ARCHAEOLOGY , HISTORICAL REALITIES, AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC
In the beginning of the twentieth century, the radical biblical criticism of Julius Wellhausen and his students of the late-nineteenth century left a strong impression on European and Jewish intellectuals. In 1904, the famous Jewish publicist Asher Ginsburg, known as Achad Ha’am, published his essay “Moses.” At this time, when archaeology was in its infancy, he wrote the following paragraph, which remains relevant to our subject even today:
And so it is when learned scholars burrow in the dust of ancient books and manuscripts, in order to raise the great men of history from the grave in their true shapes; believing all the while that they are sacrificing their eyesight for the sake of “historical truth” It is borne in on me that these scholars have a tendency to overestimate the value of their discoveries, and will not appreciate the simple fact that not every archaeological truth is also an historical truth. Historical truth is that, and that alone, which reveals the forces that go to mould the social life of mankind. Every man who leaves a perceptible mark on that life, though he may be a purely imagery figure, is a real historical force; his existence is a historical truth … hence I do not grow enthusiastic when the drag-net of scholarship hauls up some new “truth” about a great man of the past; when it is proved by the most convincing evidence that some national hero … never existed … on such occasions I tell myself: all this is very fine and very good, and certainly this “truth” will erase or alter a paragraph of a chapter in the book of archaeology; but it will not make history erase the name of its hero. … because it’s concern is only with the living hero whose image is graven in the hearts of men, who has become a force in human life. And what cares history whether this force was at one time a walking and talking biped, or whether it was never anything but a creature of the imagination … in either case, history is certain about his existence, because history feels his effect” (Selected Essays by Ahad Ha’am [Translated from the Hebrew by Leon Simon; Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1912], 306–7.)
His basic idea was that the spirit and values embodied in the hero of the past is what matters rather than the question of whether or not he (or she) really existed. This line of thought still influences many even in the present day.
In 1999, Zeev Herzog from Tel Aviv University published in Haaretz’s weekend magazine, an article whose title was rendered with huge letters on the front page: “Truth from the Holy Land: After 70 years of archaeological excavations in the Land of Israel it is clear that the biblical period did not exist.” The title of the article itself was, “The Bible: No finds in the field,” and the subtitles explain that “the Patriarchal stories, the Exodus, the Conquest, and the empires of David and Solomon are just folk stories. While scholars have known this for a long time, Israeli society prefers to repress it.”
This article provoked quite a remarkable reaction in Israel. In one of the many letters to the editor, the great Israeli songwriter Naomi Shemer reacted in a fashion similar to that of Achad Ha’am ninety-five years earlier: it does not matter if the story really occurred or not, or if certain buildings that are mentioned in the Bible indeed existed or not; what matters is what these stories symbolize; their heritage persists even if they were not actual historical realities. Israel Levine and I edited, as a response to the article in Haaretz , a collection of essays on the subject that appeared in Hebrew. One of the papers, authored by Yair Zakovitz, a professor of biblical literature at the Hebrew University, was titled “Words, Stones, Memory and Identity.” For him, the words of the Bible are those that shape our identity, not the stones. He goes on to conclude, “even if it will be proven that all that is written in the Bible is not historical, the foundation of my identity and my historical memory which is based on the Bible would not be shaken” (my translation). The Bible, in his words, “is the highest achievement of ancient Israel and of the Hebrew spirit and is the major factor in creating our [modern] identity and common memory. The Bible is the foundation stone of Jewish culture among all generations and so it will remain forever; its greatness cannot be measured by the scale of historical reliability.”
In spite of being an archaeologist searching for the physical evidence of the past, I find myself in agreement with these words. The values, the theological ideas, and the intellectual messages of the Bible do not need archaeological confirmation. They stand on their own as some of the unique achievements of ancient Israel.
