Treatment of Diphtheria,”
British Medical Journal 317 (1998): 1243–45.
40. E. G. Boring, “The Nature and History of Experimental Control,”
American Journal of Psychology 67 (1954): 573. See also E. L. Thorndike and R. S. Woodworth, “The Influence of Improvement in One Mental Function Upon the Efficiency of Other Functions,”
Psychological Review 8 (1901): 247–61, 384–95, 553–64; E. L. Thorndike, “A Note on the Specialization of Mental Functions with Varying Content,”
Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods 6 (1909): 239–40.
41. W. H. Winch, “The Transfer of Improvement of Memory in School-Children,”
British Journal of Psychology 2 (1908): 284–93.
42. D. I. Macht, N. B. Herman, and C. S. Levy, “A Quantitative Study of the Analgesic Produced by Opium Alkaloids, Individually and in Combination with Each Other, in Normal Man,”
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 8 (1916): 1–37; D. I. Macht, “Contributions to the Phytopharmacology or the Applications of Plant Physiology to Medical Problems,”
Science 71 (1930): 302–6.
43. U. Tröhler, “Adolf Bingel’s Blinded, Controlled Comparison of Different Anti-diphtheritic Sera in 1918,” James Lind Library,
http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/illustrating/articles/adolf-bingels-bl, accessed September 3, 2012; Medical Research Council Therapeutic Trials Committee, “The Serum Treatment of Lobar Pneumonia,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1934): 241–45; P. P. De Deyn and R. D’Hooge, “Placebos in Clinical Practice and Research,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 22 (1996): 140–46; S. H. Podolsky and G. Davey Smith, “Park’s Story and Winters’ Tale: Alternate Allocation Clinical Trials in Turn of the Century America,” James Lind Library,
http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/illustrating/articles/parks-story-and-winters-tale-alternate-allocation-clinica, accessed May 30, 2012; Kaptchuk, “Intentional Ignorance,” 420–21.
44. Medical Research Council Therapeutic Trials Committee, “The Serum Treatment of Lobar Pneumonia,” 241–45; Medical Research Council Patulin Trials Committee, “Clinical Trial of Patulin in the Common Cold,”
Lancet 2 (1944): 373–74.
45. Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty, 115–40; Podolsky,
Pneumonia Before Antibiotics, 22–23, 35–37. See also Ronald A. Fisher,
Statistical Methods for Research Workers, 14th ed. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1970), and
The Design of Experiments (1935; reprint, London: Hafner, 1966); Austin Bradford Hill,
Principles of Medical Statistics (1937; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1971).
46. For examples of randomization, see R. A. Fisher and W. A. Mackenzie, “Studies in Crop Variation: II. The Manurial Response of Different Potato Varieties,”
Journal of Agricultural Science 13 (1923): 315; J. Burnes Amberson Jr., B. T. McMahon, and M. Pinner, “A Clinical Trial of Sanocrysin in Pulmonary Tuberculosis,”
American Review of Tuberculosis 24 (1931): 401–35.
47. J. B. Hill, “The Clinical Trial,”
New England Journal of Medicine 247 (1952): 113–19; Otho B. Ross Jr., “Use Controls in Medical Research”
JAMA 145 (1951): 72–75; T. C. Chalmers, “Randomization of the First Patient,”
Medical Clinics of North America 59 (1975): 1035–38. See also H. Marks, “Notes from the Underground: The Social Organization of Therapeutic Research,” in Maulitz and Long, eds.,
Grand Rounds, 297–336; David Sackett, R. Bryan Haynes, and Peter Tugwell,
Clinical Epidemiology: A Basic Science for Clinical Medicine (Boston: Little, Brown, 1985).
48. Goodman,
Ethics and Evidence-Based Medicine, 1–23.
49. Medical Research Council Whooping-Cough Immunization Committee, “The Prevention of Whooping-Cough by Vaccination,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1951): 1463–71. Read also R. A. Fisher, “The Arrangement of Field Experiments,”
Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture 33 (1926): 503–13; Hill,
Principles of Medical Statistics.
50. Medical Research Council Streptomycin in Tuberculosis Trials Committee, “Streptomycin Treatment for Pulmonary Tuberculosis,”
British Medical Journal 2 (1948): 769–82; A. Yoshioka, “Use of Randomization in the Medical Research Council’s Clinical Trial of Streptomycin in Pulmonary Tuberculosis in the 1940s,”
British Medical Journal 317 (1998): 1220–23; A. B. Hill, “Memories of the British Streptomycin Trial in Tuberculosis,”
Controlled Clinical Trials 1 (1990): 77–79.
51. I. Chalmers, “Why Transition from Alternation to Randomization in Clinical Trials Was Made,”
British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 1372.
52. J. D. Ratcliff, “New Surgery for Ailing Hearts,”
Reader’s Digest 71 (1957): 70–73; L. A. Cobb et al., “An Evaluation of Internal-Mammary-Artery Ligation by a Double-Blind Technique,”
New England Journal of Medicine 260 (1959): 1115–18; E. G. Diamond, C. F. Kittle, and J. E. Crockett, “Evaluation of Internal Mammary Artery Ligation and Sham Procedure in Angina Pectoris,”
Circulation 18 (1958): 712–13.
53. H. K. Beecher, “Surgery as Placebo: A Quantitative Study of Bias,”
JAMA 1876 (1961): 1102–7; S. H. Podolsky, “Quintessential Beecher: ‘Surgery as Placebo: A Quantitative Study of Bias,’
J Am Med Assoc. 1961; 176:1102–07,”
International Anesthesiology Clinics 45 (2007): 47.
54. David L. Sackett, R. Bryan Haynes, and Gordon Guyatt,
Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM (New York: Churchill-Livingstone, 1997), 94.
55. S. Senn, “Are Placebo Run Ins Justified?”
British Medical Journal 314 (1997): 1191; see also B. Freedman, “Placebo-Controlled Trials and the Logic of Clinical Purpose,”
IRB: A Review of Human Subjects Research 12 (1996): 1–6.
56. Steven S. Coughlin and Tom L. Beauchamp,
Ethics and Epidemiology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); S. Yusuf, R. Collins, and R. Peto, “Why Do We Need Some Large, Simple Randomized Trials?”
Statistics in Medicine 3 (1984): 971–80; Jonathan Baron,
Thinking and Deciding, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); David M. Eddy,
Clinical Decision Making: From Theory to Practice (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1996); B. J. Cohen, “Is Expected Utility Theory Normative for Clinical Decision Making?”
Medical Decision Making 16 (1996): 1–6; M. D. Cabana et al., “Why Don’t Physicians Follow Clinical Practice Guidelines? A Framework for Improvement,”
JAMA 282 (1999): 1458–65.
57. M. Enserink, “Can the Placebo Be the Cure?”
Science 284 (1999): 238–40. Interestingly, in the MK-869 trial, Merck included an established Prozac-generation drug that also failed to surpass the placebo.
58. H. K. Benson and D. P. McCallie Jr., “Angina Pectoris and the Placebo Effect,”
New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 1424–29. See also A. H. Roberts et al., “The Power of Nonspecific Effects in Healing: Implications for Psychosocial and Biological Treatments,”
Clinical Psychological Review 13 (1993): 375–91.
59. H. Steele, “The Fortunes of Economic Reform Legislation: The Case of the Drug Amendments Act of 1962,”
American Journal of Economics and Sociology 25 (1966): 39–51. See also
Study of Administered Prices in the Drug Industry, Report of the Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Pursuant to Senate Resolution 52, Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1961);
Drug Amendments of 1962: Conference Report, No. 2526, House of Representatives, Eighty-Seventh Congress, Second Session (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1962).
60. R. E. Ferer, “The Influence of Big Pharma: Wide Ranging Report Identifies Many Areas of Influence and Distortion,”
British Medical Journal 330 (2005): 855–56; House of Commons Health Committee,
The Influence of the Pharmaceutical Industry,
http://www.parliament.the-stationary-office.co.uk/pa/cm200405, accessed September 4, 2012; B. Agnew, “Ahen Pharma Merges, R&D Is the Dowry,”
Science 287 (2000): 1952–53. Read also Marcia Angell,
The Truth About the Drug Companies: How They Deceive Us and What to Do About It (New York: Random House, 2004); Jerome P. Kassirer,
On the Take: How Medicine’s Complicity with Big Business Can Endanger Your Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Jerry Avorn,
Powerful Medicines: The Benefits, Risks, and Costs of Prescription Drugs (New York: Knopf, 2004).
61. Richard L. Kradin,
The Placebo Response and the Power of Unconscious Healing (New York: Routledge, 2008): 76; Jackie Law,
Big Pharma (New York: Carroll and Graff, 2006), 70; Gerald N. Grob and Allan V. Horwitz,
Diagnosis, Therapy, and Evidence: Conundrums in Modern American Medicine (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010), 2, 11, 96
62. J. Worrall, “What Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine?”
Philosophy of Science 69 (2002): 319.
63. J. W. Tukey, “Some Thoughts on Clinical Trials, Especially Problems of Multiplicity,”
Science 52 (1977): 679.
64. S. M. Gore, “Assessing Clinical Trials—Why Randomize?”
British Medical Journal 282 (1981): 1958.
65. Read Archie L. Cochrane,
Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services (London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1972); Thomas McKeown,
The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage, or Nemesis? (London: Nuffield Hospitals Trust, 1976); Ivan Illich,
Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1976); Ann Oakley,
Women Confined: Towards a Sociology of Childbirth (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1980); Gena Corea,
The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artificial Wombs (New York: Harper and Row, 1985).
66. Jeanne Daly,
Evidence-Based Medicine and the Search for a Science of Clinical Care (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 130–39; A. L. Cochrane, “Tuberculosis Among Prisoners of War in Germany,”
British Medical Journal 10 (1945): 656; Archie L. Cochrane, with Max Blythe,
One Man’s Medicine: An Autobiography of Professor Archie Cochrane (London: BMJ Books, 1989); A. L. Cochrane, J. G. Cox, and T. F. Jarman, “Pulmonary Tuberculosis in the Rhondda Fach: An Interim Report of a Survey of a Mining Community,”
British Medical Journal (1952): 843–53; L. K. Atuhaire et al., “Specific Causes of Death in Miners and Ex-miners in the Rhondda Fach, 1959–1980,”
British Journal of Industrial Medicine 43 (1980): 497–99.
67. Daly,
Evidence-Based Medicine and the Search for a Science of Clinical Care, 154–81; J. Lomas, J. E. Sisk, and B. Stocking, “From Evidence to Practice in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada,”
Milbank Quarterly 71 (1993): 405–9. See also Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty; Richard J. Light and David B. Pillemer,
Summing Up: The Science of Reviewing Research (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); I. Chalmers, “The Cochrane Collaboration: Preparing, Maintaining, and Disseminating Systematic Reviews of the Effects of Health Care,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Science 703 (1993): 156–63. See Cochrane,
Effectiveness and Efficiency; Trisha Greenhalgh,
How to Read a Paper: The Basics of Evidence Based Medicine, 2nd ed. (London: BMJ Books, 2000); Andrew Stevens, Keith R. Abrams, and John Brazier,
The Advanced Handbook of Methods in Evidence Based Healthcare (London: Sage, 2001).
68. M. Egger, M. Schneider, and G. D. Smith, “Spurious Precision? Meta-analysis of Observational Studies,”
British Medical Journal 316 (1998): 140–45. Read also C. B. Begg and L. Pilote, “A Model for Incorporating Historical Controls Into a Meta-analysis,”
Biometrics 47 (1991): 899–906; M. Susser and E. Susser, “Choosing a Future for Epidemiology: I. Eras and Paradigms,”
American Journal of Public Health 88 (1996): 668–73; G. Taubes, “Epidemiology Faces Its Limits,”
Science 269 (1995): 164–69; I. Kristiansen and G. Mooney, “Evidence-Based Medicine: Method, Collaboration, Movement or Crusade?” in Ivar Sønbø Kristiansen and Gavin H. Mooney, eds.,
Evidence-Based Medicine: In Its Place (New York: Routledge, 2004), 10–12; A. R. Feinstein, “Meta-analysis: Statistical Alchemy for the Twenty-First Century,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 48 (1995): 71–79.
69. C. Mann, “Meta-analysis in the Breach,”
Science 249 (1990): 476–80.
70. K. Linde et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects? A Meta-analysis of Placebo-Controlled Trials,”
Lancet 350 (1997): 834–43; Gene V. Glass, “Primary, Secondary, and Meta-analysis,”
Educational Researcher 5 (1976): 3–8. See also Harris Cooper and Larry V. Hedges, eds.,
The Handbook of Research Synthesis (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994).
71. P. C. Gøtzsche, “Why We Need a Broad Perspective on Meta-analysis,”
British Medical Journal 321 (2000): 586; see also D. Lewin, “Meta-analysis: A New Standard or Clinical Fool’s Gold,”
Journal of NIH Research 8 (1996): 30–31.
72. Linde et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects?”
73. M. Foley, “Providers Have Much to Gain from Homeopathy Being Accepted,”
British Medical Journal 325 (2002): 41.
74. Quoted in M. Orleans, “The Cochrane Collaboration,”
Public Health Reports 110 (1995): 634.
75. Kristiansen and Mooney, “Evidence-Based Medicine,” 1–19.
77. I. Chalmers, “Trying to Do More Good Than Harm in Policy and Practice: The Role of Rigorous, Transparent, Up-to-Date Evaluations,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 589 (2003): 25.
78. M. Clarke, “The Cochrane Collaboration: Providing and Obtaining the Best Evidence About the Effects of Health Care,”
Evaluation and the Health Professions 25 (2005): 8–11; Chalmers, “Trying to Do More Good than Harm in Policy and Practice,” 33–34; J. Traub, “Does It Work?”
New York Times, November 10, 2002; F. Godlee, “The Cochrane Collaboration,”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 969–70; Bausell,
Snake Oil Medicine, 201–3. See also Robert F. Boruch,
Randomized Experiments for Planning and Evaluation: A Practical Guide (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
79. K. O’Rourke and A. S. Detsky, “Meta-analysis in Medical Research: Strong Encouragement for Higher Quality in Individual Research Efforts,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42 (1989): 1021.
81. J. Ezzo et al., “Complementary Medicine and the Cochrane Collaboration,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1628–30. See also L. A. Bero and J. R. Jadad, “How Consumers and Policymakers Can Use Systematic Reviews for Decision Making,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 127 (1997): 37–42; E. A. Hofmans, “Acupuncture and MEDLINE,”
Lancet 336 (1990): 57; D. J. Cook et al., “Should Unpublished Data Be Included in Meta-analyses? Current Convictions and Controversies,”
JAMA 269 (1993): 2749–53; M. L. Callaham et al., “Positive-Outcome Bias and Other Limitations in the Outcome of Research Abstracts Submitted to a Scientific Meeting,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 254–57; K. S. Khan, S. Daya, and A. Jadad, “The Importance of Quality of Primary Studies in Producing Unbiased Systematic Reviews,”
Archives of Internal Medicine 156 (1996): 363–66.
