Notes

Introduction

1 See Carlos Marichal, ‘Una difícil transición fiscal. Del régimen colonial al México independiente, 1750–1850’, in Carlos Marichal and Daniela Marino (compilers), De colonia a nación: Impuestos y política en México, 1750–1850 (Mexico City, 2001), pp. 19–58.

2 Silvestre Villegas Revueltas, Deuda y diplomacia. La relación México-Gran Bretaña, 1824–1884 (Mexico City, 2005), p. 63, ‘Los años de 1845 a 1848 constituyeron el nadir del siglo XIX mexicano’. Guy P. C. Thomson and David G. La France, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth Century Mexico: Juan Francisco Lucas and the Puebla Sierra (Wilmington DE, 1999), p. 43, ‘By the early 1850s, relieved of one half of its territory in the war with the United States and beset by seemingly unresolvable problems and ideological divisions, Mexico had reached the brink of national disintegration’.

3 See, for instance, José Carlos Chiaramonte, ‘The “Ancient Constitution” after Independence (1808–1852)’, HAHR, 90/3 (2010), 455–89.

4 John D. Eisenhower, So Far from God: The US War with Mexico, 1846– 1848 (New York, 1989). Andrés Reséndez, Changing National Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800–1850 (Cambridge, 2005). Peter Guardino, The Dead March: A History of the Mexican American War (Cambridge MA, 2017).

5 Donathan C. Oliff, Reform Mexico and the United States: A Search for Alternatives to Annexation, 1854–1861 (Tuscaloosa AL, 1981).

6 Fausta Gantús and Alicia Salmerón, ‘Introduction’, in Fausta Gantús (coordinator), Elecciones en el México del siglo XIX: Las prácticas (Mexico City, 2016), 2 vols, 1, pp. 15, 26, 36–7.

7 Benito Juárez, Exposición al soberano congreso (Oaxaca, 2 July 1848).

8 Juan Ortiz Escamilla and José Antonio Serrano Ortega (eds), ‘Introducción’, in Ayuntamientos y liberalismo gaditano en México (Zamora and Xalapa, 2007), pp. 13–15.

9 Regina Tapia, ‘La práctica y la palabra. Experiencias electorales e innovación legal en 1857’, in Gantús, Elecciones en México, II, pp. 9–28, see pp. 11, 15–18.

10 Peter F. Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico’s National State: Guerrero, 1800–1857 (Stanford, 1996), pp. 108, 162–4, 168–77, 200.

11 Charles A. Hale, Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853 (New Haven and London, 1968), pp. 95–8, 103–7, 112–25.

12 Richard J. Salvucci, Linda K. Salvucci and Aslán Cohen, ‘The Politics of Protection: Interpreting Commercial Policy in Late Bourbon and Early National Mexico’, in Kenneth J. Andrien and Lyman L. Johnson (eds), The Political Economy of Spanish America in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850 (Albuquerque NM, 1994), pp. 95–114: see p. 96.

13 Michael P. Costeloe, The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835–1846: ‘Hombres de Bien’ in the Age of Santa Anna (Cambridge, 1993). Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, Dos décadas de desilusiones: En busca de una fórmula adecuada de gobierno (1832–1854) (Mexico City, 2009). Will Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico (Lincoln NE and London, 2007).

14 Cecilia Noriega Elío, El Constituyente de 1842 (Mexico City, 1986).

15 Michael P. Costeloe, La primera república federal de México (1824–1835) (Mexico City, 1975), 286–93. Anne Staples, La Iglesia en la primera república federal mexicana,1824–1835 (Mexico City, 1976), 23–5. Pablo Mijangos y González, The Lawyer of the Church: Bishop Clemente de Jesús Munguía and the Clerical Response to the Mexican Liberal Reforma (Lincoln NE and London, 2015).

16 Lucas Alamán, Documentos Diversos (DD), 3 vols (Mexico City, 1945), II, Memoria sobre el Estado de la Agricultura e Industria de la República, pp. 7–128: no. 2, 116–7, Estado General que representa el importe de las Rentas Decimales en todas las diócesis de la República en el quinquenio anterior a la Guerra de la Independencia y el que precedió a la abolición de la coacción civil, Lucas Alamán, Dirección General de Industria, Mexico City 15 December 1843.

17 Costeloe, La primera república, pp. 86–93. Staples, La Iglesia, pp. 20–1, 74–85.

18 Pablo Mijangos y González, Entre Dios y la República: La separación Iglesia-Estado en México, siglo XIX (Mexico, City 2024), pp. 260–1. A further diocese was established in San Luis Potosí in 1854.

19 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 6–11, 44–80, 212–14, 217–18. G. P. C. Thomson, ‘Popular Aspects of Liberalism in Mexico, 1848–1888’, BLAR, 10 (1991), 265–92.

20 Thomson and La France, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism, pp.18–9, 34–5: ‘Between the 1850s and the 1870s, secular schooling became the key to extending the Liberal Party’s political control at the village level.’

Chapter 1. What is to be Done?

1 See, Rafael Rojas, ‘Mora en Paris (1834–1859), Un Liberal en el exilio, un diplomático ante la Guerra’, HM, 245, LXII/I (2012), 7–57.

2 Mariano Otero, Obras, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1967), introduced by Jesús Reyes Heroles in Estudio Preliminar, see pp. 16, 18–20, 22–3, 29, 32–4. Brian Connaughton, ‘Mariano Otero. Ensayo sobre el verdadero estado de la cuestión social y política que se agita en la República mexicana (1842)’, in Carlos Illades and Rodolfo Suárez (compilers), Esbozo de una historia intelectual (Mexico City, 2012), pp. 28–55: see pp. 36–7, 40. Otero died in the cholera epidemic of 1850.

3 Mariano Otero, El verdadero estado de la cuestión social y política que se agita en la República mexicana (1842), see Obras, 1, pp. 35–94.

4 Mariano Otero, Consideraciones sobre la situación política y social de la república mexicana en el año 1847, 1, pp. 95–147, see pp.116–20, 130–1; 11, pp. 771–2, Otero to Mora, Mexico City, 12 February 1849.

5 Otero, Obras, 11, p. 759, Otero to Mora, Mexico City, 15 September 1848.

6 José Fernando Ramírez, Obras históricas, 5 vols (Mexico City, 2001–3), edited and with an Introduction by Ernesto de la Torre Villar: 1, ‘Introduction’, p. 65. Ramírez came from a mining and commercial family of Parral (Chihuahua), grew up in Durango and was educated in Zacatecas and Mexico City. His uncle had been a deputy in the Spanish Cortes and the First Mexican Congress.

7 General Mariano Arista, elected in October 1850, succeeded José Joaquín (de) Herrera peaceably, and held office from 15 January 1851 until overthrown on 6 January 1853. Michael P. Costeloe, ‘Mariano Arista and the 1850 Presidential Election in Mexico’, BLAR, 18/1 (1999), 51–70.

8 Ramírez, Obras históricas, 1, Introduction, pp. 49, 53, 55–6, 62–3.

9 Ramírez, Obras históricas, 1, Introduction, pp. 35–42, 47, 59–60.

10 Ramírez, Obras históricas, 1, Introduction, p. 33; V, pp. 327–36, Ramírez to Arista, Mexico City, 11 September 1851; V, pp. 350–5, Letter of Resignation over the Isthmus question, Ramírez to Arista, Mexico City, 22 August 1852. Ramírez first held this office from December 1846 to January 1847, again from September 1851 until September 1852, and finally under the Second Empire, from June 1864 until October 1865.

11 Luis G. Cuevas, Porvenir de México, o juicio sobre su estado político en 1821 y 1851 (Mexico City, 1954), pp. 394–5, 397, 437. Originating from Lerma (State of Mexico), Cuevas was five times Minister of Relations: 1837 and 1838 under Bustamante; 1844–5 and 1848–9 under Herrera, and 1858 under Zuloaga.

12 Cuevas, Porvenir de México, pp. 404–6, 418–24, 435–6, 444.

13 See José Fernando Ramírez, México durante la guerra con los Estados Unidos (Mexico City, 1905).

14 Obras Completas de D. Melchor Ocampo, 4 vols (Mexico City, 1986), 4, pp. 437–46, Discurso pronunciado en la Alameda de la Heróica Ciudad de Veracruz, 16 September 1858. Governor of Michoacán, September 1846–March 1848; June 1852–January 1853. José C. Valadés, D. Melchor Ocampo: Reformador de México (Mexico City, 1954), pp. 228–34, 236.

15 Ocampo, Obras Completas, 1, pp. 41, 50–1, 61–3. Valadés, Melchor Ocampo, pp. 220–4.

16 Luis Castañeda Guzmán (compiler), Cordilleras eclesiásticas de Oaxaca, 1820–1880 (Oaxaca, 2002), no. 102, Mantecón to parish clergy, Oaxaca, 22 July 1848. Mantecón (1784–1852), son of a colonial merchant, had trained as a lawyer, been ordained in 1821 and consecrated as bishop in July 1844.

17 Silvestre Villegas Revueltas, ‘De religiosos, abogados y literatos. La discusión entre conservadores y liberales sobre las dos potestades y la tolerancia religiosa, 1855–1857’, pp. 77–119, see pp. 78–86; and Fidel Gómez Ochoa, ‘Conservadurismo político y catolicismo’, both in Manuel Suárez Cortina et al., Cuestión religiosa: España y México en la época liberal (Mexico City, 2012), pp. 327–64: see pp. 330–7.

18 Moisés González Navarro, Anatomía del poder en México (1848–1853) (Mexico City, 1977), pp. 392–3.

19 Josefina Zoraida Vázquez, ‘Centralistas, conservadores y monarquistas, 1830–1853’, in Humberto Morales and William Fowler (coordinators), El Conservadurismo mexicano en el siglo XIX (1810–1910) (Puebla, 1999), pp. 115–33, see p.123. Alamán regarded the Diego Portales conservative administration (1829–33) in Chile as a model for Mexico.

20 Otero, Obras, 11, pp. 773–5, Otero to Mora, Mexico City, 13 May 1849.

21 González Navarro, Anatomía, pp. 36, 60–2, 67–8. Almonte, then a moderate liberal, supported Maximilian’s Second Empire in 1863–4. Tornel was Santa Anna’s Minister of War, 1833, 1839, 1841–4 and 1853. Will Fowler, Tornel and Santa Anna: The Writer and the Caudillo (Westport CT, 2000).

22 BL, Exposición que los Conservadores de las Provincias dirigen al Sr. General Almonte, a sus correligionarios y propietarios de la Capital sobre las bases de la futura organización política del país (1863), pp. 15, 17, regarded the British Conservative Party and similar parties elsewhere as models. Neither signatories nor an indication of provenance given.

23 Noriega Elío, El Constituyente de 1842, pp. 183–4.

24 Jorge Sayeg Helú, El constitucionalismo social mexicano: La integración constitucional de México (1808–1988) (Mexico City, 1991), pp. 221–2.

25 Otero, Obras, 11, pp. 793–6, Proyecto de la ley constitucional de garantías individuales, Mexico City, 20 July 1849.

26 For Lafragua, who originated from Puebla, see Reynaldo Sordo Cedeño, ‘José María Lafragua: un moderado en la época de las posiciones extremas – a doscientos años de su natalicio’, Estudios, 107, XI (2013), 25–46.

27 Gómez Ochoa, ‘Conservadurismo político’, 333–6.

28 CD (Oaxaca, 1851), pp. 207–18, 486–93. López Ortigoza, Memoria de Gobierno (Oaxaca, 1831), p. 13.

29 Juárez, Exposición … al Congreso (Oaxaca, 1852), pp. 18–19.

30 AGPEO FE BJ 10, Box 13788, La Crónica, vol.1, no. 5, 4 September 1848; Benito Hampshire to Luis García Camacho, no. 5, Hacienda de los Cinco Señores, 19 July 1848.

31 Benito Juárez, Exposición … al Congreso (Oaxaca, 1849), Manuel Ruiz (State Secretary), Oaxaca, 1 May 1849.

32 Archivo del General Porfirio Díaz: Memorias y Documentos, 3 vols, prologue and notes by Alberto M. Carreño (Mexico City, 1947), II, pp. 25–6, 33–8. Pérez became interim State Governor from 23 October 1847. Romero became Ocampo’s secretary in Veracruz, 1858–9.

33 Reyes Heroles, Estudio Preliminar, p. 35.

34 Lacunza, Herrera’s Minister of Relations in 1849 and 1850, became Maximilian’s Finance Minister: AGN, Segundo Imperio, no. 32, Report on Finance, Mexico City, 9 June 1866. He was exiled by Juárez and died in Havana.

35 Obras de Ignacio Ramírez, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1889), 1, p. 77, and II, pp. 184–5, argued for the education of the Indian as a prerequisite for stable government through government funding of schools and by enabling them to use their own languages.

36 Alicia Perales Ojeda, Las asociaciones literarias mexicanas (Mexico City, 2000), p. 94. Riva Palacio was Governor of the State of Mexico in 1849–52, 1857 and 1871, Minister of Finance in June–August 1848 and of Justice in 1851.

37 Perales Ojeda, Las asociaciones literarias, pp. 74–81.

38 Perales Ojeda, Las asociaciones literarias, pp. 89–93. Altamirano would, in 1870, become Director of the Liceo.

Chapter 2. Villages, Landlords and Businessmen

1 David Carvajal López, ‘La epidemia de cólera en 1833–1834 en el obispado de Guadalajara. Rutas de contagio y mortalidad’, HM, 240, LX/4 (2011), 2025–67; and Lourdes Márquez Morfín and Leticia Reina Aoyama, ‘El cólera en Oaxaca en el siglo XIX’, Cuadernos del Sur. Ciencias Sociales, 1/1 (1992), 71–98.

2 González Navarro, Anatomía, p. 278.

3 John H. Coatsworth, ‘Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth Century Mexico’, AHR, 83/1 (1978), 80–100. Armando Razo and Stephen Haber, ‘The Rate of Growth of Productivity in Mexico, 1850–1933. Evidence from the Cotton Textile Industry’, JLAS, 30/3 (1998), 481–517, who argue for ‘a substantial productivity growth prior to the Porfiriato’ (481).

4 Richard L. Garner, Economic Growth and Change in Bourbon Mexico (Gainesville, 1993), pp. 247–58. Marichal, ‘Una difícil transición fiscal’, pp. 19–58.

5 Jan Bazant, Cinco haciendas mexicanas: Tres siglos de vida rural en San Luis Potosí (1600–90) (Mexico City, 1975), pp. 119–20.

6 AEQ, Fondo Poder Ejecutivo (1847), Caja 1, C2 F5 and Caja 2, C3 F5, Francisco Bustamante to State Governor, Querétaro, 29 November 1847; Caja 2, C3 F5, no. 13, Ignacio de Tagle to State Governor, Hacienda de Atongo, 1 March 1847; Caja 2, C3 F5, Teniente Coronel Martín Ruiz de Cabañas to State Governor, Querétaro, 2 September 1847. Roberto Berrones Montes, Municipio de Jalpan de Serra (Querétaro, 1997), 54–7. José Urquiola Permisán and María Eugenia García Ugarte, Historia de la cuestión agraria mexicana: Estado de Querétaro, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1989), 2 (Siglo XIX, 1765–1910), pp. 151–5. María Eugenia García Ugarte, Hacendados y rancheros queretanos, 1780–1920 (Mexico City, 1992), pp. 100–13, 123, 133–5, Juvera (b. 1784), who joined the Provincial Dragoon Regiment of the Sierra Gorda in September 1810, fighting against the Insurgents, was listed as a junior officer in 1814–19, rising to Captain of the First Company in 1820. Jesús Mendoza Muñoz, Los Dragones Provinciales de Sierra Gorda en Querétaro duranta la guerra de independenca de México (Cadereyta, 2010), pp. 181, 262, 281, 329, 363.

7 Bazant, Cinco haciendas, pp. 73–90.

8 Bazant, Cinco haciendas, pp. 97, 101, 103–4, 110, 121.

9 AHESLP, Sección de Gobierno, leg. (enero 1858), José Gerardo G. de Rojas (lawyer for the Pérez Gálvez), San Luis Potosí 18 December 1857; Felipe Monjaraz to juez de primeras letras, San Luis Potosí, 13 January 1858.

10 Rodolfo Pastor, Campesinos y reformas: la Mixteca, 1700–1856 (Mexico City, 1987), pp. 183–4, 198, 200, 207–8, 260, 263. J. Edgar Mendoza García, ‘El ganado comunal en la Mixteca Alta: de la época colonial al siglo XIX’, HM, LI/4 (2002), 749–85: see 778–9; and by the same author, Los bienes de comunidad y la defensa de las tierras en la Mixteca oaxaqueña: Cohesión y autonomía del municipio de Santo Domingo Tepenene, 1856–1912 (Mexico City, 2004), pp. 17–123.

11 AGPEO, Legajos Encuadernados, Decretos 1847–1861b, caja 74, decretos 1850B, Congreso de Oaxaca, 3 September 1850.

12 Francisco Pimentel, Memoria sobre las causas que han originado la situación actual de la raza indígena de México y medio de remediarla (Mexico City, 1864), pp. 217–22.

13 AGN Historia, tomes 313 and 314: Cofradías y Hermandades (1783–5). Mendoza, ‘El ganado comunal’, 760–9.

14 AGN Historia, 313: Cofradías y Hermandades (1790), no. 14, Teutila, 1 March 1790, f. 42. Peter Guardino, The Time of Liberty: Popular Political Culture in Oaxaca, 1750–1850 (Durham NC and London, 2005), p. 31. Mendoza, ‘El ganado comunal’, 763, 767–8.

