References

All translations are my own unless otherwise indicated.

Introduction

1	Although the subtitle of this book is A History of Food in India, it covers the historical food customs of the entire subcontinent: the Republic of India, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. This part of the world has been called by many names, including south Asia, the subcontinent, the Indian subcontinent, the south Asian subcontinent, the Indo-Pak-Bangladesh subcontinent and Greater India. Because these terms may be politically charged or ambiguous (sometimes Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and even Afghanistan are included in south Asia, for example), I have chosen to use the word ‘India’ for the region. Food, like language, is not coterminous with political boundaries, and the six and a half decades since the region was politically divided are but a drop in the ocean of 6,000 years of common history. All three countries were part of three major empires – the Mauryan (316–184 BCE), the Mughal (1526–1857) and the British (1858–1947) – while India and Pakistan share a common heritage that goes back to the Indus Valley civilization.
2	Mark Twain, Following the Equator: A Journey Around the World (1897), chapter 43; available online at www.gutenberg.org.
3	Diana L. Eck, India: A Sacred Geography (New York, 2012), p. 82.
4	Arjun Appadurai, ‘How to Make a National Cuisine: Cookbooks in Contemporary India’, Comparative Studies in Sociology and History, XXX/1 (1988), pp. 3–24.
5	Carol Appadurai Breckenridge, ‘Food, Politics and Pilgrimage in South India, 1350–1640 AD’, in Food, Society and Culture: Aspects in South Asian Food Systems, ed. R. S. Khare and M.S.A. Rao (Durham, NC, 1986), pp. 21–2.