82. J. Ezzo, K. Streitberger, and A. Schneider, “Cochrane Systematic Reviews Examine P6 Acupuncture-Point Stimulation for Nausea and Vomiting,”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 12 (2006): 489–95. See also D. O’Regan and J. Filshie, “Acupuncture and Cancer,”
Autonomic Neuroscience 157 (2010): 96–100. Other studies were carried out on music during caesarean section, Chinese herbs for angina, water gymnastics for pelvic pain in pregnancy, and dietary interventions for multiple sclerosis.
83. J. S. Levin et al., “Quantitative Methods in Research on Complementary and Alternative Medicine: A Methodological Manifesto,”
Medical Care 35 (1997): 1080.
84. D. L. Sackett, “Clinical Epidemiology: What, Who, and Whither,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 52 (2002): 1161–66; R. Smith and I. Chambers, “Britain’s Gift: A ‘Medline’ of Synthesized Evidence,”
British Medical Journal 323 (2001): 1437–38; J. Lomas, J. E. Sisk, and B. Stocking, “From Evidence to Practice in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada,”
Milbank Quarterly 71 (1993): 405–9; Gordon H. Guyatt and Drummond Rennie, eds.,
Users’ Guides to the Medical Literature: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Practice (Chicago: American Medical Association Press, 2002); J. Grimshaw and M. Eccles, “Identifying and Using Evidence-Based Guidelines in General Practice,” in Andrew Haines and Anna Donald, eds.,
Getting Research Findings Into Practice (London: BMJ Books, 1998), 120–34.
85. B. G. Charlton, “Restoring the Balance: Evidence-Based Medicine Put in Its Place,”
Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 3 (1997): 87–98; D. W. Light, “Effectiveness and Efficiency Under Competition: The Cochrane Test,”
British Medical Journal 303 (1991): 1253–54. See also Rudolf Klein and Janet Lewis,
The Politics of Consumer Representation: A Study of Community Health Councils (London: Centre for Studies in Social Policy, 1976); N. Black, “Evidence-Based Policy: Proceed with Care,”
British Medical Journal 323 (2001): 275–78; R. B. Haynes, “Loose Connections Between Peer-Reviewed Clinical Journals and Clinical Practice,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 113 (1990), 724–27; Haines and Donald, eds.,
Getting Research Findings Into Practice; S. E. Straus and D. L. Sackett, “Getting Research Findings Into Practice Using Research Findings in Clinical Practice,”
British Medical Journal 317 (1998): 339–42; D. G. Covell, G. C. Uman, and P. R. Manning, “Information Needs in Office Practice: Are They Being Met?”
Annals of Internal Medicine 103 (1985): 596–99; C. Sanders et al., “Reporting on Quality of Life in Randomized Controlled Trials: Bibliographic Study,”
British Medical Journal 317 (1998): 1191–94.
86. D. Atkins et al., “Grading Quality of Evidence and Strength of Recommendations,”
British Medical Journal 328 (2004): 1490; A. Gafni, C. Charles, and T. Whelan, “The Physician–Patient Encounter: The Physician as a Perfect Agent for the Patient Versus the Informed Treatment Decision-Making Model,”
Social Science and Medicine 47 (1998): 347–54. As an aside, the challenge of disseminating new evidence beyond the narrow confines of the political science researchers resulted in the Campbell Collaboration (based on the precedent established by the Cochrane Collaboration), designed to provide systematic reviews of evidence-based research for its application to social issues such as crime and delinquency, public money management, educational reform, drug abuse, and so on, as well as for its application to the pressures placed on politicians and administrators to implement laws and procedures. See A. Petrosino et al., “Meeting the Challenges of Evidence-Based Policy: The Campbell Collaboration,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 578 (2001): 14–34. See also Huw T. O. Davies, Sandra Nutley, and Peter C. Smith, eds.,
What Works? Evidence-Based Policy and Practice in Public Services (Bristol, UK: Policy Press, 2000).
87. R. Doll, “Controlled Trials: The 1948 Watershed,”
British Medical Journal 317 (1998): 1217–20. See also Shryock,
American Medical Research, Past and Present.
88. K. J. Rothman and K. B. Michels, “The Continuing Unethical Use of Placebo Controls,”
New England Journal of Medicine 331 (1994): 394–98; A. Kessel, “On Failing to Understand Informed Consent,”
British Journal of Hospital Medicine 52 (1994): 235–38; W. Silverman, “The Myth of Informed Consent: In Daily Practice and in Clinical Trials,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 15 (1989): 6–11; J. Tobias and R. Souhami, “Fully Informed Consent Can Be Needlessly Cruel,”
British Medical Journal 307 (1993): 1199–201; D. Brahams, “Consent to Research in Presence of Incapacity,”
Lancet 341 (1993): 1143–44; C. Lavelle-Jones et al., “Factors Affecting Quality of Informed Consent,”
British Medical Journal 306 (1993): 885–90. See also Susan E. Lederer,
Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 1–26.
89. P. D. Wall, “The Placebo Effect, an Unpopular Topic,”
Pain 51 (1992): 1–3.
90. N. Freemantle et al., “Promoting Cost Effective Prescribing,”
British Medical Journal 310 (1993): 955–56; M. Drummond et al., “Economic Evaluation of Pharmaceuticals: A European Perspective,”
Pharmacoeconomics 4 (1993): 173–76; G. H. Brieger, “Human Experimentation: History,” in Warren T. Reich, ed.,
Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 5:684–92.
91. A. B. Hill, “Medical Ethics and Controlled Trials,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1963): 1043–49; Rothman and Michels, “The Continuing Unethical Use of Placebo Controls,” 394–98; P. I. Clark and P. E. Leaverton, “Scientific and Ethical Issues in the Use of Placebo Controls in Clinical Trials,”
Annual Review of Public Health 15 (1994): 19–38; R. Temple and S. S. Ellenberg, “Placebo-Controlled Trials and Active Control Trials in the Evaluation of New Treatments: I. Ethical and Scientific Issues,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 133 (2000): 455–63; R. Simon, “Are Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trials Ethical or Needed with Alternative Treatment Exists?”
Annals of Internal Medicine 133 (2000): 474–75; E. J. Emanuel and P. G. Miller, “The Ethics of Placebo-Controlled Trials—a Middle Ground,”
New England Journal of Medicine 345 (2001): 915–19.
92. “Protection of Human Subjects, Part 46,”
http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_00/45cfr46_00.html, accessed July 20, 2011. See also P. Weindling, “The Origins of Informed Consent: The International Scientific Commission on Medical War Crimes and the Nuremberg Code,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 75 (2001): 37–71.
93. See George J. Annas and Michael A. Grodin, eds.,
The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code: Human Rights in Human Experimentation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
94. “Declaration of Helsinki, as Revised,” in Reich, ed.,
Encyclopedia of Bioethics, 5:2765–67.
95. Read R. J. Levine, “International Codes and Guidelines for Research Ethics: A Critical Appraisal,” in Harold Y. Vanderpool, ed.,
The Ethics of Research Involving Human Subjects: Facing the 21st Century (Frederick, MD: University Publishing Group, 1996).
96. “WMA Declaration of Helsinki-Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects,”
http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/b3/index.html, accessed October 30, 2013. See also Rothman and Michels, “The Continuing Unethical Use of Placebo Controls,” 394–98; J. Collier, “Confusion Over Use of Placebos in Clinical Trials,”
British Medical Journal 311 (1995): 821–22; and the 1989, 1996, and 2000 editions of World Medical Association,
Declaration of Helsinki (Ferney-Voltaire, France: World Medical Association).
97. D. Marquis, “Leaving Therapy to Chance,”
Hastings Center Report 13 (1983): 40–47.
98. Freedman, “Placebo-Controlled Trials and the Logic of Clinical Purpose,” 5. See also B. Freedman, “Equipoise and the Ethics of Clinical Research,”
New England Journal of Medicine 317 (1987): 141; B. Freedman, K. C. Glass, and C. Weijer, “Placebo Orthodoxy in Clinical Research. II. Ethical, Legal and Regulatory Myths,”
Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 24 (1996): 252–59.
99. Freedman, “Placebo-Controlled Trials and the Logic of Clinical Purpose,” 1–6; Freedman, “Equipoise and the Ethics of Clinical Research,” 141–45; Robert J. Levine,
Ethics and Regulation of Clinical Research (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986); C. Weijer, “The Ethical Analysis of Risk,”
Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 28 (2000): 344–61; C. Weijer and P. B. Miller, “Therapeutic Obligation in Clinical Research,”
Hastings Center Report 33 (2003): 3; S. Joffe and F. G. Miller, “Bench and Bedside: Mapping the Moral Terrain of Clinical Research,”
Hastings Center Report 38 (2008): 30–42; Rothman and Michels, “The Continuing Unethical Use of Placebo Controls,” 394–98.
100. D. E. Snider Jr. and D. F. Stroup, “Defining Research When It Comes to Public Health,”
Public Health Reports 112 (1997): 29–32.
101. W. K. Mariner, “Counterpoint on Human Subjects Research,”
Public Health Reports 112 (1997): 36. See also Jay Katz,
Experimentation with Human Beings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972).
102. C. Grady, “Science in the Service of Healing,”
Hastings Center Report 28 (1998): 34–38.
103. M. A. Hall, “Law, Medicine, and Trust,”
Stanford Law Review 55 (2002): 495.
104. “Side-by-Side Comparison of 1996 and 2000 Declaration of Helsinki,”
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/archive/nhrpac/mtg12-00/h2000-1996.pdf, accessed September 26, 2013. See also Freedman, “Equipoise and the Ethics of Clinical Research,” 141–45; M. Angell, “The Ethics of Clinical Research in the Third World,”
New England Journal of Medicine 337 (1997): 847–49; J. Saba and A. Amman, “A Cultural Divide on AIDS Research,”
New York Times, September 20, 1977; W. Raspberry, “Shades of Tuskegee,”
Washington Post, September 22, 1997; S. Okie, “In the Researcher’s Code of Conduct, Contradictions Abound,”
Washington Post, September 28, 1997; and the most recent revision of the Helsinki Declaration: World Medical Association,
Declaration of Helsinki (Ferney-Voltaire, France: World Medical Association, 2013). This latest revision further states that “no national or international ethical, legal or regulatory requirement should reduce or eliminate any of the protections for research subjects set for in this Declaration” (“WMA Declaration of Helsinki-Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects”).
105. Charles Fried,
Medical Experimentation: Personal Integrity and Social Policy (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1974); F. G. Miller and H. Brody, “A Critique of Clinical Equipoise—Therapeutic Misconception in the Ethics of Clinical Trials,”
Hastings Center Report 33 (2003): 19–28.
106. “Declaration of Helsinki Revised,”
IRB: Ethics and Human Research 22 (2000): 10.
108. R. Temple and S. S. Ellenberg, “Placebo-Controlled Trials and Active-Control Trials in the Evaluation of New Treatments,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 133 (2000): 455–63; B. Jones et al., “Trials to Assess Equivalence: The Importance of Rigorous Methods,”
British Medical Journal 313 (1996): 36–39; I. Kirsch and J. J. Rosadino, “Do Double-Blind Studies with Informed Consent Yield Externally Valid Results?”
Psychopharmacology 110 (1993): 347–52.
109. G. Mooney, “Evidence-Based Medicine: Objectives and Values,” in Kristiansen and Mooney, eds.,
Evidence-Based Medicine, 62–72; V. Wiseman, “Caring: The Neglected Health Outcome? Or Input?”
Health Policy 39 (1997): 43–54; M. Little, “Assignments of Meaning in Epidemiology,”
Social Science and Medicine 47 (1998): 1135–45. See also Cochrane,
Effectiveness and Efficiency; Ian Hacking,
The Emergence of Probability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975); and James Le Fanu,
The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (London: Little, Brown, 1999).
110. Quoted in Daly,
Evidence-Based Medicine and the Search for a Science of Clinical Care, 104.
111. D. L. Sackett, “The Sins of Expertness and a Proposal for Redemption,”
British Medical Journal 320 (2000): 1283. See also David L. Sackett et al.,
Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2000).
112. Daly,
Evidence-Based Medicine and the Search for a Science of Clinical Care, 19, 239, 241.
2. POSTMODERNIST MEDICINE
1. On postmodernism, read Frederick Jameson,
Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991); Terry Eagleton,
The Illusions of Postmodernism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); Charles C. Lemert,
Postmodernism Is Not What You Think: Why Globalization Threatens Modernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Thomas Docherty, ed.,
Postmodernism: A Reader (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993); Trisha Greenhalgh and Brian Hurwitz, eds.,
Narrative-Based Medicine: Dialogue and Discourse in Clinical Practice (London: BMJ Books, 1998); John Lukacs,
At the End of an Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002).
2. Quoted in Karin Bauer,
Adorno’s Nietzschean Narratives: Critiques of Ideology, Readings of Wagner (New York: State University of New York Press, 1999), 92.
3. Read Richard Appignanesi and Chris Garratt,
Introducing Postmodernism (New York: Totem Books, 1995); Hubert Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow,
Michel Foucault, Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); M. Foucault, “The Subject and Power,”
Critical Inquiry 8 (1982): 777–95; Vaclav Hubinger, ed.,
Grasping the Changing World (New York: Routledge, 1996); Bryan S. Turner,
Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity (London: Sage, 1990).
4. D. B. Morris, “How to Speak Postmodern: Medicine, Illness, and Cultural Change,”
Hastings Center Report 30 (2000): 7–17. See also Lawrence Cahoone,
From Modernism to Post Modernism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996); Peter Coveney and Roger Highfield,
Frontiers of Complexity: The Search for Order in a Chaotic World (London: Faber and Faber, 1995).
5. B. Charlton, “Medicine and Postmodernity,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 86 (1993): 497–99; M. Parker, “Postmodern Organizations or Postmodern Organization Theory?”
Organizational Studies 13 (1992): 1–17.
6. P. Hodgkin, “Medicine, Postmodernism, and the End of Certainty: Where One Version of the Truth Is as Good as Another, Anything Goes,”
British Medical Journal 313 (1996): 1568.
7. D. P. Frost, “Complex Systems Result in a New Kind of Fundamental Uncertainty,”
British Medical Journal 314 (1997): 1045.
8. I. Morrison and R. Smith, “Hamster Health Care: Time to Stop Running Faster and Redesign Health Care,”
British Medical Journal 321 (2000): 1541–42; D. Mechanic, D. D. McAlpine, and M. Rosenthal, “Are Patients’ Office Visits with Physicians Getting Shorter?”
New England Journal of Medicine 344 (2001): 198–204; D. Mechanic, “General Practice in England and Wales: Results from a Survey of a National Sample of General Practitioners,”
Medical Care 6 (1968): 245–60.