15 Karen D. Caplan, Indigenous Citizens: Local Liberalism in Early National Oaxaca and Yucatán (Stanford CA, 2010), pp. 27, 29, 30, 32, 183, 214, 216.

16 Terry Rugeley, Yucatán’s Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War (Austin TX, 1996), pp. 61–4, 90.

17 Juan Cáceres Muñoz, ‘Entre la libertad y los privilegios: élites, elecciones y ciudadanía en el Querétaro de la primera mitad del siglo XIX’, HM, 42, LXI/ 2 (2011), 477–530.

18 Víctor M. Núñez García, ‘Liberal parliamentarianism in Mexico. Notes for reflection: the parliamentary representation of Puebla in the Mexican Congress, 1833–1856’ (Online, 2013), 44–65.

19 Margarita Urías Hermosillo, ‘Manuel Escandón: de las diligencias al ferrrocarril, 1833–1862’, in Ciro F. S. Cardoso et al., Formación y desarrollo de la burguesía en México: Siglo XIX (Mexico City, 1978), pp. 25–56.

20 Guy P. C. Thomson, Puebla de los Angeles. Industry and Society in Mexican City, 1700–1850 (Boulder CO, San Francisco CA and London, 1989), pp. 239–46, 248, 252–3.

21 Robert W. Randall, Real del Monte: A British Mining Venture in Mexico (Austin TX and London, 1972), pp. 210–11. Susan Deans Smith, Bureaucrats, Planters and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico (Austin TX, 1992), p. 253.

22 Alamán, DD, II, pp. 37–9. Thomson, Puebla de los Angeles, pp. 240–62. Humberto Morales Moreno, ‘Estevan de Antuñano y la “República de la Industria”. Su influencia en México a lo largo del siglo XIX’, in Morales and Fowler, El Conservadurismo mexicano, pp. 265–302.

23 Thomson, Puebla de los Angeles, pp. 246, 248–50, 252–60. W. L. Bernecker, ‘Foreign Interests, Tariff Policy, and Early Industrialization in Mexico, 1821–1848’, Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv, no. 14, 61–102.

24 Alamán, DD, II, 3, p. 118, Estado que manifiesta el Algodón guiado por las administraciones, que expresa, desde junio de 1837 hasta fin de 1842; núm. 4, p. 119, Estado que manifesta … enero-septiembre de 1843. Both tables are dated, 15 December 1843: vol. II, pp. 28–46, 71.

25 See William K. Meyers, ‘Politics, Vested Rights and Economic Growth in Porfirian Mexico: the Company Tlahualillo in the Comarca Lagunera, 1885–1911’, HAHR, 57 (1977), 425–54. Thomson, Puebla de los Angeles, pp. 257–9, 261–2, 277–8.

26 Robert A. Potash, El Banco de Avío de México: el fomento de la industria de la industria, 1821–1846 (Mexico City, 1959), p. 217.

27 Alamán, Memoria sobre el Estado de la Agricultura e Industria, Mexico City, 15 December 1843; Alamán, DD, 4 vols, Mexico City, 1845–7, II, pp. 11–12, 114 núm. 1, Estado que comprende la Juntas de Industria que hasta ahora hay establecidas.

28 Alamán, Memoria (1843), núm 5, pp. 120–1, Estado General de la Fábricas de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón existentes en la República en fines de diciembre de 1843.

29 Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, Comercio exterior de México desde la Conquista hasta hoy (Mexico City, 1853), pp. 30–4. The Dirección General de Industria was established in 1842.

30 Rodney D. Anderson, Guadalajara a la consumación de la Independencia: estudio de su población según los padrones de 1821–1822 (Guadalajara, 1983), pp. 32–42, 44–53, 99–125, 156.

31 Eric Van Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 1675–1820 (Berkeley CA and Los Angeles CA, 1981), pp. 49, 63, 65, 72, 109, 120, 148, 153–4.

32 Jaime Olveda, En busca de la fortuna. Los vascos en la región de Guadalajara (Zapopan and San Sebastián, 2003), pp. 191–3.

33 Anderson, Guadalajara a la consumación, pp. 46–7, 100. Olveda, En busca de la fortuna, pp. 191–2.

34 David Pletcher, ‘The Fall of Silver in Mexico, 1876–1910, and its effects on American Investments’, Journal of Economic History, 18 (1958), 33–55.

35 Enrique Cárdenas, ‘A Macroeconomic Interpretation of Nineteenth Century Mexico’, and Richard J. Salvucci, ‘Mexican National Income in the Era of Independence, 1800–1840’, in Stephen Haber (ed.), How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800–1914 (Stanford CA, 1997), pp. 65–92; pp. 216–42.

36 Randall, Real del Monte, pp. 32–40, 42–8, 52, 60–3, 171, 173–5. Margaret E. Rankin, ‘The Mexican Mining Industry in the Nineteenth Century with Special Reference to Guanajuato’, BLAR, 11/1 (January 1992), pp. 29–48.

37 Inés Herrera Canales, ‘Mercurio para refinar la plata mexicana en el siglo XIX’, HM, 150, XL/1 (julio-septiembre 1990), 27–57: see pp. 28, 30–41, Mexican consumption of mercury totalled 209,292 quintales in 1835–45; slumped to 166,562 quintales in 1845–55; then rose to 241,296 quintales in 1865–75.

38 Randall, Real del Monte, pp. 156–9, 165–75.

39 Herrera Canales, ‘Mercurio para refinar’, 38–47.

40 Rankin, ‘Mexican Mining Industry’, 37–9.

41 Randall, Real del Monte, pp. 73–4, 78–9, 86–8, 99, 105–7, 110–11, 115, 118–21, 125, 144–51, 170–4. The company faced serious labour disputes in 1840–1 and 1845 over the perennial issue (dating back to 1766) of workers’ share in the ore.

42 Anne Staples, Bonanzas y borrascas mineras: El Estado de México, 1821– 1876 (Toluca, 1994), pp. 84–5, 110–30. Murphy asked Governor Riva Palacio for fifty men, paid for by the company, to escort convoys to the mines as protection from thieves.

43 ANO, Protocolo de Juan Pablo Mariscal (1836), no. 23, ff. 77v–85, compañía de minas, Oaxaca 23 February 1836; no. 48, ff. 138v–41v, contrato de minas, Oaxaca, 8 April 1836. ANO, Mariscal (1841), ff. 115–16, Oaxaca 27 June 1841; f.118, Oaxaca, 30 July1841.

44 ANO, Mariscal (1850), ff. 336v–348, Oaxaca, 16 December 1850. Rickards was considered as a new partner.

45 ANO, Mariscal with Francisco Ortiz de Quintas (1853–7), ff. 8v–10, Oaxaca, 30 July 1853.

46 ANO, Mariscal (1843), no. 381, ff. 34v–9v, Oaxaca, 6 March 1843.

47 ANO, Mariscal (1846–7), ff. 62v–3, Oaxaca, 3 February 1846.

48 ANO, Mariscal (1846–47), ff. 57–8, Oaxaca, 17 January 1846.

49 Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890–1940 (Stanford CA, 1989), p. 55.

Chapter 3. Financing Mexican Government

1 Barbara Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury: Debt and Taxes in Mexico, 1821–1856 (Albuquerque NM, 1986). Barbara Tenenbaum, ‘El poder de las finanzas y las finanzas del poder en México durante el siglo XIX’, Siglo XIX, III/5 (1988), 197–221. Marichal, ‘Una difícil transición’, 19–58. Leonor Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda y sus proyectos (1821–1933), 2 vols (Mexico City, 2002).

2 W. F. McCaleb, The Public Finances of Mexico (New York, 1921), pp. 23, 44, 47–53.

3 Alamán, DD, 11, pp. 321–472, Liquidación general de la deuda exterior de México hasta fin de diciembre de 1841, Mexico City, 14 May 1842.

4 José Antonio Serrano Ortega and Luis Jáuregui (coordinators), Las finanzas públicas en la primera república federal mexicano (Mexico City, 1998).

5 Alamán, DD, III, pp. 247–8. José Antonio Serrano Ortega, Igualdad, Uniformidad, Proporcionalidad: Contribuciones directas y reformas fiscales en México, 1810–1846 (Mexico City, 2007), p. 109. Tenenbaum, ‘El poder de las finanzas’, 208–9. Deans-Smith, Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers, pp. 252–3. David W. Walker, ‘Business as Usual: The Empresa del Tabaco in Mexico, 1837–1846’, HAHR, 64/4 (1984), 675–705.

6 AGPEO LE Tesorería (1838F–1839A), Box 129 (1839A), Estado General que manifiesta los ingresos y egresos que han tenido los ramos de la Hacienda Pública en esta Tesorería Departamental en todo el año de 1839, Oaxaca, 3 January 1840. Archivo Histórico del Arzobispado de Oaxaca (AHAO), Impresos: José López Ortigoza, Oaxaca, 30 September 1830 and 7 October 1830. López Ortigoza, Memoria de Gobierno (Oaxaca,1831), pp. 15, 28–9, 34.

7 Barbara Tenenbaum, ‘Mexico’s Money Market and the Internal Debt, 1821–1855’, in Reinhard Liehr, La deuda pública en América Latina en perspectiva histórica (Berlin, 1994), pp. 257–92.

8 Tenenbaum, The Politics of Penury, pp. 211–12, and the same author’s ‘Mexico’s Money Market’, pp. 258–9, 262, 269–70, 273, 275–9, 283. David W. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics: The Martínez del Río Family in Mexico, 1824–1867 (Austin TX, 1986), pp. 25–30, 73, 76–7, 167–8, 186–7.

9 Staples, Bonanzas y borrascas, pp. 84–7, 110–11. Gregorio Martínez del Río made risky investments in the mining industry in 1856–9 in Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Pachuca and Temascaltepec. Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics, p. 43.

10 Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics, pp. 28–9, 56, 61–2, 64–74, 167–8.

11 AEQ, FPE (1847), Caja 2, C2 F5, Anaya to State Citizens, Mexico City, 27 April 1847. Luis Jáuregui (coordinator), De riqueza e inequidad: El problema de las contribuciones directas en América Latina, siglo XIX (Mexico City, 2006), pp. 9–45, 183–275.

12 BEO, Colección Manuel Martínez Gracida, 58, President Anastasio Bustamante, Mexico City, 29 April 1837. Colección de Decretos (CD) (Oaxaca, 1851), pp. 521–3, Governor Juárez, Oaxaca, 10 May 1848; pp. 701–7, Regulation of the 3 al millar tax on urban and rural properties, 3 October 1850.

13 Serrano Ortega, Igualdad, uniformidad, pp. 115–9, 125–8, 131, 133, 137–46.

14 Serrano Ortega, Igualdad, uniformidad, pp. 151–5. Tenenbaum, ‘El poder de las finanzas’, 211–12.

15 CD (Oaxaca, 1851), pp. 35–44, Regulation of 28 October 1845.

16 CD (Oaxaca, 1851), pp. 434–5, Asamblea Departamental, Oaxaca, 26 August 1845; Asamblea Departamental, Oaxaca, 28 October 1845.

17 Serrano Ortega, Igualdad, uniformidad, pp. 104–67; and Luis Jáuregui, ‘Los orígenes de un malestar crónico. Los ingresos y los gastos públicos de México, 1821–1855’, in Luis Aboites Aguilar and Luis Jáuregui (coordinators), Penuria sin fin: Historia de los impuestos en México, siglos XVIII–XX (Mexico City, 2005), pp. 79–114, see pp. 88–99.

18 Serrano Ortega, Igualdad, uniformidad, pp. 104–6: abolition enabled free planting, manufacture of cigarettes and cigars, and sale.

19 Manuel Payno, México y sus cuestiones financieras con la Inglaterra, la España y la Francia (Mexico City, 1862), pp. 3–15, 21–2, 37, 43–57. Report of the General Meeting of Mexican Bondholders (London, April 1876), iv–viii. The exchange rate in the 1840s stood around 20 pesos = £4 sterling. Consolidated under the Second Empire in 1864 and by President Manuel González in 1884, the debt was finally cleared in 1890.

20 NA (London), FO 50/248, f.92, Payno, London 25 August 1851, Calculation of the Amount of the Mexican Debt, and ff.97–8, situación financiera de México en 1851. The exchange rate at that time was 5 pesos to £1. Diana Irina Córdoba Ramírez, Manuel Payno: Los derroteros de un liberal moderado (Zamora, 2006), pp. 90–110.

21 Carl H. Bock, Prelude to Tragedy: The Negotiation and Breakdown of the Tripartite Convention of London, October 31, 1861 (Philadelphia PA, 1966), p. 63, Appendix A, pp. 453–7.

22 Michael P. Costeloe, Bonds and Bondholders: British Investors and Mexico’s Foreign Debt, 1824–1884 (Westport CT, 2003). Villegas Revueltas, Deuda y diplomacia, pp. 66, 72–4, for the Doyle Convention of 1851.

23 NA, FO 50/273, ff.61–2, Memorandum on the Portion of Mexican Revenue assigned to the Foreign Debt for 1854, Communication of Mr McGarel, London, 29 March 1855. The total customs revenues in 1853–4 came to 5.8 million pesos, the bulk of which originated from Veracruz, totalling 2.9 million pesos in 1853–4, followed by Tampico with 705,915 pesos, and the Pacific ports of Manzanillo with 502,642 pesos and Mazatlán with 459,959 pesos. The Gulf port of Matamoros on the new Río Grande frontier with the United States yielded 437,185 pesos. Twenty-five per cent of customs revenues went to service the external debt.

24 Potash, El Banco de Avío, pp. 30–52.

25 González Navarro, Anatomía del poder, pp. 173–4. Thomson, Puebla de los Angeles, pp. 217–38.

26 Sonia Pérez Toledo, Los Hijos del Trabajo: Los artesanos de la ciudad de México, 1780–1853 (Mexico City, 1996), pp. 189–214. See Appendix 1, pp. 269–74 for a list of crafts.

27 Walther L. Bernecker, ‘La industria mexicana en el siglo XIX. Las condiciones-marco de la industrialización en el siglo XIX’, in Maria Eugenia Romero Sotelo (coordinator), La industria mexicana y su historia: Siglos XVIII, XIX y XX (Mexico City, 1997), pp. 87–171, see pp. 97–9. Richard J. Salvucci, ‘The Origins and Progress of US Mexican Trade, 1825–1884. Hoc opus, hic labor est’, HAHR, 71/4 (1991), 697–735. Cárdenas, ‘A Macroeconomic Interpretation’, p. 72, a total of 41 per cent of Mexico’s imports came from the United States in 1821/2–1839/40.

28 Cárdenas, ‘A Macroeconomic Interpretation’, 75–6.

29 Salvucci, ‘US Mexican Trade’, 697–735, ‘the prohibitions were murderously effective’. Cárdenas, ‘A Macroeconomic Interpretation’, 76, ‘the government was clearly successful in promoting economic development through commercial policy’.

30 NA, FO/248, Mexico (Domestic), ff.116–21v, Draft Note, Doyle to Col. Facio, Mexico City, 1 December 1851.

31 AGPEO, FEBJ, Box 13746, Fernández del Campo to State Secretary, Oaxaca, 24 October 1856.

32 Laura Suárez de la Torre, Presentación, El predomino del agio y la bancarrota nacional, 1835–1850, in Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, 1, pp. 165–8.

33 Walker, Kinship, Business, and Politics, p. 74. Carmen Vázquez Mantecón, Santa Anna y la encrucijada del Estado: La dictadura (1853– 1855) (Mexico City, 1986), p. 52.

34 Jan Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz y sus aventuras políticas (1811–1869) (Mexico City, 1985), pp. 32, 36, 39–41, 44–8, 52, 59–62, 67–8, 78–82.

35 Suárez de la Torre, Presentación, pp. 166–8.

36 Manuel Payno, Memoria sobre la revolución de diciembre de 1857 y enero de 1858 (Mexico City, 1987 (1860)). Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, pp. 170–2, 312–3.

37 Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, pp. 170–2, 312–3, 345, 350.

38 Margarita Guevara Sanginés, ‘Guillermo Prieto y Pradillo, ministro transhumante: de la Fiscalidad del Antiguo Régimen a un nuevo orden’, in Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, pp. 315–50, see pp. 318–21. Nicole Girón, ‘Manuel Payno, el ir y venir por la secretaría de Hacienda’, in Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, pp. 351–97, see pp. 352–4.

39 Ludlow, Los secretarios de Hacienda, pp. 321–2, 354–5.

40 Baring Archive (London), George H. White to Barings Governors, Orizaba, 11 April 1862.

Chapter 4. Political Reconstruction: Before the War with the United States, 1836–1846

1 Mariano Galván Rivera (ed.), Colección de Constituciones de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1988), 11, pp. 162–249.

2 Timothy E. Anna, Forging Mexico, 1821–1835 (Lincoln NE and London, 1998), pp. 2, 8, 11, 14–16, 22–7, 30–2, and chapters 4 and 5.

3 Felipe Tena Ramírez, Leyes fundamentales de México, 1808–1964 (Mexico City 1983), 167–95. Cáceres Muñoz, ‘Entre la libertad y los privilegios’, 477–530.

4 Thomson and LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism, p. 34.

5 CD (Oaxaca, 1851), pp. 207–18, section V; 303, 434–5, pp. 207–18, section V; 303, 434–5.

6 Constitución 1824, articles 6, 7, 74, 95. Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 5 February 1857, articles 75–85; article 76, ‘indirecta en primer grado’.