Archaeology’s role is not to confirm the biblical narrative, but rather to attempt to determine the historical background to the formation of the stories in the Bible and whether those stories preserve valuable data on the ancient history of Israel—in other words, to determine their Sitz im Leben. Innovative current ideas like those of the extreme minimalists are increasingly being rejected as the archaeological exploration of the land of Israel proceeds. Finkelstein and others suggest a more moderate approach, one that I would dub “reflective historiography,” that is, the idea that many of the Bible’s heroes are reflections of King Josiah and that their description in the biblical historiography was written with clear ideological motivation, intending to justify and glorify Josiah’s political and ideological goals. This is an innovative, yet one-sided and narrow, view of the creative process of biblical historiography. In my view, it lacks sufficient proof and detaches the stories from their original settings. Israelite historiography appears rather to be the product of a much longer and more complex process of compilation, writing, editing, and copying of the biblical text that lasted for most of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E. In spite of the biblical authors’ ideological and theological overcast, archaeology and ancient Near Eastern studies show that many of the stories are rooted in realities that precede the time of compilation by hundreds of years, some of them even rooted in the second and early-first millennia B.C.E. We can imagine the biblical authors as looking into the past through a telescope: the closer the authors were to the time of the events, the sharper the picture. The stories related to the emergence of Israel are at the far end of this view, but still they preserved ancient names, terms, geographical situations, and vague memories of certain events. Some of these events may be rooted in a time preceding the appearance of Israel on the stage of history. The conquest story of Hazor, for example, can be anchored in one of the most imposing events of the thirteenth century B.C.E. , namely, the fall of the largest Canaanite city in the southern Levant. The memory of an event of such great historical significance could have been transmitted by the indigenous population for centuries until it was adopted into Israelite historiography much later. A story like the conquest of ‘Ai can be explained as an old aetiology, itself rooted in an Iron Age I reality, preceding by centuries the time of writing. In such a way, archaeology can clarify the background to the formation of many stories in the books of Judges and Samuel, including those related to the United Monarchy. From the ninth century B.C.E. onward, biblical historiography can be corroborated or enriched by written sources outside the Bible as well as by archaeology. The biblical historical framework for this period appears to be more robust and dependable. Finally, when dealing with the late monarchy (late-seventh to early-sixth centuries B.C.E.) , details of the biblical text can be corroborated as well by epigraphic finds; for example, the presence of names of certain people mentioned in the Bible on seals and seal impressions.
This does not mean that biblical stories are to be taken at face value as true history. Many of the stories must be explained as folk stories and traditions compiled, edited, and rewritten by later authors with exceptional literary talent and ideological and theological motivation. Yet, as archaeologists, we can dig into the remote inner layers of these stories, and uncover realities which the stories reflect. This can be done in many cases by linking the stories to archaeological evidence. At the same time, archaeology also has the ability to render improbable the historicity of some biblical stories, such as most of the conquest narrative. It is important to realize that historical memories may be long lasting, preserving echoes of past situations and events for many centuries through oral and written traditions.
Rather than “proving the Bible,” current archaeological research in Israel is occupied mainly with increased understanding and reconstructing aspects of life in Israel and among its neighbors, including social structure, economy, technology, warfare, religious practices, and even cognitive issues. These are broad subjects for which we need to utilize the best research tools that archaeology has to offer, including the cooperation of a wide spectrum of sciences.
The current debate on the deconstruction of early Israelite history has generated great interest in the media, but the various views have left the public embarrassed and confused. Some have compared these views to a post-modern tendency in the historical research of Zionism in Israel by the so-called “New Historians” or “post-Zionist” historians who suggested alternative narratives for the history of Zionism, far removed from formal Zionist historiography. I am not convinced, however, that such parallels and designations are appropriate in this context and they should be avoided.
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ISRAELI SOCIETY
The evolution of Zionism during the first half of the twentieth century naturally created a need for national symbols that would relate the present to the past. Theodor Herzl called his novel, wherein he described the future Jewish state, Altneuland “old new land,” a title that represents his basic idea of Zionism: the return of the scattered Jewish Diaspora to its old homeland. This idea has been a cornerstone in Zionist education ever since. In this framework, the “knowing of the Land,” a free translation of the Hebrew term yedi’ot ha’aretz became an essential component of Zionist education, and archaeology was part of it.
This interest was stimulated by the activity of foreign and Jewish archaeologists. Although early on most of the archaeological exploration was carried out by European and American archaeologists, Jewish archaeological research began already at the turn of the twentieth century, and from 1925 Eleazar Sukenik was conducting archaeological research on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where in 1936 the Department of Archaeology was founded. The Israel Exploration Society has been active since the beginning of the twentieth century in research as well as in the popularization of the subject.
Archaeological activity developed immensely following the foundation of the State of Israel, and archaeology has held an important place in Israeli cultural and educational life. Sites like Masada and the Jewish catacombs at Beth-shearim became places of supreme national importance. It was a common saying in those days that archaeology in Israel was a national hobby. Many of the “founding fathers” of archaeology in Israel like, Benjamin Mazar, Yigael Yadin, Yohanan Aharoni, Avraham Biran, and others, were deeply motivated by Zionist education and indeed believed that in their work they revealed the ancient roots of the newly born nation-state in its homeland.
In fact, Yigael Yadin, the chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces following the 1948 war of independence, studied with immense passon Jewish heroes like Joshua, conqueror of Hazor, the Zealots at Masada, the Essenes of Qumran, and Bar Kochba. Yadin knew how to publicize his discoveries in the media and in popular books, to the extent that they became part and parcel of Israeli culture, and well known worldwide.