9. Morris, “How to Speak Postmodern,” 7–16. See also E. S. More, “Empathy Enters the Profession of Medicine,” in Ellen S. More and Maureen A. Milligan, eds.,
The Empathetic Practitioner: Empathy, Gender, and Medicine (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 19–39; David B. Morris,
Illness and Culture in the Postmodern Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); C. E. Rosenberg, “Meanings, Policies, and Medicine: On the Bioethical Enterprise and History,”
Daedalus (1999): 27–46; Eli Ginzburg,
The Medical Triangle: Physicians, Politicians, and the Public (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Robert Aronowitz,
Making Sense out of Illness: Science, Society, and Disease (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Dianna B. Dutton, Thomas A. Preston, and Nancy E. Pfund,
Worse Than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988); John H. Knowles, ed.,
Doing Better and Feeling Worse: Health in the United States (New York: Norton, 1977); Kenneth M. Ludmerer,
Time to Heal: American Medical Education from the Turn of the Century to the Era of Managed Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
10. M. H. Kottow, “Classical Medicine v. Alternative Medical Practices,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 18 (1992): 20.
11. Read Thomas S. Kuhn,
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
13. M. J. Martin, “Psychosomatic Medicine: A Brief History,”
Psychosomatics 19 (1978): 697–700. Also read Franz G. Alexander and Sheldon T. Selesnick,
The History of Psychiatry (New York: Harper and Row, 1966); Gregory Zilboorg,
A History of Medical Psychology (New York: Norton, 1941); Armand M. Nicholi, ed.,
The Harvard Guide to Modern Psychiatry (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978); Franz G. Alexander and Thomas Morton French,
Studies in Psychosomatic Medicine (New York: Ronald Press, 1948).
14. “The Balance of Passions,” in
Emotion and Disease, US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health,
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/emotions/balance.html, accessed May 25, 2012. See also Austin Flint,
A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Medicine (London: Lea’s, 1881), and William Osler,
The Principles and Practice of Medicine (New York: Appleton, 1892).
15. R. A. Cleghorn, J. M. Cleghorn, and F. H. Lowy, “Contributions of Behavioral Sciences to Health Care: An Historical Perspective,”
Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 49 (1971): 161. See also Wilhelm Wundt,
Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of physiological psychology) (Leipzig: Engelmann, 1874).
16. A. T. Schofield, “Mind in Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 2 (1906): 765–66.
17. Cleghorn, Cleghorn, and Lowy, “Contributions of Behavioral Sciences to Health Care,” 162–63. See also Paul M. Schilder,
The Image and Appearance of the Human Body: Studies in the Constructive Energies of the Psyche (1935; reprint, London: Routledge, 1999); Walter Bradford Cannon,
The Wisdom of the Body (New York: Norton, 1932); Stanley Cobb,
Borderlands of Psychiatry (N.p.: n.p., 1943) and
Foundations of Neuropsychiatry (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1952); Hans Selye,
The Stress of Life, rev. and exp. ed. (Chicago: McGraw-Hill, 1956).
18. Cleghorn, Cleghorn, and Lowy, “Contributions of Behavioral Sciences to Health Care,” 162–63. See also Roy R. Grinker and John P. Spiegel,
War Neuroses in North Africa: The Tunisian Campaign, January to May 1943 (New York: Arno Press, 1943) and
Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945).
19. Cleghorn, Cleghorn, and Lowy, “Contributions of Behavioral Sciences to Health Care,” 165–66; J. S. Callender, “Ethics and Aims in Psychotherapy: A Contribution from Kant,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 24 (1998): 274–78.
21. E. D. Wittkower, “News of the Society: Twenty Years of North American Psychosomatic Medicine,”
Psychosomatic Medicine 22, no. 4 (1960): 312,
http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/content/22/4/308.full.pdf,
accessed May 25, 2012. See also L. Stevens, “The Case Against Psychotherapy,”
http://www.antipsychiatry.org/psychoth.htm, accessed September 10, 2012; Jeffrey Masson,
Against Therapy: Emotional Tyranny and the Myth of Psychological Healing (New York: Atheneum, 1988); Garth Wood,
The Myth of Neurosis: Overcoming the Illness Excuse (New York: Harper and Row, 1986); William Kirk Kilpatrick,
The Emperor’s New Clothes: The Naked Truth About the New Psychology (Westchester, IL: Crossway Books, 1985); K. Edward Renner,
What’s Wrong with the Mental Health Movement (Chicago: Nelson-Hall,1975).
22. Read Cai Song and B. E. Leonard,
Fundamentals of Psychoneuroimmunology (New York: Wiley, 2000); Robert E. Ornstein and Charles Swencionis,
The Healing Brain: A Scientific Reader (New York: Guilford Press, 1990); Howard S. Friedman and Roxane Cohen Silver,
Foundations of Health Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); G. Wilkinson, “Psychoanalysis and Analytic Psychology in NHS—a Problem for Medical Ethics,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 12 (1986): 87–90; J. D. Greenwood, “Placebo Control Treatments and the Evaluation of Psychotherapy,”
Philosophy of Science 64 (1997): 497–510; T. C. Owen, “Populist Psychotherapy,”
Journal of Religion and Health 12 (1973): 386–94; A. Christenson and N. S. Jacobson, “Who (or What) Can Do Psychotherapy: The Status and Challenge of Non-professional Therapies,”
Psychological Science 56 (1994): 8–14. See also A. Storr, “The Concept of Cure,” in Charles Rycroft, ed.,
Psychoanalysis Observed (London: Constable, 1966), 52–53; A. K. Shapiro and L. A. Morris, “The Placebo Effect in Medical and Psychological Therapies,” in Sol L. Garfield and Allen E. Bergen, eds.,
The Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavioral Change, 3rd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1978), 369–410.
23. Morris, “How to Speak Postmodern,” 12. See also Bill Moyers’s 1993 PBS television series
Healing and the Mind. Among the celebrities interviewed were Andrew Weil, Deepak Chopra, C. Everett Koop, Barry Sears, Julian Whitaker, Drew Pinsky, and Susan Love.
24. M. Schlesinger, “A Loss of Faith: The Sources of Reduced Political Legitimacy for the American Medical Profession,”
Milbank Quarterly 80 (2002): 185–235; G. Southon and J. Braithwaite, “The End of Professionalism?”
Social Science and Medicine 46 (1998): 23–28; Margali S. Larson,
The Rise of Professionalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).
25. M. Olfson and H. A. Pincus, “Outpatient Psychotherapy in the United States, I: Volume, Costs, and User Characteristics,”
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62 (1994): 75–82.
26. M. E. P. Seligman, “The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy: The
Consumer Reports Study,”
American Psychologist 50 (1995): 965–74. Read also Mary Lee Smith, Gene V. Glass, and Thomas I. Miller,
The Benefit of Psychotherapy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); D. Shapiro and D. Shapiro, “Meta-analysis of Comparative Therapy Outcome Studies: A Replication and Refinement,”
Psychological Bulletin 92 (1982): 581–604.
27. D. M. Eisenberg, “The Institute of Medicine Report on Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States—Personal Reflections on Its Content and Implications,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 10–11.
28. H. A. Baer, “The Work of Andrew Weil and Deepak Chopra—Two Holistic Health/New Age Gurus: A Critique of the Holistic Health/New Age Movements,”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 17 (2003): 233–50.
29. Read the following works by Andrew Weil:
The Natural Mind: A Revolutionary Approach to the Drug Problem (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1972);
Health and Healing: Understanding Conventional and Alternative Medicine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983);
Eight Weeks to Optimum Health: A Proven Program for Taking Full Advantage of Your Body’s Natural Healing Power (New York: Knopf, 1997).
30. Read Deepak Chopra,
Ageless Body, Timeless Mind: The Quantum Alternative to Growing Old (New York: Harmony Books, 1993) and
Quantum Healing: Discovering the Power to Fulfill Your Dreams (New York: Bantam, 1991).
31. See Deepak Chopra,
Unconditional Life—
Discovering the Power to Fulfill Your Dreams (New York: Bantam Books, 1992) and
Creating Affluence—
Wealth Consciousness in the Field of All Possibilities (San Rafael, CA: New World Library, 1993). See also John S. Haller Jr.,
Swedenborg, Mesmer, and the Mind/Body Connection: The Roots of Complementary Medicine (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2010), 158–87, and
The History of New Thought: From Mind-Cure to Positive Thinking and the Prosperity Gospel (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2012).
32. J. Durlak, “Comparative Effectiveness of Paraprofessional and Professional Helpers,”
Psychological Bulletin 86 (1979): 80–92; J. A. Hattie, C. F. Sharpley, and H. J. Rogers, “Comparative Effectiveness of Professional and Paraprofessional Helpers,”
Psychological Bulletin 95 (1894): 534–41; D. M. Stern and M. J. Lambert, “On the Relationship Between Therapist Experience and Psychotherapy Outcome,”
Clinical Psychology Review 4 (1984): 127–42; D. A. Shapiro and D. Shapiro, “Meta-analysis of Comparative Therapy Outcome Studies: A Replication and Refinement,”
Psychological Bulletin 92 (1982): 581–604.
33. Edward Erwin,
Philosophy of Psychotherapy: Razing the Troubles of the Brain (London: Sage, 1997), chap. 8; H. J. Eysenck, “The Effects of Psychotherapy: An Evaluation,”
Journal of Consulting Psychology 16 (1952): 319–24.
34. Eric Fromm,
The Crisis of Psychoanalysis (New York: Fawcett, 1970), 12, 16, 40.
35. Herbert Benson,
The Relaxation Response (New York: HarperTorch, 1975) and
Timeless Healing: The Power and Biology of Belief (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996); Rhonda Byrne,
The Secret (New York: Atria Books, 2006) and
The Power (New York: Atria Books, 2010).
36. F. Scogin et al., “Efficacy of Self-Administered Treatment Programs: Meta-analytic Review,”
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 21 (1990): 42–47.
37. J. D. Frank, “The Placebo Is Psychotherapy,”
Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6 (1983): 291–92.
38. S. Starker, “Self-Help Treatment Books: The Rest of the Story,”
American Psychologist 43 (1988): 599–600.
39. D. H. Novack, “Realizing Engel’s Vision: Psychosomatic Medicine and the Education of Physician-Healers,”
Psychosomatic Medicine 65 (2003): 925–30. See also G. L. Engel, “The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine,”
Science 196 (1977): 129–36, and “The Clinical Application of the Biopsychosocial Model,”
American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980): 535–44; S. R. Waldstein et al., “Teaching Psychosomatic (Biopsychosocial) Medicine in United States Medical Schools: Survey Findings,”
Psychosomatic Medicine 63 (2001): 335–43; K. Kroenke, “Symptoms in Medical Patients: An Untended Field,”
American Journal of Medicine 92 (1992): 3S–6S; D. H. Novack, R. M. Epstein, and R. H. Paulsen, “Toward Creating Physician-Healers: Fostering Medical Students’ Self-Awareness, Personal Growth, and Well-Being,”
Academic Medicine 74 (1999): 516–20.
40. William James,
The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study of Human Nature (New York: Modern Library, 1902), 77–124. See also J. S. Levin and P. L. Schiller, “Is There a Religious Factor in Health?”
Journal of Religion and Health 26 (1987): 9–36; J. S. Levin and H. Y. Vanderpool, “Is Religion Therapeutically Significant for Hypertension?”
Social Science and Medicine 29 (1989): 69–78; J. Levin, “God, Love, and Health: Findings from a Clinical Study,”
Review of Religious Research 42 (2001): 277–93.
41. M. Wills, “Connection, Action, and Hope: An Invitation to Reclaim the ‘Spiritual’ in Health Care,”
Journal of Religious Health 46 (2007): 430–31.
42. W. Roush, “Herbert Benson: Mind–Body Maverick Pushes the Envelope,”
Science 276 (1997): 357–58. See also Benson,
Timeless Healing.
43. Wills, “Connection, Action, and Hope,” 424.
44. C. Cohen et al., “Prayer as Therapy: A Challenge to Both Religious Belief and Professional Ethics,”
Hastings Center Report 30 (2000): 43. See also M. J. Hanson, “The Religious Differences in Clinical Healthcare,”
Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 7 (1998): 57–67; C. Wallis, “Faith and Healing,”
Time, June 24, 1996; E. G. Howe, “Influencing a Patient’s Religious Beliefs: Mandate or No-Man’s Land?”
Journal of Clinical Ethics 6 (1995): 194–201; T. F. Dagi, “Prayer, Piety, and Professional Propriety: Limits on Religious Expression in Hospitals,”
Journal of Clinical Ethics 6 (1995): 274–79.
45. L. K. George, C. G. Ellison, and D. B. Larson, “Explaining the Relationships Between Religious Involvement and Health,”
Psychological Inquiry 13 (2002): 190–200.
46. R. A. Cooper and H. J. McKee, “Chiropractic in the United States: Trends and Issues,”
Milbank Quarterly 81 (2003): 107–38; K. R. Pelletier et al., “Current Trends in the Integration and Reimbursement of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by Managed Care, Insurance Carriers, and Hospital Providers,”
American Journal of Health Promotion 12 (1997): 112–22. See also Michael H. Cohen,
Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Legal Boundaries and Regulatory Perspectives (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
47. F. M. Frohock, “Moving Lines and Variable Criteria: Differences/Connections Between Allopathic and Alternative Medicine,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 583 (2002): 214.
48. B. M. Hughes, “Regional Patterns of Religious Affiliation and Availability of Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
Journal of Religion and Health 45 (2006): 549–57. See also A. D. Watkins and G. Lewith, “Mind–Body Medicine: Its Popularity and Perception,” in Alan D. Watkins, ed.,
Mind–Body Medicine: A Clinician’s Guide to Psychoneuroimmunology (New York: Churchill Livingston, 1997), 27–40.
49. Hughes, “Regional Patterns of Religious Affiliation and Availability of Complementary and Alternative Medicine,” 550–53. See also M. Saks, “Medicine and Complementary Medicine: Challenge and Change,” in Graham Scambler and Paul Higgs, eds.,
Modernity, Medicine, and Health: Medical Sociology Towards 2000 (London: Routledge, 1998), 198–215.
50. E. Ernst, “Complementary Medicine: Common Misconceptions,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 88 (1995): 244–47; White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002 (Washington, DC: White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy, 2002), 12,
http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/whccamp/pdfs/fr2002_document.pdf, accessed April 23, 2011.
51. D. M. Eisenberg, T. L. Delbanco, and R. C. Kessler, “Unconventional Medicine,”
New England Journal of Medicine 329 (1993): 1203–4.
52. L. Rees and A. Weil, “Integrated Medicine Imbues Orthodox Medicine with the Values of Complementary Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 322 (2001): 119; see also A. Weil, “The Significance of Integrative Medicine for the Future of Medical Education,”
American Medical Journal 18 (2000): 441–43.
53. Tracy Deliman and John S. Smolowe,
Holistic Medicine: Harmony of Body, Mind, Spirit (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982); Barbara Montgomery Dossey,
Holistic Health Promotion: A Guide for Practice (Rockville, MD: Aspen,1989); Robert C. Fuller,
Alternative Medicine and American Religious Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); M. Goldstein et al., “Holistic Physicians and Family Practitioners: Similarities, Differences, and Implications for Health Policy,”
Social Science and Medicine 26 (1988): 853–61; Daniel Goldman and Joel Gurin,
Mind Body Medicine: How to Use Your Mind for Better Health (New York: Consumer’s Union, 1993).