7 See C. Allan Hutchinson, Valentín Gómez Farías: La vida de un republicano (Guadalajara, 1983). Peter F. Guardino, The Time of Liberty: Popular Political Culture in Oaxaca, 1750–1850 (Durham NC and London, 2005), p. 187. Zavala, a deputy in the Spanish Cortes in 1821–2, became Minister of Finance under President Vicente Guerrero in 1829; exiled in the United States in 1830–2; Governor of the State of Mexico in 1832–3, and again Minister of Finance in 1833–4.

8 AGPEO Gobernación 1835, decretos sobre Milicia Cívica derogados por la actual legislatura, Oaxaca, 18 September 1835; Francisco Monterrubio (Vice Governor and interim Executive) to all Inhabitants, Oaxaca, 15 September 1834.

9 BN, Manuscript Collection, R329LAF: Documentos para la Historia de México, 9, Exposición que contra el restablecimiento del sistema federal dirige al Excmo. Sr. presidente de la República la Excma. Junta Departamental de Puebla (Puebla, 1838).

10 Catherine Andrews, ‘El legado de las Siete Leyes: una realización de las aportaciones del constitucionalismo centralista a la historia constitucional mexicana’, HM, 272, LXVIII/4 (2019), 1539–92.

11 Andrews, ‘El legado de las Siete Leyes’, 1541–2, 1545, 1548–9, 1560–1, 1563–4, 1576–7, 1579.

12 CEHM, Circular Letter of Pesado to Governors, Mexico City, 30 June 1838.

13 Vázquez, Dos décadas de desilusiones, pp. 89–91.

14 Michael P. Costeloe, ‘The Triangular Revolt in Mexico and the Fall of Anastasio Bustamente, August to October 1841’, JLAS, 20 (1988), 337–60.

15 Costeloe, ‘Triangular Revolt’, 338. Vázquez, Dos décadas, p. 89.

16 González Navarro, Anatomía, p. 277. Of the twenty proprietary and substitute federal deputies elected for the State of Jalisco in 1842, half were lawyers.

17 Noriega Elío, El Constituyente, pp. 77–111.

18 Costeloe, Centralist Republic, pp. 214–15. Noriega Elío, El Constituyente de 1842, pp. 97–119.

19 Bases Orgánicas, articles 1, 4, 28, 42, 126, 147–9, 150. Costeloe, Central Republic, pp. 226–7. Noriega Elío, El Constituyente, pp. 131–73. The Departmental Assembly of Oaxaca consisted of representatives of the principal families and professions in 1843–4. BEO, CMMG, tomo 37 (1844–5), El Regenerador, IX, no. 99, Oaxaca, 9 December 1844, 407–8; alcance al no. 91, 13 November 1844; alcance al no. 99, 10 December 1844.

20 Noriega Elío, El Constituyente, pp. 176–8.

21 Costeloe, Central Republic, pp. 228, 234, 239–40, 242, 252–9.

22 Paredes y Arrillaga to Santa Anna, Guadalajara, 29 April 1842, in Genaro García and Carlos Pereyra, Documentos inéditos o muy raros para la Historia de México, XXXIII: El General Paredes y Arrillaga, su gobierno en Jalisco, sus movimientos revolucionarios, sus relaciones con el General Santa Anna … según su propio archivo (DI) (Mexico City, 1910), doc. xii, pp. 41–4.

23 Paredes to Santa Anna, Guadalajara, 6 May 1842, in DI, XXXIII, doc. xiv, pp. 46–7.

24 Santa Anna to Paredes, Mexico City, 30 April 1842, in DI, XXXIII, doc. xiii, pp. 44–5.

25 Paredes to Tornel, Guadalajara, 10 May 1842, in DI, XXXIII, doc. xvi, pp. 50–4.

26 Carlos María de Bustamante, Apuntes para la historia del gobierno del general D. Antonio López de Santa Anna, desde principios de Octubre de 1841 hasta el 6 de diciembre de 1844 (Mexico City, 1986 (1845)), pp. 312–28. Vázquez, Dos décadas, pp. 101–3.

27 Costeloe, Central Republic, p. 261.

28 Costeloe, Central Republic, p. 264–7.

29 Costeloe, Central Republic, pp. 268–78. Vázquez, Dos décadas, pp. 105–10.

30 José Antonio Aguilar Rivera, ‘La convictoria, las elecciones y el Congreso extraordinario de 1846’, HM, 242, LXI/2 (2011), 531–88.

31 Aguilar Rivera, ‘La convocatoria’, 533–4.

32 Aguilar Rivera, ‘La convocatoria’, 536–42.

33 Cecilia Noriega Elío, ‘La elección por clases y contribuciones, último intento del centralismo por orientar la participación politíca. México, 1846’, in Gantús, Las elecciones en México: Las prácticas, I, pp. 343–400; II, Anexos, pp. 235–59. Aguilar Rivera, ‘La Convocatoria’, 547–50, 557–65, 576–7. Alamán became Finance Minister, Tornel War Secretary, and Valencia, Minister of Relations.

34 José Antonio Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal: Los poderes de emergencia en México, 1821–1876 (Mexico City, 2001), pp. 187–8.

35 Neal Harlow, California Conquest: The Annexation of a Mexican Province, 1846–1850 (Berkeley CA and Los Angeles CA, 1989), 52–6. Foreign Secretary Aberdeen rejected the notion of cession of California by Mexico to Great Britain, raised in 1837 and 1841, as payment for outstanding Mexican debt in September 1845. Costeloe, Central Republic, pp. 265, 280–7. Miguel E. Soto, La conspiración monárquica en México (1845–1846) (Mexico City, 1988), p. 77.

36 NA, FO 50/198, ff.203–205 obv., no. 108, Charles Bankhead to Earl of Aberdeen, Mexico City, 1 August 1846; ff.208–17, Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, Mexico City, 26 July 1846.

37 Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, pp. 189–90.

38 Reynaldo Sordo, ‘El Congreso mexicano y el Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo’, Estudios, XIV, 50–1 (1997–8), 59–76: see p. 73. Vázquez, Dos décadas, pp. 115–6.

39 Vázquez, Dos décadas, p. 117.

40 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 164–8. In the State of Guerrero, no literacy requirement existed as a prerequisite for the right to vote. Costeloe, Central Republic, p. 300.

Chapter 5. Political Reconstruction: During and After the War with the United States, 1846–1855

1 Gantús, Elecciones en el México, II, Anexos, pp. 235–59, indirect in three levels.

2 NA, FO 50/198, ff.335–340 obv., Bankhead to Aberdeen, Mexico City, 29 August 1846.

3 Israel Cavazos Garza, Breve historia de Nuevo León (Mexico City, 1996 (1994)), pp. 138–46.

4 Silvestre Villegas Revueltas, El liberalismo moderado (1852–1864) (Mexico City, 1997), pp. 95–6.

5 Sordo Cedeño, ‘Lafragua’, 34–5.

6 Soto, La conspiración monárquica, p. 62. Sordo, ‘El Congreso mexicano’, pp. 65–6.

7 AGN Gobernación s/s, C326, exp. 7, no. 58, f.2v. cabildo eclesiástico to National Congress, Mexico City, 24 January 1847.

8 AGN Gobernación s/s, C326, exp. 8, 10 and 12. AHEG Sección de Gobierno, Municipios (1847), C172, exp. 20, Lorenzo de Avellano to State Governor, Silao 2 February 1847. He still seemed to be in office in April 1847.

9 AGN Gobernación s/s, C339, E6 (1847), exp. 4, Guergué to Minister of Relations, Oaxaca, 17 February 1847. He had been elected a Senator in 1843, representing the Oaxaca commercial interest under the corporative provision. He was the owner of the ‘Hacienda de Tlanichico’, the most viable hacienda in the district of Zimatlán, and partner of Estéban Maqueo in the Haciendas Marquesanas in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

10 AGN Gobernación s/s, C339, exp. 6, f.3, Guergué to Minister, Oaxaca, 17 February 1847; Guergué’s Manifesto to the State Inhabitants, Oaxaca, 12 March 1847; León to Guergué, Huajuapan, 20 March 1847. AGN Gobernación s/s, C334, exp. 6, no. 12, Proclamation of Guergué, Oaxaca, 18 February 1847; Mantecón to Guergué, Oaxaca, 20 February 1847. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2459, ff.9–10, León to Minister of War, Oaxaca, 26 March 1847, disclaiming involvement in opposition movements.

11 Reynaldo Sordo Cedeño, ‘El Congreso y la guerra con Estados Unidos de América, 1846–1848’, in Josefina Zoraida Vázquez (coordinator), México en tiempo de su guerra con Estados Unidos (1846–1848) (Mexico City, 1998), pp. 47–103.

12 Brian Connaughton, ‘La “metamorfosis en nuestra nación”. Iglesia y religiosidad en México, 1836–1855’, Historias, 89 (2014), 79–97, see 93–4.

13 Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, pp. 192–3. Andrews, ‘El legado de las Siete Leyes’, 1582.

14 Jesús Velasco, ‘La derrota despierta la conciencia’, Estudios, XIV, nos 50–1 (1997–8), 77–99: see 79–81. Querétaro became the Federal capital from 12 October 1847 until 15 July 1848, during the US occupation of Mexico City.

15 Velasco, ‘La derrota’, 81–5.

16 Velasco, ‘La derrota’, 87–91.

17 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 9, caja 13787, Junta Legislativa, Oaxaca, 12 August 1846. Reglamento para organizar, armar y disciplinar la Guardia Nacional en los Estados, Distritos y Territorios de la Federación, Mexico City, 11 September 1846, articles 1–3, 6, 16, 30, 43, 74, 79.

18 Florencia E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley CA, Los Angeles CA and London, 1995), pp. 144–8. Guy P. C. Thomson, ‘Bulwarks of Patriotic Liberalism: the National Guard, Philharmonic Corps and Patriotic Junta in Mexico, 1847–1888’, JLAS, 22/1 (1990), 31–68.

19 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1848), 9–10; no. 23. Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1849), no. 29.

20 Alicia Hernández Chávez, ‘La Guardia Nacional y la movilización política de los pueblos’, in Jaime E. Rodríguez O. (ed.), Patterns of Contention in Mexican History (Wilmington DE, 1992), pp. 207–25, see p. 220.

21 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 10, caja 13788, Juárez, 29 September 1848.

22 Arista fought against Texas secession in 1836, became Military Commander of Tamaulipas in 1839, and Commander of the Mexican Army of the North in 1846 at the beginning of the war with the United States, but defeat led to his removal. Rehabilitated, Herrera made him Secretary of War from June 1848 until January 1851.

23 José Antonio Serrano Ortega, El contingente de sangre: Los gobiernos estatales y departamentales y los métodos de reclutamiento del ejército permanente mexicano, 1824–1844 (Mexico City, 1993).

24 Edwin Alcántara Machuca, ‘La Elección Presidencial de 1850: la dinámica de la construcción de candidaturas y la fragmentación política’, in Gantús, Las Elecciones en México: La práctica, pp. 401–40.

25 Vázquez Mantecón, Santa Anna y la encrucijada, 41–2.

26 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, 33, 47.

27 Andrés Lira González, ‘El contencioso administrativo y el poder judicial en México a mediados del siglo XIX. Notas sobre la obra de Teodosio Lares’, Memoria del 11 Congreso de Historia del derecho mexicano (1980), coordinada por José Luis Soberanes Fernández (Mexico City, 1981), pp. 621–34.

28 Vázquez Mantecón, Santa Anna, p. 93.

29 Leticia Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas y revueltas agrarias, 1821–1910 (Mexico City, 1980), p. 354.

30 AGPEO Gobernación, caja 46 (1853A–1853F): 1853F, no. 281, Department Governor to President Santa Anna, Oaxaca, 1 December 1853.

31 González Navarro, Anatomía, pp. 362–4. Vázquez, Dos décadas, pp. 146–7.

32 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, p. 67.

33 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, p. 182.

34 Manuel Dublán y José María Lozano, Legislación mexicana: Colección legislativa completa de la República Mexicana, 52 volumes (Mexico City, 1876–1912), VI (1877), Ley para el contencioso administrativo, 25 May 1853, pp. 416–8. Lira, ‘El contencioso adminstrativo’, pp. 621–34.

35 Dublán y Lozano, Legislación Mexicana, VI, p. 369, 25 April 1853.

36 Dublán y Lozano, Legislación Mexicana, VI, 27 December 1853, pp. 881–90. Andrés Lira González, ‘Administrar Justicia sin Constitución. Continuidades e innovaciones bajo la dictadura de Santa Anna, 1853–1855’, Los caminos de la Justicia en México (Mexico City, 2010), pp. 115–40.

37 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 68–9, 71–2. Rosaura Hernández Rodríguez, Ignacio Comonfort, trayectoria política, documentos (Mexico City, 1967). Haro appointed Comonfort, fellow former student at the Puebla Caroline College, as Maritime Customs Administrator at Acapulco on 10 June 1853.

38 See Noriega Elío, ‘La elección por clases’, pp. 396–7, and Alcántara Machuca, ‘La Elección Presidencial de 1850’, pp. 413–6, 422, 435–7, both in Gauntús, Las elecciones en México: La práctica, I, pp. 343–400 and pp. 401–40.

Chapter 6. Persistent Pressure from the United States

1 NA, FO 50/197, ff.284–7, no. 89, Charles Bankhead (British Minister) to Lord Aberdeen, Mexico City, 29 June 1846.

2 NA FO 50/197, ff.290–2 obv. Thomas Gifford, Matamoros, 9 June 1846.

3 González Navarro, Anatomía, pp. 32–3.

4 Ramírez, Memorias, Negociaciones y Documentos, 1 (Mexico City, 1853), pp. 54–7. Alejandro Sobarzo, Deber y conciencia: Nicolás Trist, el negociador norteamericano en la Guerra del 47 (Mexico City, 1996 (1990)), pp. 244–60, 265–303.

5 Richard Griswold del Castillo, The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict (Norman OK, 1990). William A. DePalo, The Mexican Army, 1822–1852 (College Station TX, 1997).

6 Marcela Terrazas y Basante, Inversiones, Especulación y Diplomacia: Las relaciones entre México y los Estados Unidos durante la dictadura santanista (Mexico City, 2000), pp. 8–9.

7 José Fernando Ramírez, México durante su guerra con los Estados Unidos (Mexico City, 1905).

8 José Fernando Ramírez, Obras históricas, 5 vols (Mexico City, 2001–3), edited and with an Introduction by Ernesto de la Torre Villar, 1, ‘Introduction’, p. 33; V, pp. 327–36, Ramírez to Arista, Mexico City, 11 September 1851; V, pp. 350–5, Letter of Resignation, Ramírez to Arista, Mexico, 22 August 1852.

9 Terrazas, Inversiones, Especulación y Diplomacia, pp. 88–9, 92–3, 100, 179–81, 272–3.

10 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1848), p. 15. J. Fred Rippy, ‘Diplomacy of the United States and Mexico Regarding the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 1848–1860’, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 6/4 (March 1920), 503–31.

11 José de Garay, An Account of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (London, 1846), p. 60. José Fernando Ramírez, Memoria instructiva de los derechos y justas causas que tiene el gobierno de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos para no reconocer ni la subsistencia del privilegio concedido a D. José de Garay para abrir una vía de comunicación de los océanos Atlántico y Pacífico por el istmo de Tehuantepec, ni la legitimidad de la cesión que aquel hizo del mismo privilegio a ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos de América del Norte (Mexico City, 1852), pp. 6–15, 20, 22.

12 José Fernando Ramírez, Memorias, negociaciones y documentos para servir a la historia de las diferencias que han suscitado entre México y Estados Unidos los tenedores del antiguo privilegio, concedido para la comunicación de los mares Atlántico y Pacífico por el istmo de Tehuantepec, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1853), 1, pp. 54–7.

13 Angela Moyano Pahissa, México y Estados Unidos: Orígenes de una relación, 1819–1861 (Mexico City, 1987), pp. 264–6, 270–4, 289. Jorge L. Tamayo, ‘El Tratado McLane-Ocampo’, HM, 21/4 (1972), 573–613. González Navarro, Anatomía, pp. 213–8. Letcher was a close ally of Zachary Taylor.

14 Terrazas, Inversiones, Especulación y Diplomacia, pp. 25–6, 33–4, 39, 45. Davis was a former Senator for Mississippi (1847–51), and again in 1857 until January 1861, when he became President of the Confederate States. Buchanan was a Pennsylvania Democrat, who became President of the United States in 1857–61. He, too, was an expansionist.

15 Gerardo Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática de John Forsyth, 1856– 1858: Las repercusiones de la crisis regional estadounidense en la política exterior hacia México (Mexico City, 1997), pp. 13–14, 18–19.

16 Terrazas, Inversiones, Especulación y Diplomacia, pp. 33–4, 36, 45.

17 Terrazas, Inversiones, Especulación y Diplomacia, pp. 36, 40–1, 45, 48, 53, 60, 62, 75.

18 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática de Forsyth, pp. 13–4, 24, 27–32, 34, 85–6. Forsyth’s father had been Secretary of State under Andrew Jackson and Martin van Buren. Forty per cent of the volume Mexican imports came from Great Britain in 1855; 77 per cent of Mexican exports went there.

19 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, pp. 52–8, 68–9, 70.