ONE: Climate, Crops and Prehistory

1	For a list of famines in India from the fifth century BCE to the eighteenth century CE, see R. C. Saxena, S. L. Choudhary and Y. L. Nene, A Textbook on Ancient History of Indian Agriculture (Secunderabad, India, 2009), pp. 112–16.
2	Dorian Q. Fuller and Emma L. Harvey, ‘The Archaeobotany of Indian Pulses: Identification, Processing and Evidence for Cultivation’, Environmental Archaeology, XI/2 (2006), pp. 219–44.
3	Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: http://faostat.fao.org.
4	See, for example, Dorian Q. Fuller, ‘Finding Plant Domestication in the Indian Subcontinent’, Current Anthropology, LII/S4 (October 2011), pp. S347–D362. Available online at www.jstor.org. See also Fuller, ‘The Ganges on the World Neolithic Map: The Significance of Recent Research on Agricultural Origins in Northern India’, Prāgadhāna [Journal of the Uttar Pradesh State Archaeology Department], no. 16 (2005–6), pp. 187–206.
5	Dorian Q. Fuller et al., ‘Across the Indian Ocean: The Prehistoric Movement of Plants and Animals’, Antiquity, LXXXV/328 (2011), pp. 544–58: www.antiquity.ac.uk.
6	William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi, ‘History of Soy on the Indian Subcontinent’, 2007: www.soyinfocenter.com; Ramesh Chand, Agroindustries Characterization and Appraisal: Soybeans in India, FAO Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Working Document 20 (Rome, 2007): www.fao.org.
7	See ‘Rice’s Origins Point to China, Genome Researchers Conclude’, 3 May 2011: www.sciencenewsline.com; Xuehui Huang et al., ‘A Map of Rice Genome Variation Reveals the Origin of Cultivated Rice’, Nature, CDXC/7421 (2012), pp. 497–501.
8	‘Mango – History’, plantcultures.kew.org, accessed 28 June 2014.
9	K. T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi, 2002), p. 84.
10	For papers on the health benefits of spices, search PubMed, the U.S. National Library of Medicine’s database of articles from medical and biological science journals around the world, at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. In January 2014 it contained over 6,200 references to turmeric and curcumin (one of the active ingredients in turmeric) alone, of which 2,400 related to cancer. See also Helen Saberi and Colleen Taylor Sen, Turmeric: The Wonder Spice (Evanston, IL, 2014).
11	Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (Berkeley, CA, 2002), p. 57.
12	Genetic studies at Harvard University show that nearly all Indians are descended from mixtures of two ancestral populations. One, ‘Ancestral North Indian’, accounts for 40–80 per cent of the ancestry found in Indian genomes and is similar to that of western Eurasians, including Europeans, Middle Easterners and Central Asians. The other, ‘Ancestral South Indian’, is a distinct population not apparently related to any other of the world’s populations. See David Reich et al., ‘Reconstructing Indian Population History’, Nature, CDLXI (24 September 2009), pp. 489–95, available at http://genetics.med.harvard.edu. Another DNA study has found that in about 2200 BCE Dravidian Indians travelled by ship to Australia, where they introduced cycad nuts (a common ingredient in the food of Kerala) and perhaps dingo dogs. See ‘An Antipodean Raj’, The Economist, 19 January 2013, pp. 77–8, available at www.economist.com.
13	Although it was once common to talk about a ‘Dravidian’ or ‘Aryan’ race, the equation of language with race is today considered spurious; indeed, the very concept of a unitary ‘race’ has been challenged, especially in the light of DNA analysis.
14	Frank C. Southworth, ‘Proto-Dravidian Agriculture’, www.upenn.edu, accessed 30 June 2014.
15	Dorian Q. Fuller and Mike Rowlands, ‘Towards a Long-term Macro-geography of Cultural Substances: Food and Sacrifice Traditions in East, West and South Asia’, Chinese Review of Anthropology, 12 (2009), pp. 32–3.
16	‘India’s “Miracle River”’, BBC News South Asia, 29 June 2002, news.bbc.co.uk.
17	Jean Bottéro, The Oldest Cuisine in the World: Cooking in Mesopotamia (Chicago, IL, 2004).
18	Tarditionally the word ‘curry’ was used by Europeans, not Indians, who called dishes by their specific names: korma, rogan josh, molee, vindaloo etc. But today the word is often used by Indians as well for any dish with a gravy. For more information on the definition and origin of the word, see pp. 222 and 293; also Colleen Taylor Sen, Curry: A Global History (London, 2009).
19	Andrew Lawler, ‘The Mystery of Curry’, Slate, 29 January 2013, www.slate.com; Arunima Kashyap and Steve Weber, ‘Harappan Plant Use Revealed by Starch Grains from Farmana, India’, Antiquity, LXXXIV/326 (December 2010): www.antiquity.ac.uk; and Steve Weber, Arunima Kashyap and Laura Mounce, ‘Archaeobotany at Farmana: New Insights into Harappan Plant Use Strategies’, in Excavations at Farmana: District Rohtak, Haryana, India, 2006–2008, ed. Vasant Shinde, Toshiki Osada and Manmohan Kumar (Kyoto, 2011), pp. 808–82.
20	Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (Oxford, 1998), pp. 169–70.
21	Ibid., p. 164.
22	Ibid., p. 19.

TWO: The Age of Ritual, 1700–1100 BCE

1	See Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (Cambridge, 1990). Also B. B. Lal, ‘Aryan Invasion of India, Perpetuation of a Myth’, in Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton, The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History (London, 2005). An alternative theory, the ‘Out of India’ theory, is that the Indo-Aryans were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and migrated north. This theory is not taken seriously by most academics, but it remains the subject of debate in some circles.
2	Two other Vedas, the Yajur and Sama, based on the Rig Veda, deal mainly with rituals. The Atharva Veda was composed somewhat later and contains charms, spells and some remedies to ward off disease or influence events. It is considered a precursor of Ayurveda. Unless otherwise noted, all quotations from the Rig Veda are from the translation by Ralph T.H.T. Griffith of 1896, available at www.sacredtexts.com.
3	For a modern re-enactment of a Vedic fire sacrifice, see videos on www.youtube.com.
4	See Emily Eakin, ‘Holy Cow a Myth? An Indian Finds the Kick is Real’, New York Times, 17 August 1992, pp. A13, A15; Herman W. Tull, ‘The Killing that is Not Killing: Men, Cattle and the Origins of Nonviolence (Ahimsa) in the Vedic Sacrifice’, Indo-Iranian Journal, 39 (1996), pp. 223–44; Ludwig Alsdorf, trans. Bal Patil, ed. Willem Bollée, The History of Vegetarianism and Cow Veneration in India (London, 2010); D. N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow (London, 2004); and Ian Proudfoot, Ahimsa and a Mahabharata Story: The Development of the Story of Tuladhara in the Mahabharata in Connection with Non-violence, Cow Protection and Sacrifice (Canberra, 1987).
5	K. T. Achaya, Indian Food: A Historical Companion (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 104–5.
6	Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternative History (New York, 2009), p. 161.
7	Robert Gordon Wasson, Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality (New York, 1972), p. 316.
8	The Rigveda, trans. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton (Oxford, 2014).
9	Achaya, Indian Food, p. 33.
10	‘Lactose Intolerance by Ethnicity and Region’, 23 February 2010: http://milk.procon.org.
11	The anthropologist Nicholas Dirks argues that caste as we know it today is not fundamental to Indian society, culture or tradition, but rather ‘a modern phenomenon, that it is, specifically, the product of a historical encounter between India and Western colonial rule’. It is not that the British invented caste, which was always present and important in marriage and religious matters, but rather that before their arrival ‘it did not seem particularly strikingly important or fixed’. The British used it as a means of systematizing India’s diverse forms of social identity to facilitate their administration and justify colonial power. Nicholas B. Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Princeton, NJ, 2001). From the decennial census 1872 until 1932, caste became the primary subject of social classification. Questions about caste were restored in the most recent Indian census (2011), perhaps because of its new importance in politics.