55. See Michael Dixon and Kieran Sweeney,
The Human Effect in Medicine: Theory, Research, and Practice (Abingdon, UK: Radcliffe Medical Press, 2000).
56. Health Care Financing Administration, “National Health Expenditure Projections, 2000–2010,”
http://www.hcfa.gov/stats, accessed April 22, 2011.
57. H. S. Merliner and J. W. Salmon, “The Holistic Alternative to Scientific Medicine: History and Analysis,”
International Journal of Health Services 10 (1980): 133–47; R. A. Deyo, “Practice Variations, Treatment Fads, and Rising Disability,”
Spine 18 (1993): 21–54; Stefan Timmermans and Marc Berg,
The Gold Standard: The Challenge of Evidence-Based Medicine and Standardization in Health Care (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003): 166–94. See also J. C. Whorton, “The History of Complementary and Alternative Medicine,” in Wayne B. Jonas, Jeffrey S. Levin, and Brian Berman, eds.,
The Essentials of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999); June S. Lowenberg,
Caring and Responsibility: The Crossroads Between Holistic Practice and Traditional Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989).
58. T. A. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine: The American Medical Profession Confronts Alternative Therapies,”
Social Problems 52 (2005): 44.
59. Ibid., 45–46, 50. By 1985, chiropractors had won not only a successful antitrust suit against the American Medical Association but hospital privileges as well.
60. E. Ernst and C. H. Hentschel, “Diagnostic Methods in Complementary Medicine: Whichcraft or Witchcraft?”
International Journal of Risk and Safety Medicine 7 (1995): 55–63; E. Ernst et al., “Complementary Medicine—a Definition,”
British Journal of General Practice 45 (1995): 506. See also Marc S. Micozzi, ed.,
Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996).
61. Bonnie Blair O’Connor,
Healing Traditions: Alternative Medicine and the Health Professions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
62. Read Donald W. Novey, ed.,
Clinician’s Complete Reference to Complementary and Alternative Medicine (St. Louis: Mosby, 2000).
63. Ernst et al., “Complementary Medicine—a Definition,” 506; Ernst and Hentschel, “Diagnostic Methods in Complementary Medicine,” 55–63.
64. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine,” 38–61; M. Goldner, “Expanding Political Opportunities and Changing Collective Identities in the Complementary and Alternative Medicine Movement,”
Political Opportunities, Social Movements, and Democratization 23 (2001): 69–102; H. A. Baer et al., “The Holistic Health Movement in the San Francisco Bay Area: Some Preliminary Observations,”
Social Science and Medicine 47 (1998): 1495–501.
66. Nicola J. Newton, “The Road Taken: Women’s Life Paths and Personality Development in Late Midlife,” PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2011,
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/86410/1/nickynew_1.pdf, accessed May 25, 2012; L. Grant and L. A. Simpson, “Marriage and Relationship Satisfaction of Physicians,”
Sociological Focus 27 (1994): 327–42; “Psychology of Women,”
http://www.scribd.com/doc/29167058/Psychology-of-Women, accessed May 25, 2012.
68. K. S. Sibert, “Don’t Quit This Day Job,”
New York Times, June 11, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/12/opinion/12sibert.html?pagewanted=all, accessed May 9, 2012. Through much of postmodernist medicine, women physicians have been overrepresented in pediatrics, psychiatry, and public health while underrepresented in internal medicine, the surgical subspecialties, research, and academic medicine. Although broad shifts in the workforce have occurred, especially where women were more normative in the past, generational changes depend as much on patients’ expectations as they do on a woman physician’s individual choice. More recent research suggests that women physicians prefer to be engaged in careers with more of the communication behaviors valued by patients. See J. Cuca, “The Specialization and Career Preferences of Women and Men Recently Graduated from U.S. Medical Schools,”
Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 34 (1979): 1161–62; J. Braslow and M. Heins, “Women in Medical Education: A Decade of Change,”
New England Journal of Medicine 304 (1981): 1129–34; L. Grant, “Peer Expectations About Outstanding Competencies of Men and Women Medical Students,”
Sociology of Health and Illness 5 (1983): 42–61; N. J. Farber et al., “Physicians’ Experiences with Patients Who Transgress Boundaries,”
Journal of General Internal Medicine 15 (2000): 770–75; J. Schmittdiel et al., “Effect of Physician and Patient Sex Concordance on Patient Satisfaction and Preventive Care Practices,”
Journal of General Internal Medicine 15 (2000): 761–69; M. C. Beach and D. L. Roter, “Interpersonal Expectations in the Patient–Physician Relationship,”
Journal of General Internal Medicine 15 (2000): 825–27.
69. For these numbers, see “U.S. Yoga Statistics” at the Namasta (North American Studio Alliance) website,
http://www.namasta.com/pressresources.php, accessed September 23, 2011, and C. Sawhney, “Holistic Recipes: The Second Coming,”
http://www.lifepositive.com/body/homeopathy/homeopathic-treatment.asp, accessed September 28, 2011. See also D. C. Cherkin et al., “Characteristics of Licensed Acupuncturists, Chiropractors, Massage Therapists, and Naturopathic Physicians,”
Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 15 (2002): 378–90.
71. Ernst et al., “Complementary Medicine—a Definition,” 506; see also E. Ernst, M. H. Cohen, and J. Stone, “Ethical Problems Arising in Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 30 (2000): 156. This definition was adopted by the Cochrane Collaboration.
72. Read Benson,
Timeless Healing; Beata Bishop,
A Time to Heal (London: Arkana, 1996); Ursula Sharma,
Complementary Medicine Today: Practitioners and Patients (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992).
73. D. M. Eisenberg et al., “Unconventional Medicine in the United States: Prevalence, Costs, and Patterns of Use,”
New England Journal of Medicine 328 (1993): 246–52. See also M. B. Blecher, “Alternative Medicine on Pins and Needles No More: Acupuncturists and Others Get Mainstream Nod,”
Crain’s Chicago Business, January 27, 1997; D. M. Eisenberg, “Advising Patients Who Seek Alternative Medical Therapies,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 127 (1997): 61–69.
74. D. Eisenberg et al., “Trends in Alternative Medicine Use in the United States, 1990–1997,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1569–75. The research team came from the Center for Alternative Medicine Research and Education at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Department of Health Care Policy at Harvard Medical School.
75. Ni Hanyu, C. Simile, and A. M. Hardy, “Utilization of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by United States Adults: Results from the 1999 National Health Interview Survey,”
Medical Care 40 (2002): 353–58.
76. H. A. Tindle et al., “Trends in Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by U.S. Adults: 1997–2002,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 42–49.
77. N. C. Sharts-Hopko, “Spirituality and Health Care,” in Joseph T. Catalano, ed.,
Nursing Now: Today’s Issues, Tomorrow’s Trends, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Davis, 2003), 347–71; S. Maimes, “Spirituality and Healing in Medicine,”
Healthcare Review 15 (2002): 7.
78. L. Clark Paramore, “Use of Alternative Therapies: Estimates from the 1994 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation National Access to Care Survey,”
Journal of Pain Symptom Management 13 (1997): 83–89; M. Kelner and B. Wellman, “Health Care and Consumer Choice: Medical and Alternative Therapies,”
Social Science and Medicine 45 (1997): 203–12.
79. J. A. Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine,”
JAMA 279 (1998): 1548–53; Kelner and Wellman, “Health Care and Consumer Choice,” 203–12; R. Parker Bausel, Wen-Lin Lee, and B. Berman, “Demographic and Health Related Correlates of Visits to Complementary and Alternative Medicine Providers,”
Medical Care 39 (2001): 190–96.
80. L. Keegan, “Use of Alternative Therapies Among Mexican Americans in the Texas Rio Grande Valley,”
Journal of Holistic Nursing 14 (1996): 277–99; A. Zaldivar and J. Smolowitz, “Perceptions of the Importance Placed on Religion and Folk Medicine by Non-Mexican-American Hispanic Adults with Diabetes,”
Diabetes Education 20 (1994): 303–6; C. Kim and V. S. Kwok, “Navajo Use of Native Healers,”
Archives of Internal Medicine 158 (1998): 2245–49.
81. Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine,” 1548–53; Eisenberg et al., “Trends in Alternative Medicine Use in the United States, 1990–1997,” 1569–75; H. Eastwood, “Why Are Australian GPs Using Alternative Medicine? Postmodernism, Consumerism, and the Shift Toward Holistic Health,”
Journal of Sociology 35 (2000): 133–56; M. Siahpush, “Postmodern Values, Dissatisfaction with Conventional Medicine, and Popularity of Alternative Therapies,”
Journal of Sociology 34 (1998): 58–70.
82. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine,” 38.
83. J. Bland, “Alternative Therapies—a Moving Target,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 20.
84. D. E. King et al., “Experiences and Attitudes About Faith Healing Among Family Physicians,”
Journal of Family Practice 35 (1992): 158–62.
85. M. J. Verhoef and L. R. Sutherland, “Alternative Medicine and General Practitioners: Opinions and Behavior,”
Canadian Family Physician 41 (1995): 1005–11.
86. “Alternative and Complementary Medicine: What’s a Doctor to Do?”
Hastings Center Report 30 (2000): 47–48.
87.
American Medical Association Council on Medical Education, Encouraging Medical Student Education in Complementary Health Care Practices (Chicago: American Medical Association Press, 1997); M. S. Wetzel, D. M. Eisenberg, and T. J. Kaptchuk, Courses Involving Complementary and Alternative Medicine at U.S. Medical Schools, JAMA 280 (1998): 784–87; B. Barzansky, H. S. Jonas, and S. I. Etzel, “Educational Programs in US Medical Schools, 1999–2000,” JAMA 284 (2000): 1114–20. See also M. S. Wetzel et al., “Complementary and Alternative Medical Therapies: Implications for Medical Education,” Annals of Internal Medicine
138 (2003): 191–96.
88. M. A. Burg et al., “Personal Use of Alternative Medicine Therapies by Health Science Center Faculty,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1563.
89. J. Udani, “Integrating Alternative Medicine Into Practice,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1620; see also Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine,” 1548–53.
90. D. Josefson, “Complementary Medicine Is Booming Worldwide,”
British Medical Journal 313 (1996): 133.
91. V. Maizes and O. Caspio, “The Principles and Challenges of Alternative Medicine: More Than a Combination of Traditional and Alternative Therapies,”
Western Journal of Medicine 171 (1999): 148–49.
92. B. Berman, “Complementary Medicine and Medical Education,”
British Medical Journal 322 (2001): 121–22; Wetzel, Eisenberg, and Kaptchuk, “Courses Involving Complementary and Alternative Medicine at U.S. Medical Schools,” 784–87; R. A. Chez, W. B. Jonas, and C. Crawford, “A Survey of Medical Students’ Opinions About Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 185 (2001): 754–57.
93. Wetzel et al., “Complementary and Alternative Medical Therapies,”
191–96.
95. “Trend Watch: Complementary Growth,”
AHA News,
http://www.ahastatitics.org, accessed April 23, 2011; D. Podolsky, “A New Age of Healing Hands: Cancer Centers Embrace Alternative Therapies as ‘Complementary Care,’”
U.S. News & World Report, February 5, 1996, 71–74.
96. M. E. Koch et al., “The Sedative and Analgesic Sparing Effect of Music,”
Anesthesiology 89 (1998): 300–306.
97. I. D. Coulter and R. Khorsan, “Is Health Services Research the Holy Grail of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Research?”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 14 (2008): 40.
98. “Overview of CAM in the United States,” in White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002, 22.
99. V. E. Tyler, “What a Pharmacist Should Know About Herbal Remedies,”
Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 36 (1996): 29–37; “Herbal Roulette,”
Consumer Reports, November 1995; E. Ernst, “Risks Associated with Complementary Therapies,” in M. N. G. Dukes and Jeffrey K. Aronson, eds.,
Meyler’s Side Effects of Drugs, 14 ed. (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2000), 1649–81.
100. See Karen Rappaport,
Directory of Schools for Alternative and Complementary Health Care, 2nd ed. (Phoenix: Oryx, 1999); Larson,
The Rise of Professionalism.
101. Wetzel, Eisenberg, and Kaptchuk, “Courses Involving Complementary and Alternative Medicine at U.S. Medical Schools,” 784–87.
102. P. R. Wolpe, “The Dynamics of Heresy in a Profession,”
Social Science and Medicine 39 (1994): 1133–48, and “The Holistic Heresy: Strategies of Ideological Challenge in the Medical Profession,”
Social Science and Medicine 31 (1990): 913–23.
3. “THE POWERFUL PLACEBO”
1. Read J. Gold, “Cartesian Dualism and the Current Crisis in Medicine—a Plea for a Philosophical Approach: Discussion Paper,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 78 (1985): 663–66. See also Ivan Illich,
Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1981); Ian Kennedy,
The Unmasking of Medicine (London: Paladin/ Granada, 1983).
2. Quoted in H. V. Neal, “The Basis of Individuality in Organisms: A Defense of Vitalism,”
Science 44 (1916): 82.
3. Abraham Flexner,
Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1910), 157.
4. M. H. Kottow, “Classical Medicine v. Alternative Medical Practices,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 18 (1992): 21.
5. A. K. Shapiro, “The Placebo Effect in the History of Medical Treatment: Implications for Psychiatry,”
American Journal of Psychiatry 116 (1959): 198–304, and “A Contribution to the History of the Placebo Effect,”
Behavioral Science 5 (1960): 109–35; J. C. Whitehorn, “Psychiatric Implications of the Placebo Effect,”
American Journal of Psychiatry 114 (1958): 662–64. See also R. G. Gallimore and J. L. Turner, “Faith and Psychotherapy: Some Problems in Theories of Psychotherapy,” in Murray E. Jarvik, ed.,
Psychopharmacology in the Practice of Medicine (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1977), 93–116.
6. “The Bottle of Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1952): 149. See also R. Barker Bausell,
Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 24.
7. A. Hrøbjartsson and M. Norup, “The Uses of Placebo in Medical Practice—a National Questionnaire Survey of Danish Clinicians,”
Evaluation and the Health Professions 26 (2003): 153–65.
8. Daniel Boorstin,
The Discoverers (New York: Random House, 1983), xv; Henry Sigerist, “The History of Medicine and the History of Disease,”
Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine 4 (1936): 1–13; J. T. Patterson, “How Do We Write the History of Disease?”
Health and History 1 (1998): 5–29. See also Michel Foucault,
The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973); Charles Rosenberg and Janet Golden, eds.,
Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992).
9. H. K. Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,”
JAMA 159 (1955): 1602–6.
10. A. Hrøbjartsson and P. C. Gøtzsche, “Is the Placebo Powerless? An Analysis of Clinical Trials Comparing Placebos with No Treatment,”
New England Journal of Medicine 344 (2001): 1599. See also T. E. Einarson, M. Hemels, and P. Stolk, “Is the Placebo Powerless?”
New England Journal of Medicine 345 (2001): 1277; G. S. Klienle and H. Kiene, “The Powerful Placebo’s Effect: Fact or Fiction?”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 50 (1997): 1311–18.