20 BJDOCS, 111, pp. 353–7, Forsyth to Cass, Mexico City, 4 April 1857.

21 BJDOCS, 111, pp. 353–7, Forsyth to Cass, Mexico City, 4 April 1857.

22 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, pp. 59–66, 74.

23 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, pp. 70–4.

Chapter 7. Social and Ethnic Tensions in their Local Contexts

1 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, p. 7.

2 Jean Meyer, Problemas campesinos y revueltas agrarias, 1821–1910 (Mexico City, 1973).

3 Raymond Buve, ‘Política local en tiempos de guerra: Tlaxcala, México, en una época de violencia generalizada (1847–1867)’, in Anthony McFarlane and Marianne Wiesebron (coordinators), Violencia social y conflicto civil en América Latina, siglos XVIII–XIX (Ridderkerk, 1998), pp. 139–62.

4 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 6–11, 44–80, 212–4. Jesús Hernández Jaimes, ‘Actores indios y Estado nacional: las rebeliones indígenas en el sur de México, 1842–1846’, EHMCM, 26 (2003), 5–44, see 34–40.

5 Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas, p. 118.

6 Michael T. Ducey, A Nation of Villages: Riot and Rebellion in the Mexican Huasteca, 1750–1850 (Tucson AZ, 2004).

7 Michael T. Ducey, ‘Hijos del Pueblo y Ciudadanos: identidades políticas entre los rebeldes indios del siglo XIX’, in Brian Connaughton, Carlos Illades and Sonia Pérez Toledo (coordinators, Construcción de la Legitimidad política en México (Mexico City and Zamora, 1999), pp. 127–51, see pp. 141–7.

8 Friedrich Katz (compiler), Riot, Rebellion, ad Revolution: Rural Social Conflict in Mexico (Princeton NJ, 1988), p. 9.

9 Howard Campbell, Zapotec Renaissance: Ethnic politics and cultural revivalism in Southern Mexico (Albuquerque NM, 1994), pp. 3–52. Jeffrey W. Rubin, Decentering the regime: Ethnicity, radicalism and democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham NC and London, 1997), pp. 24–33. Leticia Reina, ‘Los pueblos indios del Istmo de Tehuantepec. Recaudación económica y mercado regional’, in Antonio Escobar O. (coordinator), Indio, nación y comunidad en el México del siglo xix (Mexico City, 1993), pp. 136–51.

10 Carlos Sánchez Silva, ‘Juárez, Gobernador de Oaxaca, y la adminstración política de los pueblos de indios, 1847–1857’, in Josefina Zoraida Vázquez (coordinator), Juárez: Historia y Mito (Mexico City, 2010), pp. 415–33. Rubin, Decentering the regime, p. 33.

11 Moisés González Navarro, Raza y tierra. La guerra de castas y el henequén (second edition, Mexico City 1979 (1970)), pp. 43–107.

12 González Navarro, Anatomía del poder, pp. 34–7. Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 168, 176. For discussion of the implications of the use of the term ‘caste’, see Jan Rus, ‘Whose Caste War? Indians, Ladinos, and the Chiapas “Caste War” of 1869’, in Murdo MacLeod and Robert Wasserstrom (eds), Spaniards and Indians in Southeastern Mesoamerica (Lincoln NE and London, 1983), pp. 128–33.

13 Fernando Díaz y Díaz, Caudillos y caciques: Antonio López de Santa Anna y Juan Álvarez (Mexico City, 1972), pp. 94–5. Leticia Reina, Las luchas populares en México en el siglo XIX (Mexico City, 1983), pp. 49–53, 83–110, suggesting that some 10,000 people were broadly involved, as the movement spread territorially over these years.

14 Carlos María de Bustamante, Apuntes para la historia del gobierno del general Antonio López de Santa Anna desde principios de Octubre de 1841 hasta el 6 de diciembre de 1844, en que fue depuesto del mando por uniforme voluntad de la nación (Mexico City, 1986 (1845)), pp. 58–9, 236.

15 BEO, CMMG, documentos para la historia de Oaxaca (1844–7) 37, doc. 2, Miguel Casarrubias, Proclama a los conciudadanos, campo de Tecolcuautla, 22 September 1844.

16 BEO, CMMG, 37, doc. 3, Muñoz to Col. José María Pavón, Tlapa, 20 October 1844; Muñoz to José Ramírez Acevedo, Tlapa, 1 November 1844; Muñoz to Antonio de León, Tlapa, 21 October 1844; Muñoz to León, Tlapa (three letters), 30 October 1844; Muñoz to León, Tlapa, 9 November 1844; El Regenerador, alcance al no. 91 del tomo IX, Oaxaca, 13 November 1844, Pavón to León, Tlapa, 10 November 1844.

17 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 131, 147, 162–5.

18 BEO, CMMG, 37, León to Gen. José Domingo Ibáñez de Corbera (in Huajuapan), Oaxaca, 9 November 1844; José Ruiz Acevedo to State Governor’s Secretary, Huajuapan, 12 November 1844.

19 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 150–6.

20 AGPEO Gobernación 1844 (Asamblea Departamental), El Regenerador, IX, no. 101, Oaxaca, 16 December 1844, Bravo to the Mexican Nation, Bravos, 7 December 1844. Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas, pp.108–10.

21 AGN Gobernación 200, exp. 84, Prefectos: Minister of War to Minister of Relations, Mexico City, 13 February 1845.

22 Clyde Gilbert Bushnell, La carrera política y militar de Juan Álvarez (Mexico City, 1988), pp. 127–56, 181. Bustamante, Apuntes, pp.105–6, 312–13. Díaz y Díaz, Caudillos y caciques, pp. 94–5. González Navarro, Anatomía, pp. 33–4. Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas, pp. 89–94, 99–104, 107–20. Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 164–8, 171–4.

23 Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 212–3.

24 Bushnell, Álvarez, p. 187.

25 Rugeley, Yucatán’s Maya Peasantry, pp. 117, 124, 129–30.

26 Mary Wilhelmine Williams, ‘Secessionist Diplomacy of Yucatán’, HAHR, 9/2 (1929), 132–43.

27 Yucatán had been a stronghold of federalism in 1823–4 under the leadership of Zavala.

28 Bustamante, Apuntes, pp. 321–8. William, ‘Secessionist Diplomacy’, 135–6.

29 Williams, ‘Secessionist Diplomacy’, 133–4.

30 Williams, ‘Secessionist Diplomacy’, 134–9. The US naval commander in the Gulf of Mexico was the same Commodore Perry, who would ‘open’ Japan in 1854.

31 Williams, ‘Secessionist Diplomacy’, 140–3. Lewis Cass and Jefferson Davis supported annexation; John C. Calhoun opposed it.

32 Caplan, Indigenous Citizens, pp. 102–47: p. 144, for the quotation above.

33 González Navarro, Anatomía del poder, pp. 34–5, 37. Between 1848 and the government offensive of 1850, the ‘Talking Cross’ rebels controlled around half of the peninsula, leaving the cities of Mérida and Campeche and the port of Sisal in official hands. Thereafter, they were pushed back into the south-east. Yucatán re-joined the Mexican Republic in August 1848, in return for Mexican assistance against the rebels.

34 Peter Gerhard, A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 163–6, cites the Census of 1777, which gave a district population of 6,479 Indians, 591 mestizos, 174 ‘Spaniards’ and 116 mulatos. In 1981, 10,000 people were reported as speaking the Trique language. César Huerta Ríos, Organización sociopolítica de una minoría nacional: Los Triques de Oaxaca (Mexico City, 1981), pp. 24–5, 29–30, 37–8, 41.

35 BEO, CMMG, ‘Cuadros sinópticos de los pueblos, haciendas y ranchos del Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca’, 2 tomes (Oaxaca, 1883): no folio numbers, presented as a supplement to the State Governor’s Report of that year: tomo 1, Juxtlahuaca.

36 BEO, CMMG, ‘Cuadros sinópticos’, Juxtlahuaca.

37 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1848), 10.

38 AGPEO LE Gobernación 1849A, entry for 17 February 1849.

39 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1852), 33.

40 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1848, ‘los que subscribimos’ (a large number of names) to Juárez, Jamiltepec, 15 February 1848.

41 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1848A, Juan Nepomuceno Ezeta to State Secretary, Jamiltepec, 7 March 1848; José Antonio Requena to secretary, Jamiltepec, 10 July 1848, enclosing Representation of Village Council to Juárez, San Pedro Tututepec; Antonio Curiel and others to Juárez, Jamiltepec, 17 November 1848.

42 AGPEO Gobernación 1849, Felipe de Jesús Carriedo to Director General of State Revenues, Ixtlán, 31 March 1849.

43 AGPEO Gobernación 1849, Tomás de la Rosa (Sub-Prefect) to Director General, Ixtaltepec, 19 May 1849. Diversos Históricos 1850, Pérez to Director General, Tehuantepec, 28 June 1850, appointed Sub-Prefect by Juárez on 10 July 1849. AGPEO, FEBJ 15, caja 13793, Agustín Valverde to State Secretary, Nochixtlán, 8 November 1850.

44 AGPEO, Fondo Gobernación: sección – gobierno de los departamentos (1850), Cabildo, Santiago de Juxtlahuaca, 7 January 1850. AGPEO, Diversos Históricos 1850: José María Salgado to State Governor’s Secretary, Juxtlahuaca, 8 October 1850; Sub-Prefect Hermenegildo Figueroa to Director General of Revenues, Juxtlahuaca, 15 December 1850.

45 Reina, Las luchas populares, pp. 55–9.

Chapter 8. Conflict in the Sierra Gorda – Querétaro, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí

1 Lino Gómez Canedo, Sierra Gorda: Un típico enclave misional en el centro de México (Siglos XVI–XVIII) (Pachuca, 1976). María Elena Galaviz Capdevielle, ‘Descripción y pacificación de la Sierra Gorda’, in Margarita Velasco Mireles (coordinator), La Sierra Gorda: documentos para su historia, 2 vols (Mexico City, 1996–7), 1, pp. 65–100. Manuel Martínez López, Pueblos indígenas de México: Chichimecas-Jonaces (Mexico City, 2015), pp. 16–35. The central-plateau Nahuas disparagingly described these nomads as ‘Chichimecas’ – ‘those speaking the language of dogs’.

2 Gerardo Lara Cisneros, El cristianismo en el espejo indígena: Religiosidad en el occidente de Sierra Gorda, siglo XVIII (Mexico City, 2002), pp. 43–5. Antonio Flores González and Santiago Salinas de la Vega, Serranos y rebeldes: La Sierra Gorda queretana en la Revolución (Querétaro, 2004), pp. 30, 36.

3 Flores González and Salinas de la Vega, Serranos y rebeldes, pp. 66, 69, 93–7, 100–6, 148–66.

4 Jesús Mendoza Muñoz, Los Dragones Provinciales de Sierra Gorda en Querétaro durante la Guerra de Independencia (Cadereyta, 2010), pp. 18, 83, 389, 415–7, 431–5. Lara Cisneros, El cristianismo, pp. 54–7.

5 Gerhard, Historical Geography, pp. 62–4. Marta Eugenia García Ugarte, Esplendor y poderío de las haciendas queretanas (Querétaro, 1991), pp. 20–65: see pp. 28–9, 38, 45, 48, 50–1, 54. Margarita Velasco Mireles, ‘El mundo de la Sierra Gorda’, in Arqueología Mexicana, XIII/77 (2006), Dosier La Sierra Gorda, 28–61, see pp. 28–37, and Adolphus Langenscheidt, ‘Historia de la minería en la Sierra Gorda’, pp. 46–52. Flores González and Salinas de la Vega, Serranos y rebeldes, pp. 30, 35–6.

6 AGN Tierras 1375, exp. 3, San Luis de la Paz (1806–8): sobre despojos o destroso de cercas, dispute between the villages of Xichú and Cieneguilla and the Haciendas of Palmillas, El Capulín, Salitre and Charcas, before the Subdelegate of San Luis de la Paz. AGN Historia 152, ff.111–16v, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca to Minister of War (Madrid), no. 1, reservada, Mexico City, 31 October 1816; ff.334–48, Conde del Venadito (Apodaca) to Minister of War, no. 57, Mexico City, 30 June 1818. Flores González and Salinas de la Vega, Serranos y rebeldes, pp. 36–7, 61–3, 66.

7 Mendoza Muñoz, Los Dragones Provinciales, pp. 293–9, 389–91, 394–7, 400, 407–30. Samaniego was among the Spaniards expelled from Mexico in 1829 and died in New Orleans. Salvucci, Textiles and Capitalism, pp. 89, 92–3, 101–3, 139–41, 160–2. The nineteen obrajes had a total of 290 looms.

8 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/1535, Arista to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 30 November 1839. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/1692 (tomo 1), ff.27–8v, Juvera to Minister of War, no. 268, Querétaro, 30 July 1841; ff.193–6, Juvera to Minister of War, Cadereyta, 27 May 1841; ff.187–8, Juvera to Minister of War, Cadereyta, 8 June 1841. Cecilia Landa Fonseca, Querétaro: una historia compartida (Querétaro, 1990), pp. 53–4. Flores González and Salinas de la Vega, Serranos y rebeldes, p. 38. Ducey, ‘Hijos de Pueblo’, 131–3.

9 Landa Fonseca, Querétaro, pp. 55–6.

10 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/1535, ff.2–4, Comandante General to Minister of War, Querétaro, 28 November 1839. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/1692 (tomo 2), ff.442–3, Comandante General to Minister, Querétaro, 31 December 1840. Eduardo Marquina Rendón, Municipio de Pinal de Amoles (Querétaro, 1997), pp. 106–11. Leticia Reina, ‘The Sierra Gorda Peasant Rebellion, 1847–1850’, in Katz, Riot, Rebellion, and Revolution, pp. 268–94, see p. 274. García Ugarte, Hacendados y rancheros, pp. 14–44.

11 AEQ, FPE, Caja 10, C11 F5, Governor to Governor of Guanajuato, Querétaro, 18 October and November 1847.

12 Francisco de Burgoa Library, Oaxaca, ‘La Crónica. Periódico del Estado Libre de Oaxaca’, vol. 1, no. 6, Oaxaca, 30 June 1848: Plan of General Paredes, August 1 June 1848; Herrera, Mexico City, 18 June 1848.

13 AHEG, Gobierno del Estado: Tranquilidad Pública (1848), caja 216, exp. 36, for the repercussions of the Xichú rebellion in San Luis de la Paz and nearby districts. Urquiola Permisán and García Ugarte, Cuestión agraria, p. 156, portray the Quiroz rebellion as ‘an important and highly significant social revolutionary movement’. However, the ambiguities surrounding Quiroz and the rebellion suggest a less clear-cut interpretation. María Elena Galaviz de Capdevielle, ‘Eleuterio Quiroz y la revolución de 1847 en Xichú’, Archivos de Historia Potosina, 41/11, no. 1 (September 1979), 5–27, see 12–22.

14 AHESLP SGG 1847, 30, Prefect Alemán to State Secretary, Río Verde, 17 November 1847.

15 AHESLP SGG 1847:30, Ramón Sáenz de Mendiola (Commander of the Cavalry Regiment of ‘Fieles del Potosí’) to State Secretary, Bocas, 12 November 1847. Bazant, Cinco Haciendas Mexicanas, pp. 95–122.

16 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3069, f.75, Distribución de la fuerza que tiene la División Bustamante, Mexico City, 26 October 1849. Brian R. Hamnett, ‘Anastasio Bustamante y la Guerra de Independencia, 1810–1821’, HM, 112, XXVIII/4 (1979), 525–55.

17 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2729, ff.8–9, Filisola to Minister of War, Querétaro, 24 November 1847.

18 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2669, ff.16–17, Governor to Minister of War, Querétaro, 5 November 1847; ff.61–2, Bustamante to Minister, no. 309 and no. 310, Guanajuato, 6 December 1847. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2729, ff.2–3, Governor to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 13 November 1847; ff.15–17, Gen. Vicente Filisola to Minister of War, Querétaro, 23 November 1847.

19 AHESLP SGG 1847, 30, exp. 7, Secretary to Camilo Bros, San Luis Potosí, 9 December 1847.

20 AHESLP, Secretaría de Gobierno General (SGG) 1847, 7, Manuel Castellanos to State Secretary, Ciudad de Valles, 29 January 1848. Tancanhuitz (‘lugar de flores’ in Huasteco), Tamazunchale, and Villa de Valles were the three districts of the Potosí Huasteca, with a large Indian population. Antonio J. Cabrera, La Huasteca potosina: Ligeros apuntes sobre este país (San Luis Potosí, 2002), pp. 18, 28, 43, 108–9, 115.

21 AHESLP SGG 1848:2 (possibly) exp. 6, Manuel María de Sandoval (Operational Section) to Governor of San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, 7 January 1848; (possibly) exp. 4, Ayuntamiento (Antonio Yzaguirre) to State Secretary, Lagunillas, 24 January 1848.

22 AHESLP SGG 1848, 7, exp. 2, Luis Castilla (Municipal President) to State Secretary, La Palma, 4 April 1848.

23 AHESLP SGG 1847, 30, exp. 7, President and Secretary of the Ayuntamiento to Governor of San Luis Potosí, Alaquines, 27 June 1848.

24 AHEG Fondo de Secretaría de Gobierno, Tranquilidad Pública (1848), Caja 216, expediente 36, no. 3, Caballero to State Secretary, San Miguel de Allende, 2 January 1848; no. 45, 2 February 1848; no. 71, 23 February 1848; no. 101, 8 March 1848; no. 123, 28 March 1848; no. 128, 31 March 1848; no. 168, 22 April 1848; no. 229, 8 June 1848; no. 392, 25 October 1848.