THREE: The Renunciant Tradition and Vegetarianism, 1000–300 BCE

1	The idea that there was contact and cross-fertilization of ideas among these people is imaginatively explored in Gore Vidal’s novel Creation (New York, 2002). The transmigration of souls (metempsychosis) was one of the doctrines of Pythagoras (580–495 BCE), who also advocated vegetarianism. Some claim that Pythagoras may have heard about Indian doctrines through Persian sources.
2	Ainslie T. Embree, ed., Sources of Indian Tradition, 2nd edn (New York, 1988), pp. 44–5.
3	Patrick Olivelle, ‘From Feast to Fast: Food and the Indian Ascetic’, in Rules and Remedies in Classical Indian Law: Panels of the VIIth World Sanskrit Conference, ed. Julia Leslie, vol. IX, (Leiden, 1987), p. 21.
4	For details about the ascetic lifestyle, including their food habits, see ibid.
5	Hanns-Peter Schmidt, ‘The Origin of Ahimsa’, in Ludwig Alsdorf, The History of Vegetarianism and Cow Veneration in India, trans. Bal Patil, ed. Willem Bollée (London, 2010), p. 109.
6	Romila Thapar, ‘Renunication: The Making of a Counter-Culture?’, in Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations (New Delhi, 1978), pp. 56–93.
7	James Laidlaw, Riches and Renunciation: Religion, Economy and Society among the Jains (Oxford, 2003), p. 153. For a fuller description of Jain food customs, see Colleen Taylor Sen, ‘Jainism: The World’s Most Ethical Religion’, in Food and Morality: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2007, ed. Susan R. Friedland (Totnes, Devon, 2008).
8	A Jain dinner organized by the author for a local food group was so popular that the attendees insisted on a repeat performance. For a collection of Jain recipes, see Manoj Jain, Laxmi Jain and Tarla Dalal, Jain Food: Compassionate and Healthy Eating (Germantown, TN, 2005).
9	The legality of this practice has been challenged since suicide is illegal under the Indian penal code. See W. M. Braun, ‘Sallekhana: The Ethicality and Legality of Religious Suicide by Starvation in the Jain Religious Community’, Medicine and Law, XXVII/4 (2008), pp. 913–24.
10	Sir Paul McCartney once wrote to the Dalai Lama to criticize him for eating meat. The Dalai Lama replied that his doctors had told him he needed it for his health, to which Sir Paul replied saying that they were wrong. ‘Sir Paul McCartney’s Advice to the Dalai Lama’, The Times, 15 December 2008.
11	Patrick Olivelle, ‘Kings, Ascetics, and Brahmins: The Socio-Political Context of Ancient Indian Religions’, in Dynamics in the History of Religions between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions and Comparative Perspectives, ed. Volkhard Krech and Marion Steinicke (Leiden, 2012), p. 131.
12	Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternative History (New York, 2009), p. 256.
13	Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History (Berkeley, CA, 2013), p. 73.
14	John Watson McCrindle, Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian (Calcutta, 1877), p. 31.
15	Megasthenes may have divided Indians into seven castes in imitation of Herodotus, who categorized Egyptians as belonging to seven castes. From the time of Alexander the Great to as late as the nineteenth century, geographers and other writers drew analogies between ancient Egypt and India. McCrindle, Ancient India, p. 44.
16	Ibid., p. 99.
17	Quoted in Andrew Dalby, ‘Alexander’s Culinary Legacy’, in Cooks and Other People: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 1995, ed. Harlan Walker (Totnes, Devon, 1996), p. 82.
18	Ibid., p. 81.
19	Om Prakash, Economy and Food in Ancient India, Part II (New Delhi, 1987).
20	A. P. Nayak et al., ‘A Contemporary Study of Yavagu (Prepared from Rice) as Pathyakalpana’, Ayurpharm: International Journal of Ayurveda and Allied Sciences, I/I (2013), pp. 9–13.
21	Prakash, Economy and Food, pp. 103–4.
22	V. S. Agrawala, India as Known to Panini (Calcutta, 1963), pp. 102–21.
23	‘Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Book 2: “The Duties of Government Superintendents”’, trans. R. Shamasastry (Bangalore, 1915), available at www.sdstate.edu.
24	The mahua flower is edible and widely used by India’s tribal groups to make a drink of the same name; the drink has become part of their cultural heritage.
25	Pankaj Goyal, ‘Traditional Fermentation Technology’: www.indianscience.org.