11. Richard Kradin,
The Placebo Response and the Power of Unconscious Healing (New York: Routledge, 2008), 53; B. Jacobs, “Biblical Origins of Placebo,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 93 (2000): 213–14; P. D. Wall, “The Placebo and the Placebo Response,” in Patrick D. Wall and Ronald Melzak, eds.,
Text Book of Pain (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingston, 1999), 1297–308. See also Arthur K. Shapiro and Elaine Shapiro,
The Powerful Placebo: From Ancient Priest to Modern Physician (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
12. George Motherby,
New Medical Dictionary (London: n.p., 1785), q.v. “placebo”; E. Ernst, “Towards a Scientific Understanding of Placebo Effects,” in David Peters, ed.,
Understanding the Placebo Effect in Complementary Medicine: Theory, Practice, and Research (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2001), 17–30.
13. D. E. Moerman, “Edible Symbols: The Effectiveness of Placebos,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 77 (1981): 256. See also J. H. Warner, “The Nature-Trusting Heresy: American Physicians and the Concept of the Healing Power of Nature in the 1850s and 1860s,”
Perspectives in American History 11 (1977–1978): 291–324.
14. Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo”; H. Brody, “The Symbolic Power of the Modern Personal Physician: The Placebo Response Under Challenge,”
Journal of Drug Issues 18 (1988): 149–61; J. S. Welch, “Ritual in Western Medicine and Its Role in Placebo Healing,”
Journal of Religion and Health 42 (2003): 21–33; M. J. Bass et al., “The Physician’s Actions and the Outcome of Illness in Family Practice,”
Journal of Family Practice 23 (1986): 43–47; A. M. Kleinman, “Medicine’s Symbolic Reality,”
Inquiry 16 (1985): 206–13; K. B. Thomas, “The Consultation and the Therapeutic Illusion,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1978): 1327–28; M. A. Hall et al., “Trust in Physicians and Medical Institutions: What Is It, Can It Be Measured, and Does It Matter?”
Milbank Quarterly 79 (2001): 613–39.
15. A. K. Shapiro, “Attitudes Toward the Use of Placebos in Treatment,”
Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders 130 (1960): 200–211; Shapiro, “A Contribution to the History of the Placebo Effect,” 109–35.
16. Quoted in M. Enserink, “Can the Placebo Be the Cure?”
Science 284 (1999): 238. See also T. Kaptchuk, “Powerful Placebo: The Dark Side of the Randomized Controlled Trial,”
Lancet 354 (1998): 1722–25.
17. S. Stewart-Williams, “The Placebo Puzzle: Putting Together the Pieces,”
Health Psychology 23 (2004): 198–206. Read also Richard Totman,
The Social Causes of Illness (London: Souvenir Press, 1987); Ernst, “Towards a Scientific Understanding of Placebo Effects.”
18. Eric J. Cassell,
The Nature of Suffering (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 113.
19. Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,” 1602–6. See also A. K. Shapiro and L. A. Morris, “The Placebo Effect in Medical and Psychological Therapies,” in Sol L. Garfield and Allen E. Bergin, eds., The
Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavioral Change (New York: Wiley, 1978), 369–410; Howard Brody,
Placebos and the Philosophy of Medicine: Clinical, Conceptual, and Ethical Issues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Bausell,
Snake Oil Science, 24–25.
20. H. K. Beecher, “Placebos for Relief of Pain,”
Science 132 (1960): 1567–69.
21. E. J. Wayne, “Placebos,”
British Medical Journal 2 (1956): 157; S. Bok, “The Ethics of Giving Placebos,”
Scientific American 231 (1974): 17–23.
22. Read the following works by Sissela Bok:
Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life (New York: Vintage, 1978); “Secrecy and Openness in Science: Ethical Considerations,”
Science, Technology, and Human Values 7 (1982): 32–41; and “The Ethics of Giving Placebos.”
23. Bok, “The Ethics of Giving Placebos,” 22.
24. B. Simmons, “Problems in Deceptive Medical Procedures: An Ethical and Legal Analysis of the Administration of Placebos,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 4 (1978): 179.
25. P. Lichtenberg, U. Heresco-Levy, and U. Nitzan, “The Ethics of the Placebo in Clinical Practice,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 30 (2004): 553. See also D. E. Moerman and W. B. Jonas, “Deconstructing the Placebo Effect and Finding the Meaning Response,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 136 (2002): 471–76; G. L. Engel, “The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine,”
Science 196 (1977): 129–36; K. B. Thomas, “The Placebo in General Practice,”
Lancet 344 (1994): 1066–67; P. P. De Deyn and R. d’Hooge, “Placebos in Clinical Practice and Research,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 12 (1965): 336–45; H. Spiro, “Clinical Reflections on the Placebo Phenomenon,” in Anne Harrington, ed.,
The Placebo Effect: An Interdisciplinary Exploration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 37–55.
26. J. C. Tilburt et al., “‘Placebo Treatments’: Results of a National Survey of U.S. Internists and Rheumatologists,”
British Medical Journal 337 (2008): 1097–1100. Read also Hrøbjartsson and Norup, “The Uses of Placebo Interventions in Medical Practice,” 153–65; R. Sherman and J. Hicker, “Academic Physicians Use Placebos in Clinical Practice and Believe in the Mind–Body Connection,”
Journal of General Internal Medicine 23 (2008): 7–10.
27. H. Brody, “The Lie That Heals: The Ethics of Giving Placebos,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 97 (1982): 117–18. Read also Tom H. Beauchamp and James F. Childress,
Principles of Biomedical Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979); Howard Brody,
Ethical Decisions in Medicine, 2nd ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981); P. S. Jensen, “The Doctor–Patient Relationship: Headed for Impasse or Improvement?”
Annals of Internal Medicine 95 (1981): 769–71; L. C. Park and L. Covi, “Nonblind Placebo Trial: An Exploration of Neurotic Outpatients’ Response to Placebo When Its Inert Content Is Disclosed,”
Archives of General Psychiatry 12 (1965): 105–9; A. Soble, “Deception in Social Science Research: Is Informed Consent Possible?”
Hastings Center Report 8 (1978): 40–46.
28. Moerman and Jonas, “Deconstructing the Placebo Effect and Finding the Meaning Response,” 471–76.
29. D. Christensen, “Medicinal Mimicry: Sometimes, Placebos Work—but How?”
Science News 159 (2001): 74.
30. A. K. Shapiro, “A Historic and Heuristic Definition of the Placebo,”
Psychiatry 27 (1964): 52–58; Shapiro and Shapiro,
The Powerful Placebo, 41 (quote). See also P. C. Gøtzsche, “Is There Logic in the Placebo?”
Lancet 344 (1994): 925–26; M. Shepherd, “The Placebo: From Specificity to the Non-specific and Back,”
Psychological Medicine 23 (1993): 569–78; Kaptchuk, “Powerful Placebo,” 1722–25.
31. An alternative view is presented in the work of Martina Amanzio and Fabrizio Benedetti, who demonstrate how through the placebo’s mediating influence on endorphins the mind can have a specific effect on the body. See M. Amanzio and F. Benedetti, “Neuropharmacological Dissection of Placebo Analgesia: Expectation Activated Opioid Systems Versus Conditioning Activated Specific Subsystems,”
Journal of Neuroscience 19 (1999): 484–94.
32. Shapiro and Shapiro,
The Powerful Placebo, 41. For an alternate definition, see A. K. Shapiro, “Factors Contributing to the Placebo Effect,”
American Journal of Psychotherapy 18 (1961): 73–88.
33. P. Lacono et al., “Placebo Effect in Cardiovascular Clinical Pharmacology,”
International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology Research 12 (1992): 53.
34. S. Stewart-Williams, “The Placebo Puzzle: Putting Together the Pieces,”
Health Psychology 23 (2004): 200.
35. Shapiro, “A Historic and Heuristic Definition of the Placebo”; K. L. Melmon, H. F. Morrelli, and H. R. Bourne, “Rational Use of Placebo,” in Kenneth L. Melmon and Howard F. Morrelli, eds.,
Clinical Pharmacology: Basic Principles in Therapeutics, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1978), 1052–62.
36. Moerman and Jonas, “Deconstructing the Placebo Effect and Finding the Meaning Response,” 471–76.
37. Daniel E. Moerman,
Meaning, Medicine, and the “Placebo Effect” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 14.
40. M. Ross and J. Olson, “An Expectancy–Attribution Model of the Effect of Placebos,”
Psychological Review 88 (1981): 409–37; A. E. Skodol, R. Plutchick, and T. B. Karasu, “Expectations of Hospital Treatment: Conflicting Views of Patients and Staff,”
Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 150 (1980): 73.
41. R. J. Connelly, “Deception and the Placebo Effect in Biomedical Research,”
IRB: Ethics and Human Research 9 (1987): 5; D. Lester, “Voodoo Death: Some New Thoughts on an Old Phenomenon,”
American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 386–90; W. B. Canon, “Voodoo Death,”
American Anthropologist 44 (1942): 169–81.
42. “Informed Consent May Be Hazardous to Health,”
Science 204 (1979): 11.
43. T. D. Wager, “The Neural Bases of Placebo Effects in Pain,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science 14 (2005): 175–79.
44. J. D. Levin, N. C. Gordon, and H. L. Fields, “The Mechanism of Placebo Analgesia,”
Lancet 2 (1978): 654–57; see also R. Prince, “The Endorphins: A Review for Psychological Anthropologists,”
Ethos 10 (1982): 411.
45. Examples of the research on the latter include E. Abramson and R. A. Arky, “Treatment of the Obese Diabetic: A Comparative Study of Placebo, Sulfonylurea, and Phenformin,”
Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 16 (1967): 204–12; F. K. Abbot, M. Mack, and S. Wolf, “The Action of Banthine on the Stomach and Duodenum of Man, with Observations on the Effects of Placebos,”
Gastroenterology 29 (1952): 249–61.
46. R. W. Wilson and B. J. Elmassian, “Endorphins,”
American Journal of Nursing 81 (1981): 724.
47. S. W. Perry and G. Heidrich, “Placebo Response: Myth and Matter,”
American Journal of Nursing 81 (1981): 721.
48. Prince, “The Endorphins,” 411; J. L. Henry, “Possible Involvement of Endorphins in Altered States of Consciousness,”
Ethos 10 (1982): 405.
49. V. M. S. Oh, “The Placebo Effect: Can We Use It Better?”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 69–70.
50. I. Kirsch, “Response Expectancy as a Determinant of Experience and Behavior,”
American Psychologist 40 (1985): 1189–202; R. A. Hahn and A. Kleinman, “Belief as Pathogen, Belief as Medicine: ‘Voodoo Death’ and the ‘Placebo Phenomenon’ in Anthropological Perspective,”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 14 (1983): 16–19.
51. S. Fisher, “The Placebo Reactor: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis, and Hypothesis,”
Diseases of the Nervous System 28 (1967): 17–23; J. H. Conn, “Cultural and Clinical Aspects of Hypnosis, Placebos, and Suggestibility,”
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 7 (1959): 175–85; F. J. Evans, “The Placebo Response in Pain Reduction,” in John J. Bonica, ed.,
Advances in Neurology, 5 vols. (New York: Raven, 1974), 4:289–96.
52. Kradin,
The Placebo Response and the Power of Unconscious Healing, 85; see also W. R. Houston, “Doctor Himself as a Therapeutic Agent,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 11 (1938): 1416–25.
53. A. K. Shapiro, “The Curative Waters and Warm Poultices of Psychotherapy,” paper delivered at the American Psychiatric Association Divisional Meeting, November 21, 1964, Philadelphia; Welch, “Ritual in Western Medicine and Its Role in Placebo Healing,” 21–33; P. Lowinger and S. Dobie, “What Makes the Placebo Work,”
Archives of General Psychiatry 26 (1969): 84–88; Shapiro, “A Contribution to the History of the Placebo Effect,” 109–35; J. Z. Smith, “The Bare Facts on Ritual,”
History of Religions 20 (1980): 112–27.
54. Michael Balint,
The Doctor, His Patient, and the Illness (London: International Universities Press, 1972). See also H. Brody, “The Doctor as Therapeutic Agent: A Placebo Effect Research Agenda,” in Harrington, ed.,
The Placebo Effect, 77–92; I. Wickramasekera, “A Conditioned Response Model of the Placebo Effect: Predictions From the Model,” in Leonard White, Bernard Tursky, and Gary E. Schwartz, eds.,
Placebo: Theory, Research, and Mechanisms (New York: Guilford Press, 1985), 255–87.
55. “Placebos,”
British Medical Journal 1 (1961): 43–44.
56. “Power of the Placebo,”
Science News 108 (1975): 20.
57. K. W. Berblinger, “The Influence of Personalities on Drug Therapy,”
American Journal of Nursing 59 (1959): 1130; see also B. Roueche, “Placebo,”
New Yorker 15 (1960): 85–103.
58. C. E. Goshen, “The Placebo Effect: For Whom?”
American Journal of Nursing 66 (1966): 293–94.
59. R. Squires, “Confidence Tricks,”
Philosophy 69 (1994): 371–72.
60. See A. K. Shapiro, “Iatroplacebogenics,”
International Pharmacopsychiatry 2 (1969): 215–48.
61. Jerome D. Frank,
Persuasion and Healing: A Comparative Study of Psychotherapy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 144. See also Charles G. Sorer,
Healing: Biblical, Medical, and Pastoral (London: Christian Medical Fellowship, 1979); Louis Rose,
Faith Healing (London: Gollanz, 1968); William A. Nolen,
Healing: A Doctor in Search of a Miracle (New York: Fawcett, 1974).
62. Hall et al., “Trust in Physicians and Medical Institutions,” 630. See also Jay Katz,
The Silent World of Doctor and Patient (New York: Free Press, 1984); D. E. Moerman, “Cultural Variations in the Placebo Effect: Ulcers, Anxiety, and Blood Pressure,”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 14 (2000): 25–26. See also D. D. Price, S. W. Harkins, and C. Baker, “Sensory-Affective Relationships Among Different Types of Clinical and Experimental Pain,”
Pain 28 (1987): 297–307; A. M. Kleinman, “Medicine’s Symbolic Reality,”
Inquiry 16 (1985): 206–13.
63. See Bok, “The Ethics of Giving Placebos”; Beauchamp and Childress,
Principles of Biomedical Ethics; S. J. Reiser, “Words as Scalpels: Transmitting Evidence in the Clinical Dialogue,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 92 (1980): 837–42; B. Simmons, “Problems in Deceptive Medical Procedures: An Ethical and Legal Analysis of the Administration of Placebos,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 4 (1978): 172–81; Robert M. Veatch,
A Theory of Medical Ethics (New York: Basic Books, 1981).
64. See, for example, Talcott Parsons,
The Social System (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951); F. W. Peabody, “The Care of the Patient,”
JAMA 88 (1927): 877–82; D. Mechanic, “Changing Medical Organization and the Erosion of Trust,”
Milbank Quarterly 74 (1996): 171–89; Edmund D. Pellegrino, Robert M. Veatch, and John P. Langan,
Ethics, Trust, and the Professions: Philosophical and Cultural Aspects (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1991).
