1 This is a name local residents have given the frequently occurring event. Though most are unclear as to why police come down particularly hard on Thursday afternoons, there is some suspicion this may be due to some combination of a change in shifts, as well as the neighborhood’s proximity to the courthouses.
2 Rivera 2012.
1 Jones-Brown, Gill, and Trone 2010.
2 Merton 1936.
3 Glaser and Strauss 1967.
4 Semuels 2015.
5 Williams and Kornblum 1985.
6 A pseudonym for one of the mothers on College Avenue.
7 A pop-culture reference to the borough that alludes to its history as being the birthplace of hip-hop.
8 Petrie 1981.
9 Small 2007.
10 Gonzalez 2004.
11 US Census Bureau 2010.
12 Jonnes 2002.
13 City of New York, Department of Planning 2013.
14 US Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey (a).
15 US Census Bureau, 2008–2012 American Community Survey (b).
16 Wilson 1990.
17 Massey and Denton 1993.
18 See Venkatesh (2002); Brotherton and Barrios (2004); Bourgois (2002); and Anderson (2000).
19 Police Department, City of New York (2012, 2017).
20 White (2014); Kane and White (2013).
21 Raab 1993.
22 Bratton and Knobler 1998, 195.
23 It should be noted that crime had already begun to decline under the Dinkins administration.
24 Bratton and Knobler 1998, 198–199.
25 Wilson and Kelling 1982.
26 Estimates vary widely as to the number of stops that are not documented by police officers.
27 Conlon 2005, 13.
28 Kelly 2015, 271.
29 Under the Trespass Affidavit Program, landlords could authorize police to patrol private buildings without the consent of tenants.
30 The Black Lives Matter movement was created in response to the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the Trayvon Martin homicide case.
31 Police Department, City of New York, NYPD CompStat Unit 2016.
32 Jones-Brown et al. (2013); Jones-Brown, Gill, and Trone (2010).
33 The Fourth Amendment of the US Constitution protects against unreasonable searches and seizures by requiring probable cause before an officer can stop a citizen in a public space. In the Terry decision, Justice William O. Douglas issued a strongly worded dissent questioning whether the probable cause standard could even be changed without a constitutional amendment, a role outside that of the federal judiciary. “Probable cause” has been described as evidence that makes it “more likely than not” that the suspected person is involved in criminality.
34 Jones-Brown, Gill, and Trone 2010.
35 Criminal Procedure Law 140.50, effective September 1, 1971, governs all Terry stops in New York City.
36 See Terry v. Ohio, dissenting opinion by Justice William O. Douglas, in Ronayne (1964) and Kuh (1965).
37 Harcourt and Meares 2010.
38 Brunson and Miller 2006.
39 Alexander 2010.
40 Muhammad 2010.
41 Butler 2017.
42 Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss 2007, 1.
43 Jones-Brown et al. 2013.
44 See Glaberson 2013.
45 See Gonnerman 2014.
46 Stoudt, Fine, and Fox 2011.
47 Weber 1946, 78.
48 See Wacquant (2009) and Young (1999).
49 Anderson 2000.
50 Patillo, Weiman, and Western 2004.
51 Clear 2007.
52 LeBlanc 2003.
53 Tonry 1996.
54 Western 2007, 129.
55 Pew Center on the States 2008.
56 The right to the city, as the renowned scholar David Harvey notes, is marked by “the freedom to make and remake ourselves and our cities” (2012, 4).
57 See Whyte (1943); Liebow (1967); and Anderson (1976).
58 Jay-Z 2010, 154.
59 Lipsky 1980, 3.
60 Lipsky 1980, 11.
61 See Goffman 1959.
1 Similar distinctions have been utilized in past studies. Most notably, William F. Whyte distinguished between “College Boys” and “Corner Boys” in his study of Italian immigrants in Boston, Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum (1943).
2 DuBois 1996.
3 The area has been subject to a series of drug- and gang-related investigations, culminating in multiple indictments over the past five or more years.
4 During the summer, New York City opens up various schools and recreation centers for young adults to play basketball and other sports. In areas like the southwest Bronx, these are some of the few local outlets available to youth during the hot summer months.
5 Garcia (2003) details the evolution of the New York City sneaker culture from the 1960s through the 1980s.
6 Pattillo-McCoy (1999); May and Chaplin (2008) further elaborate on the intersection of race and clothing in different settings.
7 A puffy, down-filled winter jacket produced by Marmot. These jackets cost upwards of $500 and are highly popular among youth in the Bronx.
8 Kasinitz and Rosenberg 1996, 194.
9 Smith 2005.
10 Sammy was murdered attempting to break up a fight “Uptown” in the northern Bronx; the case garnered a significant amount of media attention.
11 A mutual associate who resides near 164th Street.
12 Rios 2011.
13 New York City School-Justice Partnership Task Force 2013.
1 See Gottschalk (2015) for a discussion of the growth of the carceral state.
2 Police Department, City of New York 2013.
3 LaPlante, Dunn, and Carnig 2014.
4 Public Science Project 2013.
5 Justice Mapping Center 2006.
6 Justice Atlas of Sentencing and Corrections 2008.
7 ATI/Reentry Coalition 2010.
8 Measure of America of the Social Science Research Council 2012.
9 See Bushway, Stoll, and Weiman (2007); Pager (2007); Patillo, Weiman, and Western (2004); Uggen, Manza, and Thompson (2006); and Trimbur (2009).
10 N.Y. Criminal Procedure Law § 720.10—Youthful offender procedure designated for young adults ages 16–19. This is not awarded to everyone; rather, this depends heavily upon the presentence investigation of the defendant and is typically reserved for first-time offenders.
11 Tuttle and Schneider 2012.
12 See Merton 1938.
13 Garland 1993.
14 Bloomberg 2013.
15 Rosenfeld and Fornango 2014, 2017.
1 Comfort 2008.
2 See Brunson and Weitzer (2011) for an additional discussion on the conventions of having “the talk.”
3 Riggs and Kilpatrick 1990.
4 Data suggest some of these stops may actually be repeat stops of the same person.
5 New York Civil Liberties Union 2012.
1 City of New York, Department of Planning 2013.
2 City of New York, Department of Planning 2013.
3 Portes and Rumbaut 2001.
4 Portes and Rumbaut 2001, 10.
5 See Mittelberg and Waters (1992) and Kasinitz et al. (2008).
6 City of New York, Department of Planning 2013.
7 City of New York, Department of Planning 2013.
8 Kasinitz et al. 2008.
9 Located in the Hunts Point section of the Bronx, this juvenile facility developed a less than desirable reputation for being particularly harsh on its juvenile detainees. It finally shut its doors in 2011.
10 Cooper 1999.
1 Shaw and McKay 1942.
2 Kubrin and Weitzer 2003, 374.
3 Clear 2007.
4 Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls 1997.
5 Tyler (1988); Geller et al. (2014); Sunshine and Tyler (2003).
6 Tyler and Jackson 2013, 1.
7 Wiley and Esbensen 2013.
8 Fratello, Rengifo, and Trone 2013, 1.
9 Lipsky 2010.
10 Though presented as a popular alternative to more traditional approaches to policing, scholars like Alex Vitale (2017) and Steve Herbert (2006) argue that even this approach may simply increase the influence of police rather than empower the community itself.
11 In 2010, Schoolcraft leaked a series of recordings from Brooklyn’s 81st Precinct to the Village Voice. The recordings revealed evidence of manipulation of statistics as well as a quota system.
12 Greene 1999, 182.