25 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2978, ff.11–11v, Juvera to Arista, Querétaro, 15 September 1848; Bustamante to Arista, Silao, 4 October 1848; ff.46–6v, Mejía to Juvera, Pinal de Amoles, 14 October 1848.

26 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2830, ff.1–1v, Bustamante to Arista, no. 127, 31 July 1848; ff.8–8v, Antonio Campos to War, Tula, 26 July 1848; 8. The initial six-month period of the amnesty was renewed in February 1849.

27 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2978, ff.11–11v, Juvera to Arista, Querétaro, 15 September 1848; ff.12–12v, Juvera to Arista, no. 587, Querétaro, 29 September 1848. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2876, documentos relativos al movimiento sedicioso de los habitantes de Sierra Gorda acaudillado por Eleuterio Quiroz (1848), ff.14–15, Juan S. Amador to Arista, San Luis Potosí, 28 September 1848; ff.19–21, Amador to Arista, San Luis Potosí. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2830, ff.17–19, Bustamante to Arista, 4 October 1848, Silao, 4 October 1848.

28 AGN Gobernación, sec. s/s, C341: no. 28, Governor Francisco de Paula Mesa to Minister of Internal and External Relations, top secret (‘muy reservada’), Querétaro, 12 August 1848; no. 31, Mesa to Minister (reservado), Querétaro, 2 September 1848. The Minister sent it to Arista for a decision. AHSDN, exp. XI/2978, ff.5–7, Bustamante to Arista, Silao, 4 October 1848. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2876, Arista to Amador, Mexico City, 7 October 1848.

29 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 15, Oficio de Bustamante, San Miguel de Allende, 1 February 1849.

30 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 13, Juan Amador to Governor, San Luis Potosí, 3 April 1849. AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 14, Manuel Rojas (Section Commander) to Governor of San Luis Potosí, Santa María del Río, 16 April 1849, on the continuing threat from Quiroz and the departure of Gen. José López Uraga’s forces, leaving him defenceless. AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 16, Pedro Yáñez to State Secretary, Santa María del Río, 25 March 1849; José María Robledo (Compañía de Seguridad Pública del Estado) to State Governor, San Luis Potosí, 3 April 1849, on the skirmish which led to the fall of the town and his own capture. The parish priest’s timely intervention with the Holy Sacrament stopped the shooting. This same priest prevented Robledo from being shot by the rebels. He escaped to Valle de San Francisco. Sub-Prefect to State Governor, Santa María del Río 15 May 1849.

31 Octavio Cabrera Ypiña and Matilde Ypiña de Corsi, Historia de la ‘Hacienda de San Diego’, Municipio de Río Verde, San Luis Potosí (Mexico City, 1989), pp. 85–8, 99, 103. The hacienda lay 11 kilometres to the west of the town, adjacent to the ‘Hacienda de El Jabalí’, owned by Francisco Verástegui. See also María Isabel Monroy Castillo, Sueños, tentativas y posibilidades: Extranjeros en San Luis Potosí, 1821–1845 (San Luis Potosí, 2004), pp. 148–54, for the origins of the Verástegui brothers, José Joaquín (1783–1837) and Paulo María (1785–1827), who came from Vizcaya to Veracruz in 1804 and 1810, respectively, and became owners of the two adjacent haciendas. Bazant, Cinco Haciendas, pp. 62–6.

32 O. Verástegui González, Río Verde, SLP (San Luis Potosí, 1979), 33. During the war, Paulo Verástegui raised some 200 tenants and smallholders in 1847 for ‘the defence of our rights and to avenge our insulted national honour’, without help from state or national governments. Matilde Cabrera Ypiña de Corsi, D. Paulo de Berástegui y de la Vara (Mexico, privately published, 1968), pp. 36–9, through intermarriage with the Cabrera and Ypiña families, the Verástegui became even more powerful during the second half of the nineteenth century. Bazant, Cinco Haciendas, pp. 68–9.

33 Barbara M. Corbett, ‘La política potosina y la guerra con Estados Unidos’, in Vázquez, México al tiempo, pp. 455–80, see pp. 471–2, 476–7. Galaviz de Capdevielle, ‘Eleuterio Quiroz’, 16–18. Manuel was the son of José Joaquín Verástegui. Vicente Verástegui was Director General of Revenues in January 1848. Before then, Manuel Verástegui appears to have resigned as Sub-Prefect of Río Verde, as the State Governor reminded Vicente. AHESLP SGG 1848, no. 2, Vicente Verástegui to State Secretary, Río Verde, 4 January 1848.

34 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2876, ff.17–18, García to Cruz, Mineral de Majada Grande, 20 September 1848.

35 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2937, copia del Plan Político-Social proclamado por Eleuterio Quiroz en la Sierra Alta de San Agustín, San Luis Potosí, 9 January 1849; ff.1–2, Bustamante to Arista, Querétaro, 23 March 1849. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2886, ff.2–3, Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs to Arista, Mexico City, 2 October 1848.

36 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2939, ff.56–63, Quiroz to Bustamante, Plan Político y Eminentemente Social, Río Verde, 13 March 1849. Cabrera Ypiña, Hacienda de San Diego, pp. 106–8, 111–12.

37 AHESLP SGG (1849), no.13, exp. 1, no folio numbers, Verástegui to Rómulo Díaz de la Vega, Alaquines, 1 April 1849. Here, he dates the plan as 12 March, rather than 13 March.

38 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 13, exp. 1 (as above).

39 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 13, exp. 1 (continued).

40 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 12, María Inés Navarro de Verástegui to State Congress, San Luis Potosí, 21 March 1849. AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 14, Comandancia de las Milicias del Estado to Captain Songido Téllez, San Luis Potosí, 1 April 1849, on the escape.

41 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 13, exp. 1.

42 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 14, Jiménez (Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs) to State Governor of San Luis Potosí, Mexico City, 17 April 1849. The governor had been contacted earlier about this on 4 April.

43 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 14, Guadalupe Ríos (Juzgado Auxiliar de Bocas) to State Governor, Bocas, 14 April 1849.

44 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2978, ff.46–46v, Mejía to Juvera, Pinal de Amoles, 14 October 1848, expressing willingness to cooperate in terminating the rebellion by submitting to government authority.

45 AHESLP SGG (1849), no. 16, Francisco Castro (Sub-Prefect) to State Secretary, Ciudad del Maiz, 7 May 1849; Francisco Castro to State Secretary, Ciudad del Maiz, 21 May 1849; Castro to Secretary, Ciudad del Maiz, 28 May 1849; Castro to Secretary, Ciudad del Maiz, 28 May 1849; Manuel Barrios to Castro (copy), Villa de Valles, 26 May 1849.

46 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2921, ff.2–2v, Arista to Amador, Querétaro, 10 February 1849; ff.3–5, Arista to Secretary of the Chamber of Deputies, Mexico City, 26 February 1849. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2959, ff.3–4, Arista to Bustamante, Mexico City, 27 June 1849.

47 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3069, ff.33–5v, Testimonio de Eleuterio Quiroz, 30 October 1849. See also, Verástegui, Río Verde, 34–7.

48 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3020, Partes de Anastasio Bustamante dando cuenta de la aprehensión de Eleuterio Quiroz y Juan Ruiz (1849). AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2919, f.2, Arista to Minister of Finance, Mexico City, 23 January 1849. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2921, ff.7–8, Arista to Secretary of the Chamber of Deputies, Mexico City, 28 February 1849.

49 See Tomás Calvillo Unna, Cartas secretas: en vísperas de la llegada del presidente Benito Juárez a San Luis Potosí (1862–1863) (San Luis Potosí, 1990).

50 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2959, ff.2–4, Arista to Bustamante, Mexico City, 27 June 1849.

Chapter 9. The Struggle in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the State of Oaxaca, 1847–1853

1 Garay, Account of the Isthmus, pp. 15–23, 164–8. Leticia Reina, ‘Los pueblos indios del istmo de Tehuantepec. Readecuación económica y mercado regional’, in Antonio Escobar Ohmstede (coordinator), Indio, nación y comunidad en el México del siglo XIX (Mexico City, 1993), pp. 137–51; and the same author’s ‘Etnicidad y género entre los zapotecas del istmo de Tehuantepec, México, 1840–1890’, in Leticia Reina (coordinator), La reindianización de América, siglo XIX (Mexico City, 1997), pp. 340–57.

2 AGPEO Fondo Especial Benito Juárez 20, Box 13755, Manuel Payno (Secretary of State) to Governor Juárez, Mexico City, 20 July 1852. Garay, An Account of the Isthmus, pp. 15–23, 164–8. Griswold del Castillo, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, pp. 8–16, 23–4. Sobarzo, Deber y conciencia, pp. 242–58.

3 AGPEO Tesorería 1837, Reclamo de la Subprefectura de Juchitán sobre liquidación del ramo de capitación, Juchitán, 3 September 1846.

4 Joseph Whitecotton, The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests, and Peasants (Norman OK, 1984), p. 28. See also Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley (London, 1996). Garay, Account of the Isthmus, pp. 59–60.

5 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1852, Luis Fernández del Campo (Administrador General de Alcabalas) to State Government Secretary, Oaxaca, 14 May 1852, on the clandestine trade in foreign textiles from Guatemala into Oaxaca.

6 BEO MMG 72 for this rebellion in detail.

7 AGPEO Conflictos por tierras, Box 13663: Juchitán, leg. 64, exp. 13, solicitud de aprobación de deslinde que hace el municipio y es opuesto por los colindantes, especialmente los dueños de las Haciendas Marquesanas (1710– 1850), f.1, Tehuantepec, 25 April 1840. Juárez was a member of the Court of First Instance and agreed to this request on 29 April 1840 (f.3). The town successfully applied for the survey and demarcation of these claimed lands, 22 April and 20 May 1845 (f.4).

8 CEHM, Fondo CDXLV, manuscritos e impresos: Antonio de León, no. 46, Ayuntamiento (eight signatories) to Superior Government, 23 April 1843. AGPEO Tehuantepec. Tranquilidad Pública (1827–97), exp. 10, Salinas to State Secretary, no. 58, Tehuantepec, 20 December 1846. Salinas originated from Puebla and, elected a moderate Liberal deputy to the Oaxaca State Congress in 1858, became an ally of Juárez in the Reform era. He led the Ixtlán Brigade of the National Guard into Oaxaca City on 5 August 1860. In March 1861, he bought the Hacienda del Carmen, formerly the property of the Convent of Carmen Alto in the city. Charles R. Berry, The Reform in Oaxaca, 1856– 1876: A Microhistory of the Liberal Revolution (Lincoln NE and London, 1981), pp. 37–8, 148, 226, note 10. Patrick J. McNamara, Sons of the Sierra: Juárez, Díaz and the People of Ixtlán, Oaxaca, 1855–1920 (Chapel Hill NC, 2007), pp. 40–2, 57.

9 AGPEO, Legajo 6, Gobierno de Departamento, Tehuantepec, Pueblos, 1823–62, expediente 5, Brito to State Secretary, Tehuantepec 10 January 1846.

10 AGPEO, Legajo 16, Distritos – Tehuantepec, Elecciones 1826–98. Expediente 11, Los ciudadanos auxiliares de los barrios, Tehuantepec, 28 March 1847; Expediente 12, Los ciudadanos electores, Juchitán, 28 April 1847, with twenty-four signatories headed by Meléndez.

11 AGN Gobernación s/s, C339, exp. 6, Ayuntamiento and authorities of Silacayoapan, in ‘La Nueva Era Constitucional’, 5 March 1847. BEO, CMMG, 73 (1847–8), Martínez Gracida, Cuadro sinóptico de los pueblos, haciendas y ranchos, Tehuantepec (no folio numbers).

12 AGPEO, Elecciones, leg. 2 (1829–49), exp. 15, pueblo de Santo Domingo Petapa, 23 February 1847; exp. 17, Lista de los individuos que dieron Donativo Voluntario para ayuda de la Guerra contra los invasores del Norte, Santa María Petapa 22 May 1847, with the three Espinosa brothers listed; exp. 19, pueblo de Santa María Asunción Petapa, 23 February 1847 and 3 March 1847.

13 AGN Gobernación, sección: s/s C339, exp. 6, Alcance al n. 4 de la ‘Nueva Era’, Oaxaca, 2 June 1847, sent by Bolaños to the Secretary of Relations (Mexico City), no. 32, Oaxaca, 3 June 1847. AGN Gobernación, sec: s/s C339, exp. 6, f.32 obv., Acorta (Secretary of War and Navy) to Secretary of Relations, sending the report from the Military Commander of the State of Oaxaca, Manuel Rodríguez de Cela, to the comandante del Ejército de Oriente, General Manuel María Lombardini.

14 AGPEO Tehuantepec, Legajo 33 Gobernación, exp. 2, n. 52, Salinas to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 31 January 1847; Legajo Guerra (1847), Captain José Vicente Domínguez, Tehuantepec, 2 June 1847; Legajo 6, exp. 11, García to State Secretary, Tequisistlán, 4 July 1847; García to Secretary, Tequisistlán, 14 July 1847; Meléndez, circular, Tehuantepec, 30 July 1847; García to Secretary, Tequisistlán, 19 September 1847.

15 For the contract, see ANO, Mariscal (1837), no. 42, ff.131–48v, Oaxaca, 5 April 1837. Registered before the Public Notary on 13 January 1836, for the cash-down sum of $41,000, $1,000 of which covered the adjacent lands known as ‘Mata Grande’. The property would pass to the new owners on 13 August, free of debt burdens and mortgages.

16 For Guergué’s Will, see ANO, Mariscal (1850), ff.255v–6v, Oaxaca, 7 September 1850. He married Ana María del Solar Campero, daughter of one of the most powerful Spanish peninsular merchants, who returned to Spain in 1820. For Maqueo’s Will, see ANO, Protocolo del Lic. Juan Ocampo (1865–66), libro primero de protocolos (1866), no. 610, ff.16–17v, Oaxaca, 18 April 1864. Roberto Maqueo, his heir, was another major businessman in Oaxaca. Francisco Guergué, heir of his late father, sold his share in the Haciendas Marquesanas to Roberto at the low price of $2,500, due to the poor condition of the estates, see Libro 2, ff.1–3v, Oaxaca, 25 April 1866; Libro 6, ff.8v–10, Oaxaca, 1 November 1866. This was during the War of the French Intervention.

17 AGPEO Conflictos por tierras, Box 13663 (Juchitán), leg. 64, exp. 13, ff.1–4. AGPEO Tesorería 1837, statement of the Sub-Prefect of Juchitán, 8 September 1846.

18 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/2695, ff.77–77v, J. M. Castellanos to War Minister, no. 219, Oaxaca, 29 November 1847, and ibid. to ibid., f. 88, no. 226, Oaxaca, 6 December 1847, that the rebels had been dispersed.

19 AGPEO Tehuantepec, Tranquilidad Pública (1827–97), leg. 18, exp. 12, Muñoz to State Secretary, no. 3, Tehuantepec, 2 January 1849. Biblioteca Burgoa (Oaxaca), La Crónica, vol. 1, no. 10, p. 2, 14 July 1848.

20 Biblioteca Burgoa, La Crónica, vol. 1, no. 96, Muñoz to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 6 May 1849.

21 Jorge L. Tamayo, BJDOCS, 15 vols (Mexico City, 1964–72), I, 532–3, Order from State Secretary, Manuel Ruiz, Oaxaca, 5 November 1847; José Esperón (State Director General of Revenues) to State Secretary, Oaxaca, 6 November 1847.

22 AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 14, Muñoz to State Secretary, no. 69, Tehuantepec, 4 March 1848; cabildo extraordinario, Tehuantepec, 6 April 1848.

23 AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 14, exp. 8, Muñoz to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, May 1848; Muñoz to State Secretary, no. 24, Tehuantepec, 6 August 1848.

24 AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 16, Distritos, exp. 14, Elecciones (1826–98), Muñoz to State Secretary, no. 157, Tehuantepec, 14 May1848.

25 AGPEO Gobernación 1849, Decree of Juárez, Oaxaca, 11 July 1849.

26 AGPEO, Elecciones, exp. 3 (1829–49), cabecera de Petapa, 5 August 1849.

27 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1850, Pérez to State Treasurer, Tehuantepec, 28 June 1850.

28 AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 14, capitación, exp. 11, Pérez to State Secretary, no. 15, Tehuantepec, 6 January 1851.

29 Burgoa Library, Oaxaca, ‘La Crónica’, no. 10, 14 July 1848, p. 4.

30 AGPEO Gobernación 1849, Sub-Prefect of Juchitán to State Treasurer General, Ixtaltepec, 19 May 1849. AGPEO Diversos Históricos: Tesorería 1850, Antonio Núñez to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 2 February 1850. AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1850B, Santoni to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 14 July 1850, tells of vigorous opposition to Meléndez in the Tehuantepec pueblos, which spontaneously organised to resist his ‘bandits’ and assist the official armed forces; José Esperón to State Secretary, Oaxaca, 10, 17 and 26 July 1850. The Sub-Prefect of Juchitán at that time was Pedro Portillo, an enemy of Meléndez. Portillo reported the impossibility of collection the capitation tax during the rebellion. AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 5, exp. 8, Santoni to State Secretary, no. 21, Tehuantepec, 30 June 1850; Santoni to Secretary, no. 44, Tehuantepec, 14 July 1850; exp. 15, Santoni to State Secretary, no. 19, Tehuantepec, 19 June 1850. Santoni acted as governor from 9 June 1850, when Echavarría was on campaign.