65. M. A. Hall, “Law, Medicine, and Trust,”
Stanford Law Review 55 (2002): 470–71, 481–82. See also Hall et al., “Trust in Physicians and Medical Institutions,” 613–39; Bass et al., “The Physician’s Actions and the Outcome of Illness in Family Practice,” 43–47; Brody, “The Symbolic Power of the Modern Personal Physician,” 149–61; A. M. Kleinman, “Medicine’s Symbolic Reality,”
Inquiry 16 (1985): 206–13. See also Tom F. Driver,
The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites That Transform Our Lives and Our Communities (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991).
66. Z. Di Blasi et al., “The Influence of Context Effects on Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review,”
Lancet 357 (2001): 757–62; J. Z. Smith, “The Bare Facts on Ritual,”
History of Religions 20 (1980): 112–27,
http://www.doloreskrieger.com/, accessed July 7, 2011.
67. I. D. Coulter et al., “Patients Using Chiropractors in North America: Who Are They and Why Are They in Chiropractic Care?”
Spine 27 (2002): 291–97; I. D. Coulter, R. D. Hayes, and C. D. Danielson, “The Chiropractic Satisfaction Questionnaire,”
Topics in Clinical Chiropractic 1 (1994): 40–43; C. Goertz et al., “The Chiropractic Report Card: Patient Satisfaction Study,”
Journal of the American Chiropractic Association 34 (1997): 40–47.
68. T. Kaptchuk, “The Placebo Effect in Alternative Medicine: Can the Performance of a Healing Ritual Have Clinical Significance?”
Annals of Internal Medicine 136 (2002): 817–25; W. Brown, “The Placebo Effect,”
Scientific American 278 (1998): 90–95.
69. R. A. Cooper and H. J. McKee, “Chiropractic in the United States: Trends and Issues,”
Milbank Quarterly 81 (2003): 114. See also J. A. Astin, “Why Patients Use Alternative Medicine: Results of a National Study,”
JAMA 279 (1998): 1548–53; P. G. Shekelle, M. Markovich, and R. Louie, “An Epidemiologic Study of Episodes of Back Pain Care,”
Spine 20 (1995): 1668–73; P. G. Shekelle, M. Markovich, and R. Louie, “Factors Associated with Choosing a Chiropractor for Episodes of Back Pain Care,”
Medical Care 33 (1995): 842–50.
70. Shapiro, “A Historic and Heuristic Definition of the Placebo”; Melmon, Morrelli, and Bourne, “Rational Useof Placebo,” 1052–62; Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,” 1602–6.
71. M. J. DiNubile, “Skepticism: A Lost Clinical Art,”
Clinical Infectious Diseases 32 (2000): 514.
72. H. Walach and W. B. Jonas, “Placebo Research: The Evidence Base for Harnessing Self-Healing Capacities,”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 10 (2004): S108.
73. T. Kaptchuk, “Subjectivity and the Placebo Effect in Medicine: An Interview by Bonnie Horrigan,”
Alternative Therapies 7 (2001): 102; see also Ted J. Kaptchuk,
The Web That Has No Weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine (Chicago: Contemporary Press, 2000).
74. Frank,
Persuasion and Healing, 24–35.
75. Hrøbjartsson and Gøtzsche, “Is the Placebo Powerless?” 1594–602.
76. E. Ernst and K. L. Resch, “Concept of True and Perceived Placebo Effects,”
British Medical Journal 311 (1995): 551–53; see also Bausell,
Snake Oil Science, 95–97.
77. P. C. Gøtzsche, “Concept of Placebo Should Be Discarded,”
British Medical Journal 311 (1995): 1640.
78. R. M. Coe, “The Magic of Science and the Science of Magic: An Essay on the Process of Healing,”
Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38 (1997): 1–8.
79. D. E. Moerman, “General Medical Effectiveness and Human Biology: Placebo Effects in the Treatment of Ulcer Disease,”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 14 (1983): 3, 13. See also Hahn and Kleinman, “Belief as Pathogen, Belief as Medicine,” 3, 16–19; H. Brody, “Does Disease Have a Natural History?”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 14 (1983): 20; Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,” 1102–7.
80. Brody, “Does Disease Have a Natural History?” 20; Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,” 1102–7.
81. H. Brody, “On Placebos,”
Hastings Center Report 5 (1975): 17–18.
82. Brody, “The Doctor as Therapeutic Agent,” 78.
83. Shapiro, “A Historic and Heuristic Definition of the Placebo”; Beecher, “The Powerful Placebo,” 1602–6; Andrew Weil,
The Natural Mind: A Revolutionary Approach to the Drug Problem (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1972).
84. M. Meldrum, “Review,”
Isis 90 (1999): 353.
85. Oh, “The Placebo Effect,” 69–70.
86. H. Benson and R. Friedman, “Harnessing the Power of the Placebo Effect and Renaming It ‘Remembered Wellness,’”
Annual Review of Medicine 47 (1996): 193–99; H. Benson and D. P. McCallie Jr., “Angina Pectoris and the Placebo Effect,”
New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 1424–29; UK Gabapentin Study Group, “Gabapentin in Partial Epilepsy,”
Lancet 335 (1990): 1114–17; S. M. Downer et al., “Pursuit and Practice of Complementary Therapies by Cancer Patients Receiving Conventional Treatment,”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 86–89.
87. P. Bennett, “Placebo and Healing,” in Joseph E. Pizzorno and Michael T. Murray, eds.,
Textbook of Natural Medicine, 2 vols. (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1999), 1:51–71.
88. A. Harrington, “Introduction,” in Harrington, ed.,
The Placebo Effect, 1–2.
89. A. Harrington, “The Placebo Effect and Alternative Medicine: Reimagining the Relationship,” in Michael I. Weintraub and Marc S. Micozzi, eds.,
Alternative and Complementary Treatment in Neurologic Illness (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2001), 152–54. See also Moerman, “General Medical Effectiveness and Human Biology,” 14–16; R. Bennett, “The Power of Placebos: Shaking Off Their Image as ‘Inert Substances,’ Placebos Are Finding New Respect,”
http://oregonlive.com/news/99/07/st072820.html, accessed April 22, 2011.
90. Harrington, “The Placebo Effect and Alternative Medicine,” 154.
91. Kaptchuk, “Subjectivity and the Placebo Effect in Medicine,” 106.
92. Howard Spiro,
The Power of Hope: A Doctor’s Perspective (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 18; Moerman, “Cultural Variations in the Placebo Effect,” 51–72.
4. POLITICS OF HEALING
1. “OAM Legislative History,” in
Seventh Meeting of the Alternative Medicine Program Advisory Council, Office of Alternative Medicine, National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, MD: Office of Alternative Medicine, 1996), 41. See also J. Warren Salmon, ed.,
Alternative Medicine: Popular and Policy Perspectives (New York: Tavistock, 1984).
2. G. Kolata, “In Quests Outside Mainstream, Medical Projects Rewrite Policy,”
New York Times, June 18, 1996.
3. D. Brown, “A New Look at Alternative Therapies,”
Washington Post, June 23, 1992; E. Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine,”
Science 265 (1994): 2000–2002; S. Budiansky, “Cures or Quackery?”
U.S. News & World Report, July 17, 1995, 48–51; F. Wiewel, “Alternative Medicine Warrants Study,”
Des Moines Register, December 21, 1994.
4. Quoted in Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine,” 2000.
5. J. H. Young, “The Development of the Office of Alternative Medicine in the National Institutes of Health, 1991–1996,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 72 (1998): 279–98.
6. Quoted in Budiansky, “Cures or Quackery?” 50. See also Workshop on Alternative Medicine,
Alternative Medicine: Expanding Medical Horizons—
a Report to the National Institutes of Health on Alternative Medical Systems and Practices in the United States (Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, 1995).
7. D. McLellan, “Medicine Man,”
Washingtonian, May 1993: 46–47, 124–25; C. Wallis, J. M. Horowitz, and E. Lafferty, “Why New Age Medicine Is Catching On,”
Time, November 4, 1991, 46–57.
8. J. Price, “Alternative-Medicine Unit Told to Get Busy,”
Washington Times, June 25, 1993.
9. Quoted in Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine,” 2000–2001.
11. J. E. Pizzorno, “Naturopathic Medicine—a Ten-Year Perspective (from a 35-Year View),”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 24–26.
12. H. A. Baer, “The Sociopolitical Status of U.S. Naturopathy at the Dawn of the 21st Century,”
Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15 (2001): 330–31, 339. See also Andrew Weil,
Health and Healing: Understanding Conventional and Alternative Medicine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983), 138; J. Jagtenberg et al., “Evidence-Based Medicine and Naturopathy,”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 12 (2006): 323–28; P. McKnight, “Naturopathy’s Main Article of Faith Cannot Be Validated,”
http://vancouversun.com/story_print.html, accessed September 9, 2011.
13. N. Angier, “U.S. Head of Alternative Medicine Quits,”
New York Times, August 1, 1994.
14. K. A. Gazella and S. Snyder, “Wayne B. Jonas, M.D.: Supporting the Scientific Foundation of Integrative Medicine,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 69–74.
15. Wayne Jonas and Jennifer Jacobs,
Healing with Homeopathy: The Complete Guide (New York: Warner, 1996) and
Healing with Homeopathy: The Doctor’s Guide (New York: Warner, 1998).
16. Young, “The Development of the Office of Alternative Medicine in the National Institutes of Health,,” 291–92.
17. W. B. Jonas, “Policy, the Public, and Priorities in Alternative Medicine Research,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 583 (2002): 37–38; see also Daniel Callahan, ed.,
The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Accommodating Pluralism (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2002).
18. Jonas, “Policy, the Public, and Priorities in Alternative Medicine Research,” 33.
19. Gazella and Snyder, “Wayne B. Jonas, M.D.,” 69–74.
20. See Harris L. Coulter,
The Controlled Clinical Trial: An Analysis (Washington, DC: Center for Empirical Medicine, 1991).
21. W. B. Jonas, “Alternative Medicine—Learning from the Past, Examining the Present, Advancing to the Future,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1617. See also Hastings Center,
The Goals of Medicine: Setting New Priorities (New York: Hastings Center, 1996).
22. J. S. Levin et al., “Quantitative Methods in Research on Complementary and Alternative Medicine: A Methodological Manifesto,”
Medical Care 35 (1997): 1079–81. Larry Dossey, the editor of
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, used the journal’s inaugural issue to encourage a reexamination of how alternative therapies should and ought to be studied. See L. Dossey, “How Should Alternative Therapies Be Evaluated? An Examination of Fundamentals,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 1 (1995): 13–14.
23. Levin et al., “Quantitative Methods in Research on Complementary and Alternative Medicine,” 1083–84.
24. Read George T. Lewith and David Aldridge, eds.,
Clinical Research Methodology for Complementary Therapies (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993).
25. D. M. Eisenberg et al., “Unconventional Medicine in the United States: Prevalence, Costs, and Patterns of Use,”
New England Journal of Medicine 328 (1993): 246–52.
26. Levin et al., “Quantitative Methods in Research on Complementary and Alternative Medicine,” 1082–84.
27. Practice and Policy Guidelines Panel, NIH Office of Alternative Medicine, “Clinical Practice Guidelines in Complementary and Alternative Medicine: An Analysis of Opportunities and Obstacles,”
Archives of Family Medicine 6 (1997): 149–54.
28. Levin et al., “Quantitative Methods in Research on Complementary and Alternative Medicine,” 1086–92.
33. F. M. Frohock, “Moving Lines and Variable Criteria: Differences/Connections Between Allopathic and Alternative Medicine,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 583 (2002): 227.
34. P. B. Fontanarosa and G. D. Lundberg, “Alternative Medicine Meets Science,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1619.
35. M. Angell and J. P. Kassirer, “Alternative Medicine—the Risks of Untested and Unregulated Remedies,”
New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998): 839.
37. NCCAM, “Five Year Strategic Plan,”
http://nccam.nih.gov/about/plans/fiveyear/, accessed April 28, 2011. See also W. R. Harlan, “New Opportunities and Proven Approaches in Complementary and Alternative Medicine Research at the National Institutes of Health,”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 7 (2001): 53–59; S. E. Straus, “Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Challenges and Opportunities for American Medicine,”
Academic Medicine 75 (2000): 572–73.
38. Jonas, “Policy, the Public, and Priorities in Alternative Medicine Research,” 34–35.
39. Quoted in J. Couzin, “Beefed-Up NIH Center Probes Unconventional Therapies,”
Science 282 (1998): 2175–76.
40. H. Varmus, “Proliferation of National Institutes of Health,”
Science 291 (2001): 1903–4.
41. E. Stokstad, “Stephen Straus’s Impossible Job,”
Science 288 (2000): 1568. See also K. C. Atwood, “The Ongoing Problem with the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
Skeptical Inquirer 27 (2003): 3–11.
42. Stokstad, “Stephen Straus’s Impossible Job,” 1568.
43. S. Maimes, “Spirituality and Healing in Medicine,”
Healthcare Review 15 (2002): 7; D. Bessinger and T. Kuhne, “Medical Spirituality: Defining Domains and Boundaries,”
Southern Medical Journal 95 (2002): 1385–426; T. Daaleman, A. K. Cobb, and B. Frey, “Spirituality and Well Being: An Exploratory Study of the Patient Perspective,”
Social Science and Medicine 53 (2001): 1503–11; D. B. Larson and S. B. Larson, “Spirituality’s Potential Relevance to Physical and Emotional Health: A Brief Review of Quantitative Research,”
Journal of Psychology and Theology 31 (2003): 37–52. The Gonzalez Protocol, named after Nicholas James Gonzalez of New York City, was based on the assumption that cancer and other degenerative diseases are caused by toxins and physiological imbalances. Gonzalez offered individualized nutritional/enzyme protocols as treatment.
44. Stokstad, “Stephen Straus’s Impossible Job,” 1570.
45. Ibid., 1569; “Two Dietary Supplements Supported by Study,”
New York Times, March 15, 2000.
46. Couzin, “Beefed-Up NIH Center Probes Unconventional Therapies,” 2175–76; J. Raloff, “A Fishy Therapy,”
Science News 167 (2005): 154–56; P. Falardeau et al., “Neovastat, a Naturally Occurring Multifunctional Antiangiogenic Drug, in Phase III Clinical Trials,”
Seminars in Oncology 28 (2001): 620–25; D. J. Newman and G. M. Cragg, “Advanced Pre-clinical and Clinical Trials of Natural Products and Related Compounds from Marine Sources,”
Current Medicinal Chemistry 11 (2004): 1693–713; C. L. Loprinzi et al., “Evaluation of Shark Cartilage in Patients with Advanced Cancer: A North Central Cancer Treatment Group Trial,”
Cancer 104 (2005): 176–82; National Cancer Institute, NIH, “Cartilage (Bovine and Shark),”
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/cartilage/Healthprofes, accessed September 13, 2012.
47. E. Ernst, “Chelation Therapy for Coronary Heart Disease,”
American Heart Journal 140 (2000): 139–41; M. L. Knudtson et al., “Chelation Therapy for Ischemic Heart Disease,”
JAMA 287 (2002): 481–86,
http://clinicaltrials.gov, accessed June 17, 2011; for links to sites on questionable cancer treatments, go to
http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/kg.html, accessed June 17, 2011.