Like every intellectual trend, earlier biblical archaeology must be understood against the background of the time and place. It is only natural that in those particular years and place, on the eve of, and just after, the foundation of the Jewish state, archaeology would play such a remarkable role in the enormous task of building Israeli identity.
Today, such tendencies have weakened to a large degree. Most current Israeli archaeologists consider themselves scholars, conducting research for its own sake (in university departments of archaeology), or in the service of public needs (in the framework of the Israel Antiquities Authority) without having any political or ideological agenda. Most of them are aware of the danger of mixing scholarship with modern ideologies and politics and the ideological use of archaeology is usually judged negatively. The interest of Israeli archaeologists lies in the entirety of the country’s ancient history, from its most remote prehistory to the medieval period, and all its ancient cultures, ethnic groups, and religions receive serious professional attention. Scholarship, many claim, should be done for its own sake without any national or political motivation. This is correct and widely accepted by all scholars. Yet, let us recall that archaeological discoveries throughout the world are considered part of a nation’s heritage and are therefore utilized in various forms of national education. The line between education of this sort and political or nationalistic exploitation of archaeology is at times gray. In Israel, we occasionally experience difficulties in restraining various ideologically motivated groups from adapting and exploiting archaeological discoveries in favor of their ideological agenda (on both the left and right of the ideological/political map). Yet, most professional archaeologists in Israel are well aware of this danger, and make every effort to avoid such uses of the past. They provide instead exegesis of the archaeological discoveries that is as objective as possible.
ARCHAEOLOGY’S HERITAGE AND ITS MESSAGES
What is the heritage or legacy that we archaeologists will leave behind for future generations? Clearly we seek to leave behind scholarly publications in the form of excavation reports and learned research books and papers; yet these mostly remain the domain of small scholarly circles. Popular writing, including summary presentations of our scholarly work, is important both for the general public and for scholars in related fields like biblical and religious studies, who do not have the expertise to fully assess the detailed archaeological studies. Popular or semi-popular books and magazines like Near Eastern Archaeology and Biblical Archaeology Review or the Hebrew-language Qadmoniot provide the broader public with the results of our research. The problem is that sometimes popular books and magazines, and, in particular, the general media, may distort or exaggerate archaeological findings and interpretations in the attempt to attract the public. Too often, the general media (and in particular TV programs) tends to emphasize the exceptional and the radical among new theories and views, and by doing so, it contributes to a distorted view of our profession on the part of the public. An example is the great publicity given to unacceptable views on chronology proposed by Emmanuel Velikowsky; or the attention paid to Emmanuel Anati and his impossible identification of Mount Sinai with Har Karkom, a mountain ridge in the southern Negev where he discovered evidence for ancient cult practices; but since his evidence comes from the fourth or third millennia B.C.E. , it has nothing to do with Mount Sinai. The same is true of the often-rediscovered ark of Noah, or the holy ark of the covenant.
Archaeological research has an important message for Israelis—Jews and Arabs alike—and the general public outside Israel. The knowledge of the past and of our Jewish heritage is diminishing among wide circles of our community and it needs to be strengthened. The story that archaeology tells can be grasped visually and thereby more intimately through visits to sites and museums, participation in excavations, lectures, and responsible media programs. In such a way, archaeology can serve as an important educational tool providing a better understanding of the past.
Another important aspect of archaeology’s educational role is the preservation and conservation of archaeological sites. Biblical sites in particular are in danger, since their proper conservation is difficult, if not often impossible, to maintain. In Israel, the sites of Tel Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, Beth-shean, Jerusalem, Tell Qasile, Lachish, Beer-sheba, and Arad have been well conserved, and some of them are now part of the national parks system of Israel. In 2006, UNESCO included three of these, Hazor, Megiddo, and Beer-sheba, in the World Heritage list, which gives them special status and worldwide publicity.
Biblical archaeology’s heritage continues to be respected and studied. It has generated a considerable amount of interest among Jewish and Christian communities alike. The educational system in Israel includes selected chapters in archaeology as part of the study of the Bible or of the history of the land of Israel, though in my view these efforts are inadequate. All five universities in Israel teach archaeology either as a self-contained subject or as part of a broader program of Near Eastern and biblical studies. A good number of universities in America, Europe, and a few in the Far East (Japan and South Korea) provide programs in these fields, although in a wider variety of academic settings. In many theological seminaries and departments of religion or Jewish studies in the United States, biblical archaeology has become part of the standard curriculum, or part of a wider subject area referred to as “biblical backgrounds.” Every year, hundreds of students and others participate in excavations in Israel and Jordan as volunteers, and many of these archaeological expeditions also conduct accredited educational programs or field schools. Thus, the message of biblical archaeology, complicated as it is, continues to be broadcast. It remains part and parcel of our Western education and heritage.