31 AGPEO Tehuantepec, leg. 5, exp.8, Echavarría to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 20 September, 17 and 20 October 1850.

32 Juárez, Exposición … (1850), pp. 7–10.

33 AGPEO, FEBJ, Box 13748 for details of these operations and correspondence between Muñoz and Juárez.

34 Cayetano Esteva, Nociones elementales de geografía histórica del Estado de Oaxaca (Oaxaca, 1913), pp. 207–8.

35 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3271 (1850–2), ff.291–2, Lieutant-Colonel J. M. Muñoz to Juárez, Juchitán 23 January 1851; f.304, Tratados del Rancho de Malpaso, 16 January 1851; ff.302–3, Muñoz to Minister of War, Juchitán, 17 January 1851; ff.318–8v, Juárez to Minister of War, no. 15, Oaxaca, 27 February 1851; f.319, War to Juárez, Mexico City, 4 March 1851.

36 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1851), p. 11, no. 3, Juárez to Arista, Oaxaca, 2 March 1851, reprints both plans.

37 Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1851), p. 11, no. 3, Juárez to Arista, Oaxaca, 2 March 1851.

38 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3271 (tomo 2, 1850–2), ff. 289, Juárez to Minister of War, no. 12, Oaxaca, 30 January 1851; f.290, Juárez to Minister of War, no. 11, 29 January 1851. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3214, ff.49–49v, Juárez to Minister of War, Oaxaca, 9 August 1851. BEO, CMMG, tomo 41 (1851–2), Juárez to Comandante General de las Armas del Estado de Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 29 January 1851.

39 Juárez, Exposición … (1851), pp. 5, 9, 11, no. 3, Juárez to Arista, Oaxaca, 2 March 1851. Juárez, Exposición … (Oaxaca, 1852), p. 4.

40 BEO, CMMG 41, Francisco Urquidi to State Secretary, Tehuantepec, 7 November 1852.

41 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1853, Mariano Carrasquedo to State Treasurer, Oaxaca, 29 March 1853.

42 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1853, no. 32, Juan García to State Treasurer, Tehuantepec, 12 November 1852. Esteva, Nociones elementales, pp. 207–8. Ignacio Mejía was born in Zimatlán and also fought against the US army in 1847. He was Governor of Oaxaca from August 1852 until 18 January 1853. A Division General since 1865, he would become Minister of War under Juárez and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada from August 1865 until August 1876.

43 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1853, Francisco Ilaedo to State Treasurer, Teposcolula, 24 January 1853; Luis Murguía to State Treasurer, Zaachila, 3 February 1853.

44 AGPEO Diversos Históricos 1853, Juan García to State Treasurer, no. 32, Tehuantepec, 12 November 1852. AGPEO LE Gobernación 1853, box 46: 1853C, no. 21, Governor to President of the Republic, Oaxaca, 20 January 1853. BEO, CMMG, 41, Martínez Pinillos to State Military Commander, Tehuantepec, 14 November 1852. Martínez Gracida, Cuadro sinóptico. Tehuantepec. Meléndez was murdered in the outskirts of Tehuantepec, possibly poisoned, in April or May 1853. Charles Brasseur, Viaje por el Istmo de Tehuantepec, 1859–1860 (Mexico City, 1981 (French original, Paris 1861)), pp. 144–7. Pinillos remained Governor of Oaxaca until 29 August 1855, several weeks after the collapse of the Santa Anna régime in Mexico City. Following the Revolution of Ayutla and the final fall of Santa Anna, Ortiz was seized by the juchitecos and executed on 13 December 1855.

45 CEHM, Fondo XXVII–2, MSS Tomás Mejía, Governor to Santa Anna, Querétaro, 9 August 1853. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/4429, ff.3–4, Tomás Marín to Minister of War, Acayucan 17 October 1853; f.5, Santa Anna to Comandante General, Mexico City, 13 January 1854. AGN Gobernación, leg. 1041 (1854–62), box 1245, exp. 1, Santa Anna to Ignacio Aguilar y Marocho (Minister of the Interior), Mexico City, 7 March 1854.

46 AGN Gobernación, leg. 1160, box 1268, exp. 3, President Ignacio Comonfort to Minister of the Interior (Ignacio de la Llave), Mexico City, 27 May 1857, under article 48, for despatch to the State Governors.

Chapter 10. The Revolution of Ayutla and the First Stages of the Reform, 1854–1856

1 Emilio Rabasa, La Constitución y la dictadura (Mexico City, 1956 (1912)), p. 26.

2 Richard A. Johnson, The Mexican Revolution of Ayutla, 1854–55 (Rock Island IL, 1939). The plan was issued in the first instance by Colonel Florencio Villareal.

3 Colonel Comonfort had been appointed Prefect of Tlapa by the Minister of War on 13 February 1845 during the first Herrera presidency. AGN Gobernación 200, exp. 84, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Gobernación y Policía; Prefectos, Mexico City, 13 February 1845, proposed by Álvarez.

4 BJDOCS, II, pp. 10, 13–24. Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, 196–7, 203.

5 Richard N. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, 1854–1876: A Study of Liberal Nation-Building (Austin TX, 1979), p. 36.

6 Johnson, Revolution of Ayutla, pp. 27, 69–70.

7 Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, p. 46–51: 89 per cent of leaders came from these professions.

8 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 75–6, 78–82, 85. Guardino, Peasants, Politics and the Formation, p. 183. Bravo, Santa Anna’s interim Presidents in 1842–3, had also refused to support the Plan of Ayutla. He died shortly after its publication, 22 April 1854.

9 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 86–96.

10 AAGENL, 1 (2003), Tierra de guerra viva: Nómadas y civilizados en el noreste de México, provides the context.

11 AAGENL, 11 (2004), Santiago Vidaurri: el noreste de México en vilo, for details.

12 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/5208, Vidaurri, Circular, Monterrey, 23 May 1855.

13 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/5210, ff.6–7v, Valentín Cruz to Minister of War, no. 1, Saltillo 9 May 1855. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/5209, Cruz to Minister, Hacienda de la Encarnación, 29 May 1855. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/5211, ff.75–8, Mariano Morett to Minister of War, no. 1, Saltillo 31 May 1855. Manuel Guerra de Luna, Los Madero: la saga liberal, 2 vols (Mexico City, 2007), 11, pp. 518, 542–50. Escobedo was born in Texas.

14 AAGENL, 11, 51–79, Correspondence between Comonfort and Vidaurri, no. 1, Comonfort to Vidaurri, Lagos, 18 September 1855; no. 2, Vidaurri to Comonfort, Monterrey, 28 September 1855.

15 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 91, pp. 138–9, Miguel María Arrioja to Ocampo (in Brownsville), New Orleans, 17 January 1855. Arrioja had arrived in New Orleans on 13 January from New York. He told Ocampo that ‘Nacho’ Comonfort, entrusted with full powers from Álvarez, left New York on 20 November with a small supply of armaments destined for the fort at Acapulco, which he reached on 7 December.

16 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 104, pp. 151–3, Arrioja to Ocampo, New Orleans, 2 May 1855.

17 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 107, p. 155, Juárez to Ocampo, New Orleans, 16 May 1855.

18 Guerra, Los Madero, pp. 499–503, 596, 509–14, 541–2. Evaristo Madero (b. 1830) took his seat as deputy in the Nuevo León congress on 1 August 1857 in accordance with the Federal Constitution of February 1857. He became Governor of Coahuila in 1880–4.

19 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 108, pp. 155–6, Actas de las sesiones de la Junta Revolucionaria, Brownsville, 22 May 1855; no. 111, pp. 159–60, Junta Session of 27 May 1855; Álvarez to Ocampo and Mata, Texca, 4 August 1855.

20 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 114, pp. 163–4, Arrioja to Ocampo, New Orleans, 30 May 1855; no. 116, Juárez to Ocampo, New Orleans, 30 May 1855. The Junta dissolved itself on 21 June. Arrioja arrived from New Orleans the previous night.

21 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 129, p. 183, Juárez to Ocampo, Acapulco (early) August 1855.

22 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 131, p. 184, Prieto to Doblado, Mexico City, 1 September 1855.

23 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 132, pp. 186–7, Arriaga to Ocampo and Mata, Brownsville, 6 September 1855; no. 133, pp. 193–6, Arriaga to Ocampo, Brownsville, 6 September 1855.

24 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 134, p. 184, Juárez to Ocampo, Chilpancingo, 10 September 1855, also saying that Álvarez was in the process of writing to Vidaurri; no. 135, p. 197, Álvarez to Ocampo, Chilpancingo, 11 September 1855; no. 160, pp. 201–2, Ocampo to Vidaurri, Cuernavaca, 9 October 1855.

25 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 151, pp. 213–29, Mis quince días de ministro: Remitido del ciudadano Melchor Ocampo al periódico titulado, ‘La Revolución’, no. 5 (1856), published in Guadalajara, and dated Hacienda de Pomoca, 14 November 1855, pp. 215–6.

26 Mis quince días, pp. 216–7.

27 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 135, p. 197, Álvarez to Ocampo, Chilpancingo, 11 September 1855; no. 151, pp. 213–29, Mis quince días, Pomoca, 18 November 1855. This took the form of a letter to the editors of La República on 14 November 1855.

28 Mis quince días, pp. 217–8.

29 Mis quince días, pp. 224–9.

30 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 328, pp. 454–6, Andrés Oseguera to Ocampo, Paris, 30 September 1858. Oseguera told Ocampo that he recoiled from Michelet’s partiality towards Robespierre and Saint-Just.

31 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 245, pp. 328–30, Ocampo to the Editors of El Siglo XIX, Pomoca, 7 April 1857.

32 Gantús, Elecciones en el México, II, Anexos, pp. 235–59. Rabasa, La Constitución y la dictadura, pp. 30–1.

33 See Guardino, Peasants, Politics and the Formation, pp. 187–8.

34 Andrés Lira González, ‘Jurisdicción eclesiástica y potestad pública en México, 1812–1860’, in Juan Carlos Casas and Pablo Mijangos y González (coordinators), Por una Iglesia libre en un mundo liberal: La obra y los tiempos de Clemente de Jesús Munguía, primer arzobispo de Michoacán (1810–1868) (Mexico City and Zamora, 2008), pp. 255–73: see p. 268. Mijangos, Entre Dios y la República, p. 131. Juárez was Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs from 6 October until 9 December 1855.

35 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 99–100. Villegas Revueltas, Los liberales moderados, pp. 88–90.

36 For De la Garza, see Brian Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios y el llamado de la patria: Religión, Identidad y Ciudadanía en México, Siglo XIX (Mexico City, 2010), pp. 382–404.

37 AHAO Actas del Cabildo Eclesiástico (encuadernadas) 1849–56. Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, p. 365.

38 Luis Reed Torres, El General Tomás Mejía frente a la Doctrina Monroe: La Guerra de Reforma, la Intervención y en Imperio a través del Archivo inédito del caudillo conservador queretano (Mexico City, 1989), pp. 34–9.

39 Brian Connaughton, ‘Una ruptura anunciada: los catolicismos encontrados del gobierno liberal y el arzobispo Garza y Ballesteros’, in Jaime Olveda (coordinator), Los obispados de México frente a la Reforma liberal (Guadalajara, 2007), pp. 27–55. Alicia Tecanhuey Sandoval, ‘La diócesis de Puebla en la época de la Reforma’, in Olveda, Los obispados, pp. 173–200. Marta Eugenia García Ugarte, ‘Church and State in Conflict: Bishop Labastida of Puebla, 1855– 1856’, in Susan Deans-Smith and Eric Van Young, Mexican Soundings: Essays in Honour of David A. Brading (London 2007), pp. 140–68: see pp. 152–8.

40 Villegas Revueltas, Los liberales moderados, pp. 90–4.

41 Villegas Revueltas, Los liberales moderados, p. 88.

42 Sordo, ‘José María Lafragua’, 36–7.

43 Ocampo, Obras, no. 235, p. 318, Ocampo to Mata, Pomoca, 6 January 1857; no. 236, p. 319, Ocampo to Mata, Pomoca, 10 January1857; no. 238, pp. 320–1, Mata to Ocampo (in Tuxpan), Mexico City, 20 January 1857; no. 239, pp. 321–2, Mata to Ocampo (back in Pomoca), Mexico City, 25 January 1857.

44 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 102–5, 107. Thomson and LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism, pp. 46–7, 52, 70.

45 Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 107–14, 120–1.

46 Robert J. Knowlton, Church Property and the Mexican Reform, 1856–1910 (DeKalb 1976), p. 23. Bazant, Antonio Haro y Tamariz, pp. 115, 123–32, 134, 137–8. Thomson and LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism, pp. 48–52.

47 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6865, ff.11–11v, Soto to Vidaurri, Mexico City, 5 June 1856; f.1–2v, Luis de la Rosa (Foreign Minister) to War Minster, no. 1, reservada, Mexico City, 19 July 1856; f.3, War Minister to Governor of Tamaulipas, Juan José de la Garza, Mexico City, 22 July 1856; ff.4–5, De la Rosa to War Minister, reservada, Mexico City, 11 June 1856. AAGENL, 11, 174–7, Vidaurri to Comonfort, Monterrey, 2 May 1856. Mario Cerutti, Economía de guerra y poder regional en el siglo XIX (Monterrey, 1983), pp. 32–4. Coahuila remained under Vidaurri’s control until February 1864, when President Juárez nullified the annexation decree of 1856, reconstituted the State’s separate institutions and placed Nuevo León under martial law.

48 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/3793, ff.41–5, Juan Luis Rivera (Comandante General) to Minister of War, no. 11, San Luis Potosí, 14 February 1857; ff.59–62v, Vidaurri to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 19 February 1857; ff.64–5, Vidaurri to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 25 February 1857. Vidaurri advised the President to grant clemency to the two Conservative leaders, Gen. J. M. Alfaro and Governor Othón, and recommended him to dismiss the ‘detested’ Liberal Governor J. M. Aguirre, the cause of the trouble in the city.

49 AHSDN, exp. Xi/481.3/3793, f.29, Vidaurri to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 11 March 1857.

50 BJDOCS, 1, pp. 149–51, Governor Juárez, and his allies Manuel Dublan, Manuel Ruiz, Félix Romero, Marcos Pérez and Justo Benítez, protested on 15 May 1856 that the Estatuto threatened the principles of the Revolution of Ayutla. Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, pp. 197–8, 201. Lafragua remained at Gobernación until 31 January 1857.

51 Villegas Revueltas, Los liberales moderados, pp. 124–8.

52 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 223, pp. 306–9, Comonfort to Ocampo, Arriaga and Gómez, Mexico City, 21 October 1856.

53 Carmen Blázquez, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada: Un liberal veracruzano en la política nacional (Mexico City, 1978), p. 82.

54 Bazant, Los bienes de la Iglesia, Appendix 1, pp. 317–20, Confiscación de bienes eclesiásticos en España, Francia, Inglaterra, y Bohemia. Robert J. Knowlton, ‘Expropriation of Church Property in Nineteenth-Century Mexico and Colombia: a Comparison’, The Americas, 25/4 (April 1969), 387–401. David Bushnell, The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself (California, 1993), pp. 100–11, 120–2, 129. Olveda, Los obispados, pp. 13–16. Jean-Pierre Bastian, ‘L’Impossible Réforme: Les Élites libérales à la recherche d’une modernité religieuse latinoaméricaine au XIX siècle’, Caravelle, no. 67 (1997), pp. 89–101. Brian Connaughton, ‘Nación y religión en el México del siglo XIX’, and Manuel Suárez Cortina, ‘El factor religioso y la construcción de la identidad nacional en la España liberal’, both in Manuel Suárez Cortina and Tomás Pérez Vejo (eds), Los caminos de la ciudadanía: México y España en perspectiva comparada (Madrid, 2010), pp. 246–63, 264–83.

Chapter 11. The Lerdo Law of 1856

1 Donald Fraser, ‘La política de la desamortización en las comunidades indígenas, 1856–1873’, HM, 84, XXI/4 (April–June 1972), 615–52.

2 Leyes de Reforma: Gobiernos de Ignacio Comonfort y Benito Juárez (1856– 1863) (Mexico City, 1947), 25–32, articles 1, 3, 25, 27, 32. Anselmo de la Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857: Gobierno del General Comonfort (Mexico City, 1987 (1858)), pp. 69–72. Knowlton, Church Property and the Mexican Reform, p. 74. Blázquez, Lerdo de Tejada, pp. 83, 85–6.

3 Michael T. Ducey, ‘La comunidad liberal: estrategias campesinas y la política liberal durante la República Restaurada y el Porfiriato en Veracruz’, in Brian F. Connaughton (compiler), Prácticas populares, cultura política y poder en México, siglo XIX (Mexico City, 2008), pp. 303–32, see pp. 308–12.

4 Frank Shenk, ‘The disamortización in the Sultepec district. The privatisation of communal landholdings in Mexico, 1856–1911’, highlighting conditions in this State of Mexico district. I am grateful to the author for a copy of this paper presented at the Society of Latin American Studies Conference in March 1994.

5 Francisco Zarco, Historia del Congreso Extraordinario Constituyente (1856–1857) (Mexico City, 1956 (1857–61)), pp. 423–35. Payno, Memoria, p. 41. Blásquez, Lerdo de Tejada, pp. 92–4.