48. J. S. Markowitz et al., “Effect of St. John’s Wort on Drug Metabolism by Induction of Cytochrome P450 3A4 Enzyme,”
JAMA 290 (2003): 1500–1504; R. B. Turner et al., “An Evaluation of
Echinacea anguistifolia in Experimental Rhinovirus Infections,”
New England Journal of Medicine 353 (2005): 341–48; S. Bent et al., “Saw Palmetto for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia,”
New England Journal of Medicine 354 (2006): 1950–51.
49. Quoted in D. A. Taylor, “Botanical Supplements: Weeding Out the Health Risks,”
Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (2004): 753.
50. G. Kolata, “Study Says Echinacea Has No Effect on Colds,”
New York Times, July 28, 2005.
51. V. Adams, “Randomized Controlled Crime: Postcolonial Sciences in Alternative Medicine Research,”
Social Studies of Science 32 (2002): 670.
54. D. M. Marcus and A. P. Grollman, “Response,”
Science 314 (2006): 1084.
55. J. S. Gordon, “The Chairman’s Vision,” in White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002, x.
57. “Introduction,” in White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002, 5–6. See also M. Angell and J. P. Kassirer, “Alternative Medicine—the Risks of Untested and Unregulated Remedies,”
New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998): 839–41.
58. “Executive Summary,” in White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002, xvi,
http://www.whccamp.hhs.gov/es.html, accessed April 5, 2011.
59. Tracy Deliman and John H. Smolowe,
Holistic Medicine: Harmony of Body, Mind, Spirit (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982); Barbara Montgomery Dossey,
Holistic Health Promotion: A Guide for Practice (Rockville, MD: Aspen, 1989); Robert Fuller,
Alternative Medicine and American Religious Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); M. Goldstein et al., “Holistic Physicians and Family Practitioners: Similarities, Differences, and Implications for Health Policy,”
Social Science and Medicine 26 (1988): 853–61; Daniel Goldman and Joel Gurin,
Mind Body Medicine: How to Use Your Mind for Better Health (New York: Consumer’s Union, 1993).
60. “Executive Summary,” xvi.
61. A. Williams, “Therapeutic Landscapes in Holistic Medicine,”
Social Science and Medicine 46 (1998): 1193–203.
62. Gordon, “The Chairman’s Vision,” xiii.
64. N. R. Slifman et al., “Contamination of Dietary Supplements by Digitalis Ianata,”
New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998): 806–11; R. J. Ko, “Adulterants in Asian Patent Medicines,”
New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998): 847.
65. “Executive Summary,” xxiv.
67. “Coordination of Research,” 47.
68. “Education and Training of Health Care Practitioners,” in White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy,
Final Report, March 2002, 52. See also D. M. Marcus, “How Should Alternative Medicine Be Taught to Medical Students and Physicians?”
Academic Medicine 76 (2001): 224–29; W. Sampson, “The Need for Educational Reform in Teaching About Alternative Therapies,”
Academic Medicine 76 (2001): 248–50; T. W. Gaudet, “Integrative Medicine: The Evolution of a New Approach to Medicine and Medical Education,”
Integrative Medicine 1 (1998): 30–33.
69. L. A. Moyé et al., “Research Methodology in Psychoneuroimmunology: Rationale and Design of the IMAGES-P Clinical Trial,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 1 (1995): 34; C. Marwick, “Complementary, Alternative Therapies Should Face Rigorous Testing, IOM Concludes,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute 97 (2005): 255–56; D. Riley and B. Berman, “Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Outcomes Research,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 8 (2002): 36–37; N. Vuckovic, “Integrating Qualitative Methods in Randomized Controlled Trials: The Experience of the Oregon Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (2002): 225–27; E. Ernst, “Intangible Principles of Good Research in Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 8 (2002): 22; C. J. Schneider and W. B. Jonas, “Are Alternative Treatments Effective? Issues and Methods Involved in Measuring Effectiveness of Alternative Treatments,”
Subtle Energies 5 (1994): 69; E. Marshall, “The Politics of Alternative Medicine,”
Science 265 (1994): 2000; J. Steinberg, “Alternative-Medicine Office: A Time to Heal,”
Journal of NIH Research 7 (1995): 34.
70. Quoted in Dónal P. O’Manthúna,
Alternative Medicine: A Response to the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy (Washington, DC: Christian Medical Association, 2002), 8.
71. Ibid., 4, quoting the report.
72. K. F. Schaffner, “Assessments on Efficacy in Biomedicine: The Turn Toward Methodological Pluralism,” in Callahan, ed.,
The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 1–14.
73. F. M. Frohock, “Moving Lines and Variable Criteria: Differences/Connections Between Allopathic and Alternative Medicine,”
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 583 (2002): 221–23.
74. Callahan, ed.,
The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
75. Marc S. Micozzi,
Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996).
76. The committee members included Stuart Bondurant, Joyce Anastasi, Brian Berman, Margaret Buhrmaster, Gerard Burrow, Michele Chang, Larry Churchill, Florence Comite, Jeanne Drisko, David Eisenberg, Alfred Fishman, Susan Folkman, Albert Mulley, David Nerenz, Mark Nichter, Bernard Rosof, Harold Sox, Ellen Gritz, and Michael Cohen.
77. Institute of Medicine (IOM),
Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005), 31.
78. D. M. Eisenberg, “The Institute of Medicine Report on Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States—Personal Reflections on Its Content and Implications,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 11 (2005): 11.
79. IOM,
Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States, 66–67, as summarized in ibid., 12.
80. Eisenberg, “The Institute of Medicine Report on Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States,” 12; IOM,
Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States, 62, 221.
82. W. Sampson, “Why the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) Should Be Defunded,”
http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/nccam.html, accessed September 27, 2013; E. C. Halperin, “Let’s Abolish the Office of Alternative Medicine of the National Institutes of Health,”
North Carolina Medical Journal 59 (1998): 21–23.
83. G. Weissmann, “Homeopathy: Holmes, Hogwarts, and the Prince of Wales,”
Journal of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 20 (2006): 1757.
84. D. M. Marcus and A. P. Grollman, “Review for NCCAM Is Overdue,”
Science 313 (2006): 301–2.
86. T. Winnick, “From Quackery to ‘Complementary’ Medicine: The American Medical Profession Confronts Alternative Therapies,”
Social Problems 52 (2005): 44.
5. COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE’S CHALLENGE: A CASE STUDY
1. See Paul A. Komesaroff,
Troubled Bodies: Critical Perspectives on Postmodernism, Medical Ethics, and the Body (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995); Ronald A. Carson and Chester R. Burns, eds.,
Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics: A Twenty-Year Retrospective and Critical Appraisal (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer, 1997); Nicholas J. Fox,
Postmodernism, Sociology, and Health (Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1993); Graham Scambler and Paul Higgs, eds.,
Modernity, Medicine, and Health: Medical Sociology Towards 2000 (London: Routledge, 1998).
2. S. Goldbeck-Wood et al., “Complementary Medicine Is Booming Worldwide,”
British Medical Journal 313 (1996): 131–33; N. K. Rasmussen and J. M. Morgall, “The Use of Alternative Treatments in the Danish Adult Population,”
Complementary Medical Research 4 (1990): 16–22; T. Vaskilampi et al., “The Use of Alternative Treatments in the Finnish Adult Population,” in George T. Lewith and David Aldridge, eds.,
Clinical Research Methodology for Complementary Therapies (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993), 204–29; A. H. MacLennan, D. H. Wilson, and A. W. Taylor, “Prevalence and Cost of Alternative Medicine in Australia,”
Lancet 347 (1996): 569–73; W. J. Millar, “Use of Alternative Health Care Practitioners by Canadians,”
Canadian Journal of Public Health 88 (1997): 154–58; P. Fisher and A. Ward, “Complementary Medicine in Europe,”
British Medical Journal 309 (1996): 107–11.
3. Ursula Sharma,
Complementary Medicine Today: Practitioners and Patients (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992), 16–17.
4. Fisher and Ward, “Complementary Medicine in Europe,” 107–11. See also P. Pietroni, “Beyond the Boundaries: Relationship Between General Practice and Complementary Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 305 (1992): 564–66; George T. Lewith and David Aldridge, eds.,
Complementary Medicine and the European Community (Saffron Walden, UK: Daniel, 1991).
5. Sharma,
Complementary Medicine Today, 16–17
6. Goldbeck-Wood et al., “Complementary Medicine Is Booming Worldwide,” 131.
7. Read Kate Thomas,
National Survey of Access to Complementary Health Care Via General Practice (Sheffield, UK: Medical Care Research Unit, Sheffield University, 1995), 5.
8. C. Zollman and A. Vickers, “ABC of Complementary Medicine: Complementary Medicine in Conventional Practice,”
British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 901–4.
9. “Alternative and Complementary Medicine: What’s a Doctor to Do?”
Hastings Center Report 30 (2000): 47–48.
10. A. Vickers and C. Zollman, “ABC of Complementary Medicine: Homeopathy,”
British Medical Journal 319 (1999): 1115–18.
11. S. Hahnemann, “Essay on a New Principle for Ascertaining the Curative Powers of Drugs, with a Few Glances at Those Hitherto Employed,” in
The Lesser Writings of Samuel Hahnemann, trans. Robert E. Dudgeon (New York: Radde, 1852), 259–61. See also Samuel Hahnemann,
Organon of Homeopathic Medicine (Allentown, PA: Academical Bookstore, 1836), and
The Chronic Diseases: Their Specific Nature and Homeopathic Treatment, 5 vols. (New York: Radde, 1845–1846); Thomas Lindsay Bradford,
The Life and Letters of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (Philadelphia: Boericke and Tafel, 1895); Benjamin F. Joslin,
Principles of Homeopathy. In a Series of Lectures (New York: Radde, 1850); John S. Haller Jr.,
The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 1820–1835 (New York: Haworth Press, 2005).
12. J. S. Haller Jr., “Decline of Bloodletting: A Study in Nineteenth Century Ratiocinations,”
Southern Medical Journal 79 (1986): 469–75; J. S. Haller Jr., “Samson of the Materia Medica: Medical Theory and the Use and Abuse of Calomel in 19th Century America,”
Pharmacy in History 13 (1971): 27–34, 67–76; J. S. Haller Jr., “The Use and Abuse of Tartar Emetic in the 19th Century Materia Medica,”
Bulletin of the History of Medicine 49 (1975): 235–57.
13. H. M. Smith, “Present Position of Medical Science,”
American Homeopathic Review 1 (1858): 2–4.
14. N. Rogers, “American Homeopathy Confronts Scientific Medicine,” in Robert Jütte, Guenter B. Risse, and John Woodward, eds.,
Culture, Knowledge, and Healing: Historical Perspectives of Homeopathic Medicine in Europe and North America (Sheffield, UK: European Association for the History of Medicine and Health Publications, 1998), 31.
15. Haller,
The History of American Homeopathy: The Academic Years, 70–89.
16. W. A. Dewey, “Propagantism of Homeopathy in Universities,”
Transactions of the American Institute of Homeopathy 1905:118–26; J. B. Nichols, “Medical Sectarianism,”
JAMA 60 (1913): 331–37.
17. John S. Haller Jr.,
The History of American Homeopathy: From Rational Medicine to Holistic Health Care (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 63–85; D. M. Eisenberg et al., “Trends in Alternative Medicine Use in the United States, 1990–1997: Results of a Follow-up National Survey,”
JAMA 280 (1998): 1569–75.
18. Haller,
The History of American Homeopathy: From Rational Medicine to Holistic Health Care, 141–51.
19. Read Eliot Freidson,
Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Gerald Larkin,
Occupational Monopoly and Modern Medicine (London: Tavistock, 1983); Phillip Nicholls,
Homeopathy and the Medical Profession (London: Croom Helm, 1988).
20. The new American College of Homeopathy opened in Phoenix, Arizona, in February 2011, the first homeopathic college to be established in the United States since 1920. Its success remains to be seen.
21. D. Ullman, “Homeopathy and Managed Care: Manageable or Unmanageable?”
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 5 (1999): 63–73; R. Frank, “Integrating Homeopathy and Biomedicine: Medical Practice and Knowledge Production Among German Homeopathic Physicians,”
Sociology of Health and Illness 24 (2002): 815.
22. J. Ruusuvuori, “Empathy and Sympathy in Action: Attending to Patients’ Troubles in Finish Homeopathic and General Practice Consultation,”
Social Psychology Quarterly 68 (2005): 204–22; W. A. Beach and C. N. Dixson, “Revealing Moments: Formulating Understandings of Adverse Experiences in a Health Appraisal Interview,”
Social Science and Medicine 52 (2001): 25–44; W. T. Branch and T. K. Malik, “Using ‘Windows of Opportunities’ in Brief Interviews to Understand Patients’ Concerns,”
JAMA 269 (1993): 1667–68; J. Coulter, “Discourse and Mind,”
Human Studies 22 (1999): 163–81; J. Halpern, “Empathy: Using Resonance Emotions in the Service of Curiosity,” in Howard M. Spiro et al., eds.,
Empathy and the Practice of Medicine: Beyond Pills and the Scalpel (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 160–73.
23. M. Van Wassenhoven and G. Ives, “An Observational Study of Patients Receiving Homeopathic Treatment,”
Homeopathy 93 (2004): 3–11; T. D. Thompson and M. Weiss, “Homeopathy—What Are the Active Ingredients? An Exploratory Study Using the UK Medical Research Council’s Framework for the Evaluation of Complex Interventions,”
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 (2006): 37.
24. “How to Use High Potencies,”
Homeopathic Physician 2 (1882): 73; W. B. Jonas and E. Ernst, “The Safety of Homeopathy,” in Wayne B. Jonas, Jeffrey S. Levin, and Brian Berman, eds.,
The Essentials of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999), 167–71.
25. In addition to homeopathy, there is also what Dr. Roy Martina of Holland calls “resonance homeopathy,” whose medicines are “amplified” by ingredients known to have “energetic signatures.” See the ad for Apex Energetics and Resonance Homeopathy at
http://www.ritecare.com/members/apexenergetics.asp, accessed August 1, 2011. Generally speaking, the term
“low” potencies refers to remedies lower than Avogadro’s number (as explained later in this chapter), whereas
“high” potencies refers to those higher than it.
26. See K. C. Elliott, “A Novel Account of Scientific Anomaly: Help for the Dispute Over Low-Dose Biochemical Effects,”
Philosophy of Science 73 (2006): 790–802.
27. S. Hahnemann, “Remarks on the Extreme Attenuation of Homeopathic Medicines,” in
The Lesser Writings of Samuel Hahnemann, 765.
28. James Y. Simpson,
Homeopathy: Its Tenets and Tendencies, Theoretical, Theological, and Therapeutical (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1854), 68–69.
30. Hahnemann,
Organon of Homeopathic Medicine, 210–11; M. Dinges, “Men’s Bodies ‘Explained’ on a Daily Basis in Letters from Patients to Samuel Hahnemann (1830–35),” in
Patients in the History of Homeopathy (Sheffield, UK: European Association for the History of Medicine and Health, 2002), 85–118. This theory was eventually replaced with that of
comminution, which was built on a less spiritual basis, arguing that grinding or mixing a grain of medicine increased its surface with every fracture and thus increased its distribution through the organism.
31. James Garth Wilkinson,
Swedenborg Among the Doctors: A Letter to Robert T. Cooper, M.D. (London: Speirs, 1895), 3, 5, 9–10, 18–19, and
Epidemic Man and His Visitations (London: Speirs, 1893), 32–33, 48, 53, 120–21.
32. See James Tyler Kent,
Lectures on Homeopathic Philosophy (Chicago: Ehrhart and Karl, 1919), and
Kent’s Minor Writings on Homeopathy (Heidelberg, Germany: Haug, 1987).
33. James Tyler Kent,
The Art and Science of Homeopathic Medicine (1900; reprint, New York: Dover, 2002), 133, 127; F. Treuherz, “The Origins of Kent’s Philosophy,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 77 (1983): 130–49.
34. J. S. Haller Jr., “Oliver Wendell Holmes’s 1842 Lectures on ‘Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions’: A Retrospective Look,” in Scott H. Podolsky and Charles S. Bryan, eds.,
Oliver Wendell Holmes: Physician and Man of Letters (Sagamore Beach, MA: Science History, 2009), 23–38. See also I. G. Rosenstein,
Theory and Practice of Homeopathy First Part, Containing a Theory of Homeopathy, with Dietetic Rules, etc. (Louisville, KY: Henkle and Logan, 1840); B. F. Joslin, “Evidences of the Power of Small Doses of Attenuated Medicines, Including a Theory of Potentization,”
American Journal of Homeopathy 1 (1846–1847): 263–78; “Polemis Among German Homeopathists,”
North American Journal of Homeopathy 7 (1858): 250–52.
35. Dr. Kirn, “Homeopathy and the ‘OD’ Theory,”
Homeopathic Recorder 42 (1927): 529–41. See also Robert Rohland,
Od, or Odo-Magnetic Force: An Explanation of Its Influence on Homeopathic Medicines, from the Odic Point of View (New York: n.p., 1916).
36. G. B. Stearns, “Physics of High Dilutions,”
Homeopathic Recorder 46 (1931): 400; Albert Abrams,
New Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment (San Francisco: Philopolis Press, 1916).
37. Henry C. Allen,
Materia Medica of the Nosodes and Provings of the X-Ray (Philadelphia: Boericke and Tafel, 1910); F. K. Bellokossy, “X-Ray Potencies,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 40 (1947): 160–62; F. Anaya-Reyes, “X-Ray and Its Application According to Homeopathy and the Law of Arndt-Schulz,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 58 (1965): 24–25.
38. J. K. Kaplowe, “Science and Homeopathy,”
Homeopathic Recorder 50 (1935): 129–31. See also Herbert A. Roberts,
The Principles and Art of Cure by Homeopathy (Halsworthy, UK: Health Science Press, 1942).
39. “Homeopathy and the Atomic Bomb,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 39 (1946): 19–20; W. P. Mowry, “The Atomic Energy Principles in the Treatment of the Patient,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 39 (1946): 346–48; K. C. Hiteshi, “Atomic Bomb and Homeopathy,”
Journal of the American Institute of Homeopathy 39 (1946): 21–22.
40. E. Davenas et al., “Human Basophil Degranulation Triggered by Very Dilute Antiserum Against 1gE,”
Nature 333 (1988): 816–18.
41. J. Maddox, J. Randi, and W. W. Stewart, “High Dilution Experiments a Delusion,”
Nature 334 (1988): 287–91.
42. R. Pool, “More Squabbling Over Unbelievable Result,”
Science 241 (1988): 658.
43. P. Fisher et al., “Effect of Homeopathic Treatment on Fibrositis (Primary Fibromyalgia),”
British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 365–66; see also P. D. Wall, “Complementary Medicine,”
British Medical Journal 299 (1989): 1401.
44. T. A. Hoover, “Homeopathy: Setting the Record Straight,”
Alternative Therapies 16 (2010): 9.
45. Fritjof Capra,
The Tao of Physics (New York: Bantam, 1977), 211.
46. George Vithoulkas,
The Science of Homeopathy (New York: Grove Press, 1980), 68–69. See also Stanley Krippner and Daniel Rubin,
The Kirlian Aura (New York: Doubleday, 1974).
47. Vithoulkas,
The Science of Homeopathy, 81, 85, 90–91.
48. Harold Saxton Burr,
The Fields of Life: Our Links with the Universe (New York: Ballantine, 1972).
49. D. Feinstein and D. Eden, “Six Pillars of Energy Medicine: Clinical Strengths of a Complementary Paradigm,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 14 (2008): 44–54.
50. Frank, “Integrating Homeopathy and Biomedicine,” 810.
51. H. Wallach, “Does a Highly Diluted Homeopathic Drug Act as a Placebo in Healthy Volunteers? Experimental Study of Belladonna 30C in a Double Blind Crossover Design—a Pilot Study,”
Journal of Psychosomatic Research 37 (1993): 851–60. Avogadro’s number corresponds in dilution to a 24X, which is roughly equivalent to a 12C or between a 5M or 6M.
52. R. Buckman and G. Lewith, “What Does Homeopathy Do—and How?”
British Medical Journal 309 (1994): 103.
54. Ibid., 106. See also B. Brigo and G. Serpelloni, “Homeopathic Treatment of Migraines: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Study of Sixty Cases,”
Berlin Journal of Research in Homeopathy 1 (1991): 98–106; D. T. Reilly et al., “Is Homeopathy a Placebo Response? Controlled Trial of Homeopathic Potency with Pollen and Hayfever as a Model,”
Lancet 2 (1986): 881–86; Fisher et al., “Effect of Homeopathic Treatment on Fibrositis,” 365–66.
55. Buckman and Lewith, “What Does Homeopathy Do—and How?” 104.
56. Ibid., 104–5. As for the three randomized studies, two remained unrepeated, and one was repeated but did not confirm the initial results.
58. See, for example, K. Linde et al., “Impact of Study Quality on Outcome in Placebo-Controlled Trials of Homeopathy,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 52 (1999): 631–36; E. Ernst and J. Barnes, “Meta-analysis of Homeopathy Trials,”
Lancet 351 (1998): 366–68; K. Linde et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects? A Meta-analysis of Placebo-Controlled Trials,”
Lancet 350 (1997): 834–43; E. Ernst, “Homeopathic Prophylaxis of Headaches and Migraine? A Systematic Review,”
Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 18 (1999): 353–57; J. Jacobs et al., “Homeopathy for Childhood Diarrhea: Combined Results and Meta-analysis from Three Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trials,”
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59. J. Kleijnen, P. Knipschild, and G. ter Reit, “Clinical Trials of Homeopathy,”
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60. Homeopathic Medicine Research Group,
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61. J. P. Vandenbrouchke, “Homeopathy Trials: Going Nowhere,”
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62. Linde et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects?” 834–43.
63. See M. A. Taylor et al., “Randomized Controlled Trial of Homeopathy Versus Placebo in Perennial Allergic Rhinitis with Overview of Four Trial Series,”
British Medical Journal 321 (2000): 471–76. Three earlier trials came to a similar conclusion. See also D. T. Reilly and M. A. Taylor, “Potent Placebo or Potency? A Proposed Study Model with Initial Findings Using Homeopathically Prepared Pollens in Hay Fever,”
British Medical Journal 74 (1985): 66–75; D. T. Reilly et al., “Is Homeopathy a Placebo Response? Controlled Trial of Homeopathic Potency, with Pollen in Hayfever as Model,”
Lancet 2 (1986): 881–86; D. T. Reilly et al., “Is Evidence for Homeopathy Reproducible?”
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64. T. Lancaster and A. Vickers, “Commentary: Larger Trials Are Needed,”
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65. G. Feder and T. Katz, “Randomized Controlled Trials for Homeopathy: Who Wants to Know the Results?”
British Medical Journal 324 (2002): 499.
66. G. T. Lewith et al., “Use of Ultramolecular Potencies of Allergen to Treat Asthmatic People Allergic to House Dust Mite: Double Blind Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial,”
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67. M. Dorey, “Study Is in Effect Trying to Compare Apples and Oranges,”
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68. W. B. Jonas, T. J. Kaptchuk, and K. Linde, “A Critical Overview of Homeopathy,”
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69. A. Hrøbjartsson and P. C. Gøtzsche, “Is the Placebo Powerless? An Analysis of Clinical Trials Comparing Placebo with No Treatment,”
New England Journal of Medicine 344 (2001): 1594 (quote); A. Hrøbjartsson and P. C. Gøtzsche, “Is the Placebo Powerless? Update of a Systematic Review with 52 New Randomized Trials Comparing Placebo with No Treatment,”
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70. Quoted in S. Boseley, “As a Fourth Study Says It’s No Better Than a Placebo, Is This the End for Homeopathy?”
Guardian, August 26, 2005. See also “The End of Homeopathy,”
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71. “The End of Homeopathy,” 690.
72. D. Ramey, “Evidence for Homeopathy Is Lacking,”
British Medical Journal 320 (2000): 1341–42. See also Linde et al., “Impact of Study Quality on Outcome in Placebo-Controlled Trials in Homeopathy,” 631–36; Ernst and Barnes, “Meta-analysis of Homeopathy Trials,” 366–68.
74. P. Fisher, “Homeopathy and the
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75. P. Fisher et al., “Evaluation of Specific and Non-specific Effects in Homeopathy: Feasibility Study for a Randomized Trial,”
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76. T. J. Kaptchuk et al., “Components of Placebo Effect: Randomized Controlled Trial in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome,”
British Medical Journal 336 (2008): 998.
77. R. Lüdtke and A. L. Rutten, “The Conclusions of the Effectiveness of Homeopathy Highly Depend on the Set of Analyzed Trials,”
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 61 (2008): 1197–204; A. Shang et al., “Are the Clinical Effects of Homeopathy Placebo Effects? Comparative Study of Placebo-Controlled Trials of Homeopathy and Allopathy,”
Lancet 366 (2005): 726–32.
78. J. Weiner, “Studies Comparing Homeopathy and Placebo Are Useful,”
British Medical Journal 325 (2002): 41; Lewith et al., “Use of Ultramolecular Potencies of Allergen to Treat Asthmatic People Allergic to House Dust Mite,” 520–23; P. Fisher and D. L. Scott, “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Homeopathy in Rheumatoid Arthritis,”
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79. M. Foley, “Providers Have Much to Gain from Homeopathy Being Accepted,”
British Medical Journal 325 (2002): 41.
80. Vandenbrouchke, “Homeopathy Trials,” 824; A. Vickers, “Clinical Trials of Homeopathy and Placebo: Analysis of a Scientific Debate,”
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81. C. A. Vincent and P. H. Richardson, “Placebo Controls for Acupuncture Studies,”
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82. T. J. Kaptchuk et al., “Sham Device Versus Inert Pill: Randomized Controlled Trial of Two Placebo Treatments,”
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83. D. C. Cherkin et al., “Randomized Trial Comparing Traditional Chinese Medical Acupuncture, Therapeutic Massage, and Self-Care Education for Chronic Low Back Pain,”
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Acupuncture Medicine 18 (2000): 104–7; A. D. Woolf and K. Akesson, “Understanding the Burden of Musculoskeletal Conditions,”
British Medical Journal 322 (2001): 1079–80; D. Eskinazi and D. Muchsam, “Factors That Shape Alternative Medicine: The Role of the Alternative Medicine Research Community,”
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 6 (2000): 49–53; C. Vincent and G. Lewith, “Placebo Controls for Acupuncture Studies,”
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84. L. Dossey, “How Should Alternative Therapies Be Evaluated? An Examination of Fundamentals,”
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85. I. Smith, “Commissioning Complementary Medicine,”
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86. J. Bland, “Alternative Therapies—a Moving Target,”
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87. Frank, “Integrating Homeopathy and Biomedicine,” 810.
88. Feder and Katz, “Randomized Controlled Trials for Homeopathy,” 498–99.
89. F. J. Master, “Research in Homeopathy,”
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90. N. Degele, “On the Margins of Everything: Doing, Performing, and Staging Science in Homeopathy,”
Science, Technology, and Human Values 30 (2005): 116; D. Eskinazi, “Homeopathy Re-visited: Is Homeopathy Compatible with Biomedical Observations?”
Archives of Internal Medicine 159 (1991): 1981–87.
91. E. Ernst, “Harmless Herbs?”
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92. David Taylor, “Herbal Medicine at a Crossroads,”
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93. E. Ernst, “The Role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine,”
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1. A. Shang et al., “Are the Clinical Trials of Homeopathy Placebo Effects? Comparative Study of Placebo-Controlled Trials of Homeopathy and Allopathy,”
Lancet 366 (2005): 726–32; J. Ezzo et al., “Is Acupuncture Effective for the Treatment of Chronic Pain? A Systematic Review,”
Pain 86 (2000): 217–25; E. Ernst, “Chiropractic Spinal Manipulation for Neck Pain: A Systematic Review,”
Journal of Pain 4 (2003): 417–21.
2. H. Holman, “Chronic Disease—the Need for a New Clinical Education,”
JAMA 292 (2004): 1057–59.
3. Nina Degele, “On the Margins of Everything: Doing, Performing, and Staging Science in Homeopathy,”
Science, Technology, and Human Values 30 (2005): 116–17.
4. R. L. Nahin and S. E. Straus, “Research Into Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Problems and Potential,”
British Medical Journal 322 (2001): 161–64.
5. D. Bessinger and T. Huhne, “Medical Spirituality: Defining Domains and Boundaries,”
Southern Medical Journal 95 (2002): 1385–426.
6. M. Wills, “Connection, Action, and Hope: An Invitation to Reclaim the ‘Spiritual’ in Health Care,”
Journal of Religion and Health 46 (2007): 433.
7. S. R. Sehon and D. E. Stanley, “A Philosophical Analysis of the Evidence-Based Medicine Debate,”
BMC Health Services Research 3 (2003): 1–10.
8. P. Vineis, “Evidence-Based Medicine and Ethics: A Practical Approach,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 30 (2004): 126–30; R. E. Ashcroft, “Current Epistemological Problems in Evidence Based Medicine,”
Journal of Medical Ethics 30 (2004): 131–35.
9. T. Kaptchuk, “Subjectivity and the Placebo Effect in Medicine: An Interview by Bonnie Horrigan,”
Alternative Therapies 7 (2001): 104.
10. F. G. Miller and T. J. Kaptchuk, “The Power of Context: Reconceptualizing the Placebo Effect,”
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 101 (2008): 223.
11. See R. K. Merton, “Behavior Patterns of Scientists,”
Leonardo 3 (1970): 215–16. See also R. K. Merton, “Science and Technology in a Democratic Order,”
Journal of Legal and Political Sociology 1 (1942): 115–26.
12. Friedrich Nietzsche,
The Birth of Tragedy (New York: Modern Library, 2000), 97.