6 Blázquez, Lerdo de Tejada, pp. 89–91. Caplan, Indigenous Citizens, pp. 170–9, Indian communities in Oaxaca amply used this Resolution in adjudication disputes.

7 Robert J. Knowlton, ‘La individualización de la propiedad corporativa civil en el siglo XIX: Notas sobre Jalisco’, HM, 109, XVIII/1 (July–September 1978), 24–61, and by the same author, ‘La división de las tierras de los pueblos durante el siglo XIX: el caso de Michoacán’, HM, 157, XL/1 (July–September 1990), 3–26. Carmen Salinas Sandoval and Diana Birrichaga Gardida, ‘Conflicto y aceptación ante el liberalismo. Los pueblos del Estado de México, 1856–1876’, in Escobar Ohmstede, Los pueblos indios, pp. 207–51.

8 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, p. 365.

9 ANO, Manuel Zamora (1859–60), Protocolos de Instrumentos Públicos (1859), for details.

10 Berry, The Reform in Oaxaca, pp. 176–7, 182–3. Caplan, Indigenous Citizens, pp. 170–9.

11 Jorge L. Tamayo, Epistolario de Benito Juárez (Mexico City, 1957), p. 44. Alejandro Méndez Aquino, Historia de Tlaxiaco (Mixteca) (Mexico City, 1985), pp. 126–33.

12 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 7, Box 13750, Inventario de los bienes comunales de las parroquias y pueblos del partido de Tlaxiaco (Prefectura de Teposcolula), 14 February 1854: noticia que el subprefecto de este partido forma en cumplimiento de orden superior, Tlaxiaco, 26 December 1856.

13 The father of José Joaquín Guergué.

14 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 7, Box 13750, exp. 18, Estéban Esperón pide se le adjudiquen los terrenos que pertenecen al común de Tlaxiaco. Estéban Esperón was married to Antonia Rendón, daughter of Francisco Rendón, last colonial Intendant of Oaxaca from 1816 to 1821. His sister married the Basque-descended merchant, Juan Ignacio Aguirreurreta.

15 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 7, Box 13750, Mariano Carrasquedo to Manuel Dublán (Governor’s Secretary), Teposcolula, 31 October 1856.

16 AGPEO, FEBJ, leg. 27, Box 13764, Carrasquedo to Dublán, Teposcolula, 6 September 1856.

17 AGPEO FE BJ, Box 13655, leg. 14, Adjudicaciones: Jamiltepec, exp. 2, Fagoaga to Dublán, Oaxaca, 2 September 1856; juez de primera instancia, Jamiltepec, 10 September 1856; Fagoaga to Dublán, Oaxaca, 19 September 1856; Sub-Prefect Agustín Castañeda, Jamiltepec, 30 September 1856; Carvajal to Juárez, Jamiltepec 4 November 1856. ANO, Manuel Zamora (1862–3), ff.29v–32v, Oaxaca, 3 April 1862, states that Fagoaga was the heir to the Mayorazgo of Joaquin Güendulain.

18 AGPEO FE BJ, Box 13655, leg. 14, exp. 3, alcalde and councillors, Huaspaltepec to Juárez, 20 November 1856. In 1852, Francisco Santaella was a magistrate of the Oaxaca Supreme Court and Juan María Santaella was substitute District Justice and Governor in 1865 and 1866.

19 AGPEO, FEBJ, Box 13655, leg. 14, exp. 2, Five ‘ancianos’ to the State Governor, Barrio Chico de Santa María Huazolotitlán, 25 August 1856.

20 Archivo de Porfirio Díaz, 11, pp. 26–8, 33–4.

21 Bazant, Los bienes de la Iglesia en México, pp. 13–14, Appendices, pp. 17–21, 335–48.

22 Berry, The Reform in Oaxaca, pp. 138–91. Knowlton, Church Property, pp. 219–22, 237.

Chapter 12. The Federal Constitution and the road to disaster, February 1857-January 1858

1 Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, p. 58.

2 Zarco, Historia del Congreso, pp. 320–3, 835–43, 1050–4, 1345–61. Daniel Cosío Villegas, La Constitución de 1857 y sus críticos (Mexico City, 1957), p. 129.

3 José María Lafragua, Miscelánea de política (Mexico City, 1987 (1943)), pp.114–15. He would not have left for Spain as Minister Plenipotentiary, if Comonfort had agreed. Rabasa, La Constitución y la dictadura, pp. 138–85. Cosío Villegas, La Constitución de 1857, p. 141.

4 Sordo, ‘José María Lafragua’, 39.

5 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, p. 400.

6 Rabasa, La Constitución y la dictadura, pp. 33–4.

7 Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, pp. 56, 58, 63–5, 67, 123, 129–31.

8 Frank A. Knapp, ‘Parliamentary Government and the Mexican Constitution of 1857’, HAHR, 33/1 (1953), 65–87. Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, pp. 205, 237.

9 Volume III of Jesús Reyes Heroles, El Liberalismo mexicano, 3 vols (Mexico City, 1957–61), highlights these issues. Guardino, Peasants, Politics, and the Formation, pp. 190–1.

10 Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, p. 170.

11 Michael T. Ducey, ‘Indios liberales y liberales indigenistas: ideología y poder en los municipios rurales de Veracruz, 1821–1890’, in Antonio Escobar and Luz Carregha Lamadrid (compilers), El siglo XIX en las Huastecas (Mexico City/San Luis Potosí, 2002), pp. 111–36. Sinkin, The Mexican Reform, p. 170.

12 Charles A. Hale, The Transformation of Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Princeton NJ, 1989), pp. x, 8, contrasting the Mexican Constitution of 1857 with what he describes as the more pragmatic Argentine Constitution of 1853, designed by Juan Bautista Alberdi, which provided for a strong executive in a confederation. Gabriel Negretto and José Antonio Aguilar Rivera, ‘Rethinking the Legacy of the Liberal State in Latin America: the Cases of Argentina (1853– 1916) and Mexico (1857–1910)’, JLAS, 32 (2020), 361–97.

13 Gantús, Elecciones en el México, II, Tapia, ‘La práctica y la palabra’, p. 25.

14 Knapp, ‘Parliamentary Government’, 63–87.

15 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, pp. 369–70.

16 La Cruz, section IV, no. 18 (23 April 1857), 589–97; IV, no. 19 (30 April 1857), 632.

17 Gantús, Elecciones en el México, II, Tapia, ‘La práctica y la palabra’, pp. 9, 19–21; Anexos, pp. 298–9. Sinkin, Mexican Reform, p. 58. There would be no direct election until 1912.

18 Tapia, ‘La práctica y la palabra’, pp. 22–4.

19 AGPEO Correpondencia con la Secretaría General de Despacho, no. 1080, Histórica ley orgánica electoral del Estado (1874), Reprint of Constitutional Congress of Oaxaca (secretaries José Esperón and Félix Romero), 29 October 1857.

20 Mijangos, Entre Dios y la República, pp. 244–71 for the geographical distribution.

21 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, pp. 374–5.

22 Castañeda Guzmán, Cordilleras eclesiásticas, no. 140, pp. 185–86. Bishop Domínguez to his parish clergy, Oaxaca, 1 April 1857.

23 Connaughton, ‘Nación y Religión en el México del siglo XIX’, in Suárez Cortina and Pérez Vejo (eds), Los caminos de la ciudadanía, pp. 246–63, see p. 254.

24 Brian F. Connaughton, ‘1856–1857: conciencia religiosa y controversia ciudadana. La conciencia como poder político en ‘un pueblo eminentemente católico’,’ in Brian F. Connaughton (coordinator), Prácticas populares, cultura política y poder en México, siglo XIX (Mexico City, 2008), pp. 395–464. Mijangos, Entre Dios y la República, pp. 240–2.

25 Connaughton, ‘Nación y Religión’, pp. 254–5, on the arguments of Nicolás Pizarro, official in the Ministry of Justice.

26 AHSDN, exp. XI/481–3/4253, ff.64–64v, Mariano Morett (Military Commander), to Minister of War, no. 117, San Luis Potosí, 5 April 1857; ff.45–45v, Epitacio Huerta (Military Commander) to Minister of War, no. 82, Morelia, 8 April 1857; ff.6–6v, José Rincón to Parrodi (Military Commander), Lagos, 13 April 1857; ff.69–70v, José Luis Rivera to Minister of War, Aguascalientes, 14 April 1857; ff.9–10, Francisco Padilla to Parrodi, San Juan, 15 April 1857; ff.57–57v, Morett to Minister of War, no. 144, San Luis Potosí, 24 April 1857; ff.1–2, Parrodi to Minister of War, no. 143, Guadalajara, 28 April 1857; ff.11–13v, Parrodi to Minister of War, no. 160, Guadalajara, 4 May 1857; f.55, Morett to Minister of War, no. 181, San Luis Potosí, 12 May 1857.

27 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, pp. 368–9.

28 Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, pp. 392–3.

29 Connaughton, ‘1856–1857; conciencia religiosa’, pp. 415–6, 422, 434–5, 437, 445. The Mixteca Alta and Baja and the southern Puebla districts on the way to Oaxaca or bordering that state – Izúcar, Acatlán, Huajuapan, Juxtlahuaca, Silacoyoapan and Putla – had been the focus of protest movements against centralist taxation and other issues in the 1840s. That opposition did not appear to have made them favourable to Liberal measures in 1856–7.

30 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/4114, Acta sucitada en Jalpan por las fuerzas de la sección de Rafael Olvera, 16 June 1857, ff.1–1vta, Olvera to Col. Andrés Parres, Jalpan, 1 June 1857.

31 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/4176, ff.26–7, Gen. Vicente Rosas Landa to Minister of War, no. 13, San Pedro Tlaxcoapan, 7 May 1857; ff. 29–30, Rosas to Minister of War, no. 18, Jacala, 13 May 1857; ff.44–5, Mariano Riva Palacio (Governor of the State of Mexico) to Minister of War, Toluca, 21 May 1857; ff.62–3, Rosas Landa, Instrucciones dadas a los comandantes de las secciones con que se abre la campaña contra los sublevados de la Sierra, Querétaro, 11 June 1857; ff.78–78vta. Rosas Landa, Capitulación ratificada, Cuesta de la Calentura, 23 June 1857.

32 La Cruz (Mexico City, 1855–8), section I, no. 1 (1 November 1855); no. 7 (13 December 1855), 201–8, 227; section III, no. 2 (14 August 1856), 39–42; III, no. 10 (9 October 1956), 289–94; III, no. 11 (16 November 1856), 321–7.

33 Castañeda Guzmán, Cordilleras eclesiásticas, no. 138, pp. 183–4, Bishop Domínguez to his parish clergy, Oaxaca, 23 November 1855.

34 Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857, pp. 5–12, 307. Manuel Payno, Memoria sobre la revolución de diciembre de 1857 y enero de 1858 (Mexico City, 1987 (1860)), pp. 31–2. Rosaura Hernández Ramírez, Ignacio Comonfort. Trayectoria política. Documentos (Mexico City, 1967), p. 53.

35 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 215, p. 298, Mata to Ocampo, Mexico City, 21 September 1856; no. 223, pp. 306–9, Comonfort to Ocampo, Arriaga and Gómez, Mexico City, 21 October 1856.

36 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 235, p. 318, Ocampo to Mata, Pomoca, 6 January 1857; no. 236, p. 319, Ocampo to Mata, Pomoca, 10 January 1857.

37 De la Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857, pp. 275–85. Cosío Villegas, La Constitución de 1957, p. 129.

38 BJDOCS, 2, p. 225, Juárez to Romero, Oaxaca, 8 September 1857.

39 Felipe Buenrostro, Historia del primer Congreso Constitucional que funcionó en el año de 1857 (Mexico City, 1874), pp. 24–7. De la Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857, pp, 275–96, 303–6. Payno, Memoria sobre la revolución, pp. 43–6, 74–9, 81, 87–8, 97, 101–7.

40 Buenrostro, Historia del primer Congreso, pp. 279–81.

41 Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857, pp. 297–304. Payno, Memoria de la revolución, p. 114. Aguilar Rivera, El manto liberal, p. 237.

42 Portilla, México en 1856 y 1857, pp. 312–39, 333, 336, 387, 389. Payno, Memoria de la revolución, pp. 117–24, 127–32.

43 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 254, p. 347, Prieto to Ocampo, Mexico City, 13 January 1858.

44 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 231, pp. 315–16, Ocampo to Mata, Hacienda de Pomoca, 30 December 1856.

45 Rabasa, La Constitución y la dictadura, p. 26. Ernesto de la Torre Villar (ed.), El triunfo de la República Liberal (Mexico City, 1960), p. ix.

Chapter 13. The Civil War of the Reform, 1858–1861

1 AHESLP, Sección de Gobierno, leg. 2 (enero 1858), Hilario Elguero, Secretario de Gobernación, Mexico City, 28 January 1858.

2 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 261, pp. 357–8, Forsyth to Ocampo, Mexico City, 30 January 1858. Connaughton, Entre la voz de Dios, pp. 396–7. Zuloaga (1813–98) originated from Álamos (Sonora). He had joined the Chihuahua Civic Militia in 1834 and the regular army as a Sub-Lieutenant of Engineers in 1838. He supported Santa Anna in 1841, became President of the Council of War in 1853 and fought against the Plan of Ayutla rebels in 1854. His presidency lasted from 22 January 1858 until 24 January 1859.

3 Miguel Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional o relación histórica de la Guerra de Reforma, intervención extranjera y gobierno del archiduque Maximiliano, 1857–1867, 3 vols (Mexico City, 1987 (1904)), I, pp. 43–7.

4 Zachary Brittsan, Popular Politics and Rebellion in Mexico: Manuel Lozada and La Reforma, 1855–1876 (Nashville TN, 2015), pp. 47–9, 52–8. However, joint forces failed to take the Liberal-controlled port of Mazatlán in February 1860.

5 AHESLP, leg. 4 (enero 1858), Othón to State Governor, San Luis Potosí, 14 January 1858, reporting the installation of the new city council. AHESLP, Actas del Cabildo 1858, cabildo ordinario del día 12 de enero de 1858. Othón became Department Governor late in April 1858.

6 AHESLP, Sección de Gobierno, leg. 2 (enero 1858), ayuntamento de Armadillo (Celio Canchola and 16 signatories) to State Government of the Department of San Luis Potosí, 26 January 1858. Armadillo was a district under a sub-prefect.

7 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 256, p. 353, Ocampo to Forsyth (in Mexico City), Guanajuato, 22 January 1858; no. 258, p. 354, Circular of Ocampo to State Governors, Guanajuato, 29 January 1858; no. 260, pp. 355–6, Ocampo to Forsyth, Guadalajara, 2 March 1858.

8 AHESLP, Actas del Cabildo, San Luis Potosí, 3 August 1858.

9 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 269, pp. 366–7, Parrodi to Ocampo, Cuartel General de Celaya, 21 February 1858; no. 271, pp. 368–70, Ocampo to Forsyth, Guadalajara, 22 February 1858; no. 284, pp. 386–7, Parrodi to Ocampo, Celaya, 5 March 1858, complaining of a lack of coordination among Liberal forces.

10 Ocampo, Obras, 4, nos 289 and 290, pp. 392–5, Guadalajara, 15 March 1858; no. 291, p. 195, Camarena to Parrodi and Degollado, Guadalajara, 16 March 1858; no. 294, p. 397, Ocampo to Degollado, Colima, 27 March 1858. Juárez appointed José Santos Degollado (1811–61) Minister of War and Supreme Commander of Liberal forces, replacing Parrodi. He originated from Guanajuato, where his parents supported the Insurgency. Orphaned, he was brought up by a cleric in Michoacán. He became a protégé of Ocampo from the mid-1830s through the 1840s and Rector the Colegio de San Nicolás in Morelia upon re-opening in January 1847. He was briefly acting Governor of Michoacán from 27 March to 6 July 1848. A federalist, he rallied to the Plan of Ayutla in 1854.

11 Archivo Histórico de Jalisco, Departamento de Investigación y Divulgación, El Tiempo de Jalisco, compiled by Fabio Acosta Rizo, Año XIII, no. 38 (September 2018), 5–36. Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 105–24, 180–3. Teniente Coronel Mariano Escobedo of the Second Battalion of Frontier Riflemen fought in this battle.

12 BEO MMG, 46 (1858–9), Boletín Oficial, no. 19, Oaxaca, 21 February 1858; no. 20, Oaxaca, 25 February 1858.

13 Thomson, ‘Popular Aspects of Liberalism’, 265–92.

14 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 298, pp. 401–2, Ocampo, Circular, Veracruz, 5 May 1858.

15 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/7350, ff.14–14v, Convenio de Montemorelos, 13 January 1858.

16 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/7350, ff.10–12v, Vidaurri to Minister of War (Veracruz), Monterrey, 3 March 1859; ff.17–18, Ocampo to Vidaurri, Veracruz, 7 April 1859.

17 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6146, ff.23–23v, Miramón to De la Parra, San Luis Potosí, 27 April 1858. Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 126–7, 177–8.

18 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6146, ff.7–8v, Tomás Mejía to Minister of War, Tampico, 12 May 1858; ff.12–13, Mejía to Minister of War, 15 May 1858; ff.14–14v, Minister of War to Mejía, Mexico City, 25 May 1858; f.18, Rafael Moreno to Minister of War, Tampico, 3 June 1858; ff.19– 20, Mejía to Minister of War, Landa, 18 June 1858.

19 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6399, ff.2–3, Mejía to Minister of War (Mexico City), Peñamiller, 25 June 1858; ff.11–12, Mejía to Minister of War, no. 62, Querétaro, 14 July 1858; ff.13–13v, Minster of War to Mejía, Mexico City, 17 July 1858; ff.19–19v, Mejía to Minister of War, no. 73, Querétaro, 22 July 1858, without men and money, he was unable to advance to Celaya, as instructed on 20 July.

20 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6469, ff.1–1v, Mejía to Minister of War, Querétaro, 10 August 1858.

21 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 305, pp. 412–13, Ocampo to Mata, Veracruz, 6 June 1858; no. 297, pp. 400–1, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 20 April 1858; no. 326, p. 452, Mata to Ocampo, New York, 26 September 1858; no. 331, p. 459, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 16 October 1858.

22 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6835, ff.3–4v, Governor J. M. Alfaro (Conservative) to Osollo, San Luis Potosí, 14 March 1858; ff.7–7v, Alfaro to Minister of War, San Luis Potosí, 4 April 1858 Alfaro (and many other Conservatives) believed the United States to be ‘perfidious’.

23 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6835, f. 11, Alfaro to Minister of War, no. 23, San Luis Potosí, 6 April 1858; ff.12–12v, Alfaro to War, no. 27, San Luis Potosí, 17 April 1858; ff.13–13v, Minster of War to Miramón, Mexico City, 12 April 1858; f.15, Governor José Othón (Conservative) to War, reservada, San Luis Potosí, 18 June 1858. Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 333, pp. 460–2, Eugenio Maillefert to Ocampo, Mexico City, 24 October 1858.

24 AHESLP, Sección de Gobierno, leg. 3 (enero 1858), Jugado Primera de la Paz to Governor of the Department of San Luis Potosí, Villa de San Nicolás Tolentino, 1 October 1858; leg. 1 (enero 1858), Villa de San Felipe to Miramón, 9 October 1858; Governor to Jefe Político, San Luis Potosí, 14 October 1858.

25 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 335, p. 464, Degollado to Ocampo, Guadalajara, 4 November 1858. Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 185–8, 190–200.

26 AHSDN, exp. XI/481–3/6629, ff.5–6, Mejía o Minster of War, no. 3, Querétaro, 29 November 1858; f.7, Superior Government to Mejía, Mexico City, 2 December 1858.

27 Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 201–12, 216–17.

28 Blázquez Domínguez, Veracruz liberal, 1858–1860, pp. 119–29.

29 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6239, ff.1–3, copia del Plan de Operaciones formulado por Juan José de la Garza y Santiago Vidaurri para la defensa de los Estados de Nuevo León, Coahuila y Tamaulipas, 2 January 1859; f.7, Ocampo to Vidaurri, Veracruz, 31 January 1859. AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/6905, ff.8–9, Zaragoza to Vidaurri, Aguascalientes, 16 February 1859 (copy, Monterrey, 21 February 1859). Zaragoza, Secretary for War in April–October 1861, would be the victor against the French Expeditionary Army at the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862. He died of typhoid on 8 September that year. Both he and Quiroga were the same age and joined the Nuevo León National Guard in the early 1850s, opposing Santa Anna’s regime in 1854–5. Quiroga adhered to the Empire in 1865.

30 Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 227–8, 234–6.

31 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/7754, ff.1–6, Degollado to Minister of War (Veracruz), Tampico, 10 April 1860. Degollado had arrived in Tampico on 29 March 1860.

32 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, p. 78.

33 BJDOCS, III, pp. 407–13. Forsyth to Cuevas, Mexico City, 22 March 1858. Gurza Lavalle, La gestion diplomática, pp. 85–9.

34 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, pp. 91–5.

35 Gurza Lavalle, La gestión diplomática, p. 97, writing to Cass on 1 October 1858.

36 Lafragua was from 1857–8 Extraordinary Envoy and Minister Plenipotentiary in Madrid, and thence, in 1858–61, Minister in Paris. Agustín Cue Cánovas, El Tratado Mon-Almonte (Mexico City, 1980). Sordo, ‘José María Lafragua’, 39–40.

37 Agustín Cue Cánovas, El Tratado McLane-Ocampo: Juárez, Estados Unidos y Europa (Mexico City, 1956). Cue Cánovas, El Tratado Mon-Almonte, pp. 11, 19, 22, 26–31. McLane (b. Wilmington DE, 1815; d. Paris, 1898), whose father had been US Minister to Great Britain, had been an army officer between 1837 and 1843 before turning to legal practice in Baltimore and to politics as Congressman in 1846–51. In 1853–4, he represented the United States in China and the Far East. A Democrat, he supported Buchanan in the 1856 elections. He did not support the Confederacy and Maryland did not secede. He became a US Senator in 1879–83, Governor of Maryland in 1884–5, and Minister to France in 1885–9.

38 AHSDN, exp. IX/481.3/7410, ff.9–9v, Circular a los gobernadores, Mexico City, 18 April 1859; ff.34–34v, Legación de los EEUU, Veracruz, 26 April 1859. Cue Cánovas, El Tratado McLane-Ocampo, pp. 72–81.

39 Lilia Díaz, Versión francesa de México: Informes diplomáticos, 5 vols (Mexico City, 1963–67), 2, (1858–62), pp. 79–82.

40 For the treaty and the accompanying Convention, BJDOCS, III, pp. 751–63, 763–6. Jorge L. Tamayo, ‘El Tratado McLane-Ocampo’, HM, 84, XXI/4 (1972), 573–613.

41 BJDOCS, 111, pp. 747–50, McLane to Cass, Veracruz, 14 December 1859.

42 AHSDN, exp. IX/481.3/7410, ff.24–24v, Circular a los gobernadores de departamento, Mexico City, 30 December 1859.

43 Díaz, Versión francesa, 2, pp. 128–31, Alexis de Gabriac to French Foreign Minister, Mexico City, 27 January 1860.

44 Blázquez Domínguez, Veracruz liberal, pp. 205–35.

45 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 162, pp. 342–43, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 25 April 1860; no. 169, p. 357, José de Emparán to Mata, Veracruz, 5 May 1860; nos 165 and 166, 346–51, 2 letters of Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 9 May 1860; no. 167, pp. 351–2, Emparán to Mata, Veracruz, 10 May 1860.

46 Carl H. Bock, Prelude to Tragedy: The Negotiation and Breakdown of the Tripartite Convention of London, October 31, 1861 (Philadelphia PA, 1966), p. 605, notes 43 and 5. Blázquez, Veracruz liberal, 227, 230–1. There were twenty-seven votes against ratification (twenty-one of them from Republicans) and eighteen in favour (all Democrats).

Chapter 14. The Continuation of the Reform and the Final Phase of the War, 1859–1860

1 Ocampo, Obras, 4, no. 281, pp. 381–3, Ocampo to Mata, Guadalajara, 3 March 1858. Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 92, pp. 200–3, McLane to Cass, Veracruz, 17 August 1859; no. 94, pp. 205–6, McLane to Cass, Veracruz, 29 August 1859. On 15 August, Ocampo handed the Foreign Ministry over to De la Fuente.

2 Tena Ramírez, Leyes fundamentales de México, pp. 638–67, for the Reform Laws of 1859–61.

3 BJDOCS, 2, pp. 501–5, Ley de Nacionalización de Bienes Eclesiásticos, Veracruz, 12 July 1859.

4 Knowlton, Church Property, pp. 72–3.

5 Marcello Carmagnani, Estado y mercado: La economía política del liberalismo mexicano, 1850–1911 (Mexico City, 1994), pp. 62–6, 364.

6 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 75, pp. 164–6, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 1 August 1859; no. 82, p. 178, Lerdo to Ocampo, New York, 12 August 1859; no. 83, pp. 181–2, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 15 August 1859.

7 BJDOCS, 2, pp. 505–10, Manuel Ruiz, Veracruz, 12 July 1859 (copy), Mexico City, 30 April 1861.

8 BJDOCS, 2, pp. 532–4, Veracruz, 31 July 1959. Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 81, p. 177, Decree, Veracruz, 11 August 1859.

9 Mijangos, Entre Dios y la República, pp. 216–20.

10 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 78, pp. 169–73, Secretaría de Gobernación to the State Governors, Veracruz, 6 August 1860.

11 Manfestación que hacen el venerable clero y fieles de sus respectivas diócesis a todo el mundo católico, 30 August 1859, sanctioned by the Apostolic Delegate of Mexico on 6 September, pp. 5, 11–12, 16, 33. The Bishops were De la Garza (Mexico), Munguía (Michoacán), Pedro Barajas (San Luis Potosí), Francisco de Paula Verea (Linares), Pedro Espinosa (Guadalajara) and the representative of the diocese of Puebla, Francisco Serrano. See also Mijangos, Entre Dios y la Patria, p. 55.

12 Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, 1, pp. 304–6, 308–11.

13 Mijangos, The Lawyer of the Church, pp. 186–7.

14 See Roberto Blancarte, ‘Laicité au Mexique et en Amérique latine. Comparaisons’, Archives des Sciences Sociales des Religions, 146 (April– June 2009), 17–40.

15 Brian R. Hamnett, ‘The Caciques of the Oaxaca Sierra, 1824–1884: sub-region, state, and nation’, in Hans-Joachim König and Marianne Wisebron (eds), Nation Building in Nineteenth-Century Latin America; Dilemmas and Conflicts (Leiden, 1998), pp. 111–30.

16 Castañeda Guzmán, Cordilleras eclesiásticas, no. 148, pp. 193–5, Canon Nicolás Vasconcelos to the parish clergy, Oaxaca, 11 November 1859; no. 150, pp. 195–6, Vasconcelos to parish clergy, Oaxaca, 22 November 1859.

17 Bock, Prelude to Tragedy, p. 63. The Bondholders’ Committee described it a Convention, Memorial of the Mexican Bondholders (London, 1869), p. 9.

18 Brian Hamnett, ‘Juárez y la ruptura con Santos Degollado: su significación’, in Conrado Hernández López and Israel Arroyo (coordinators), Las rupturas de Juárez (Oaxaca and Mexico City, 2007), pp. 19–38.

19 Hamnett, ‘Juárez y la ruptura’, pp. 19–38. Blázquez, Veracruz liberal, pp. 230–1.

20 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 181, pp. 375–6, Mata to Ocampo, Washington, 11 June 1860.

21 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 190, pp. 388–9, Degollado to Ocampo (in Huatusco with Juárez’s family), San Luis Potosí, 2 August 1860.

22 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 191, pp. 389–90, William Henry Trescot (Secretary) to Charles L. Elgee (interim chargé d’affaires), Washington, 8 August 1860.

23 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 204, pp. 403–5, Romero to Ocampo, Washington, 24 November 1860; no. 209, pp. 411–12, Romero to Ocampo, Washington, 4 December 1860.

24 Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 450–2.

25 Galindo y Galindo, La gran década nacional, I, pp. 452–4. Hamnett, ‘Juárez y la ruptura’, pp. 19–38. Blázquez, Veracruz liberal, pp. 232–3.

26 Galindo y Galindo, La Gran década nacional, 1, pp. 423–4, 432, 449, 455–60.

27 Bazant, Historia de la deuda exterior, pp. 89–90.

28 Bock, Prelude to Tragedy, p. 63.

29 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 218, pp. 524–5, Ocampo to A. A. Corzo, Veracruz, 17 December 1860. Galindo y Galindo, La Gran década nacional, pp. 464–5, 469.

30 Church Property, pp. 82, 88. Galindo y Galindo, La Gran década nacional, pp. 469–70.

31 Knowlton, Church Property, pp. 78, 89.

Chapter 15. The Liberals Return to Power, 1861: an Unresolved Dilemma

1 Ramón Cajiga, Memoria de Gobierno, Oaxaca, 16 September 1861, no. 23, Estado que manifiesta el número de establecimientos de educación primaria de ambos sexos que hay en el Estado: José Esperón, secretary, Oaxaca, 16 September 1861.

2 Cajiga, Memoria, paragraphs 35–9, 54–5.

3 Mijangos, The Lawyer of the Church, pp. 212–13. The expelled prelates arrived in Veracruz on 27 January 1861 to hostile shouts and stones hurled at their carriage.

4 Galindo y Galindo, La Gran década nacional, 11, pp. 86–8, 91–4, 98–9, 108–9. Reid Torres, Tomás Mejía, pp. 198, 201–10.

5 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 240, pp. 454–5, Ocampo to the Editors of La Tribuna, Mexico City, 19 January 1861; no. 242, 463–4, Lerdo to Editors of La Tribuna, Mexico City, 21 January 1861.

6 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 258, pp. 481–9, Manuel Ruiz to the Editors of La Tribuna, Mexico City, 15 February 1861.

7 Ocampo, Obras, 5, no. 267, pp. 503–25, Ocampo, Exposición directed to President Juárez, Pomoca, 28 February 1861.

8 The results given in May 1861 were: Juárez 5,171 votes; Lerdo 1,957 votes; González Ortega 1,845 votes. Juárez, accordingly, secured over 57 per cent of the votes and his combined opponents only 41 per cent of the total. Blázquez, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, p. 166.

9 Ocampo, Obras, 5, pp. 552–4; no. 292, pp. 560–8, Federal Congress, Mexico City, 4 June 1861. Brittsan, Popular Politics and Rebellion, pp. 55, 59, 61, 64–5, 76.

10 Felipe Buenrostro, Historia del Segundo Congreso Constitucional, 1861–63, 3 vols (Mexico City, 1974), I, pp. 199–207; III, p. 664.

11 AAGENL, 111 (2005), pp. 82–3, Vidaurri to Juárez, Monterrey, 24 March 1861; Juárez to Vidaurri, Mexico City, 12 April 1861; Vidaurri to Juárez, Monterrey, 17 April 1861.

12 Carmagnani, Estado y Mercado, pp. 56–66.

13 AAGENL, 111, pp. 96–7, Juárez to Vidaurri, Mexico City, 4 May 1861.

14 AAGENL, 111, pp. 115–16, Vidaurri to Juárez, Monterrey, 9 August 1861.

15 AAGENL, 111, pp. 122–4, Juárez to Vidaurri, Mexico City, 16 October 1861.

16 AAGENL, 111, pp. 132–3, Juárez to Vidaurri, Mexico City, 1 November 1861; pp. 136–7, Vidaurri to Juárez, Monterrey, 28 December 1861.

17 Matías Romero, Correspondencia de la Legación Mexicana en Washington durante la Intervención extranjera, 1860–1868, 10 vols (Mexico City, 1870–92), 1, pp. 151–3, 161–4.

18 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/8535, f.4, Alcance al no. 25 del ‘Progresista’, Matamoros, 18 February 1861.

19 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/8535, ff.508v, Juan José de la Garza to Secretary of War and Navy, no. 3, Tampico, 26 February 1861.

20 AHSDN, exp. 481.3/8535, ff.10–10v, Terrazas to Secretary of War and Navy, no. 7, Chihuahua, 26 March 1861; Pedro Hinojosa to Secretary of War and Marine, Chihuahua, 26 March 1861.

21 HSDN, exp. XI/481.3/8535, ff.43–4v, Zarco to Secretary of War and Navy (reservada), Mexico City, 10 April 1861; f.41, Zarco to Secretary of War, Mexico City, 18 April 1861; ff.1–1v, Zarco to Secretary of War, Mexico City, 23 April 1861; ff.3–3v, Zarco to Secretary of War, Mexico City, 24 April 1861.

22 AHSDN, exp. XI/481.3/8535, ff.4–44v, Zarco to Zaragoza, reservada, Mexico City, 10 April 1861; f.41, Zarco to Zaragoza, Mexico City, 18 April 1861; ff.1–1v, Zarco to Zaragoza, Mexico City, 23 April 1861; ff.3–3v, Zarco to Zaragoza, Mexico City, 24 April 1861.

23 Corwin had passionately denounced the war with Mexico on 11 February 1847. Unlike eleven of the fifteen previous Ministers to Mexico, Corwin, an Ohio lawyer and Republican, former US Secretary of the Treasury (1850–3), US Senator (1845–50) and State Governor (1840–2), was not a southern slave owner.

24 Allan Nevins (ed.), The Messages and Papers of Jefferson Davis, and the Confederacy, Including Diplomatic Correspondence, 1861–1865 (New York, 1966), 7, pp. 74–6, John Forsyth to Davis (Private), Washington, 20 March 1861.

25 Mario Cerutti and Miguel A. González Quiroga (compilers), Frontera e historia económica: Texas y el norte de México (1850–1865) (Mexico City, 1993).

26 Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn Abbey Hanna, Napoleón III y México (Mexico City, 1981 (North Carolina, 1971), pp. 36–40.

27 Cue Cánovas, Tratado Mon-Almonte, pp. 71–4.

28 Jean-François Lacaillon, Napoléon III et le Mexique. Les illusions d’un gran dessein (Paris, 1994), pp. 50–1. Michele Cunningham, Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III (Basingstoke, 2001), pp. 24–58.

29 Díaz, Versión francesa, II, pp. 260–2, Saligny to Thouvenel, Mexico City, 17 July 1861.

30 McCaleb, The Public Finances of Mexico, pp. 124–5.

31 BJDOCS, III, pp. 651–5, Zamacona, Circular al Cuerpo Diplomático explicando la Ley de suspensión de pagos, Veracruz, 21 July 1859.

32 Cunningham, Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III, pp. 32–58.

33 Galindo y Galindo, La Gran década nacional, II, pp. 123–8. Bock, Prelude to Tragedy, pp. 88–9.

34 Reid Torres, Tomás Mejía, pp. 210, 226.