FOUR: Global India and the New Orthodoxy, 300 BCE–500 CE

1	Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History (Berkeley, CA, 2013), p. 103.
2	Muziris, the exact site of which has never been found, is believed to have been destroyed in a great flood of the Periyar River in 1341. Puhar is thought to have been washed away by a tsunami in about 500 CE.
3	Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York, 2004), p. 70.
4	Rohini Ramakrishnan, ‘Connecting with the Romans’, The Hindu, 24 January 2011.
5	Ibid.
6	Patrick Olivelle, trans., Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India (Oxford, 1999), p. xxxvii.
7	Ibid., pp. xlii–xliii.
8	The Code of Manu (first translated into English by William Jones in 1794) took on unprecedented status as an ‘applied’ legal document under early British rule. Even today the Code is one of the best-known Hindu texts, a fact underlined by its quotation in an episode of the popular American comedy programme The Big Bang Theory.
9	David Gordon White, ‘You Are What You Eat: The Anomalous Status of Dog-Cookers in Hindu Mythology’, in The Eternal Food: Gastronomic Ideas and Experiences of Hindus and Buddhists, ed. R. S. Khare (Albany, NY, 1992), p. 59.
10	Dharmasutra of Baudhayana, 3:32, in Olivelle, Dharmasutras, p. 215.
11	Dharmasutra of Apastamba, 11:13, p. 52.
12	Patrick Olivelle, ‘Abhaksya and Abhojya: An Exploration in Dietary Language’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, CXXII (2002), pp. 345–54.
13	Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London and New York, 2007), p. 67.
14	Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications (Chicago, IL, 1980), p. 141.
15	The Code of Manu contains only one reference to saliva: ‘No expiation is prescribed for a man who drinks the saliva from the lips of a Sudra woman.’
16	According to the anthropologist R. S. Khare, the term ‘orthodox’ in food relations stands both for ‘the ways of the forefathers that have “pastness”, virtue and legitimacy and a nearness (even if assumed rather than real’ and for ‘textual, philosophical, and spiritual ideals’. Khare, The Hindu Hearth and Home (New Delhi, 1976), p. 48.
17	In the nineteenth century members of my husband’s caste, vaidyas (medical doctors), petitioned the local brahmins to be allowed to eat in the same room as them during a festival rather than in a separate room.
18	M. N. Srinivas, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (Oxford, 1952), p. 32.
19	M. N. Srinivas, ‘Mobility in the Caste System’, in Structure and Change in Indian Society, ed. Milton B. Singer and Bernard S. Cohn (Chicago, IL, 1968).
20	Quoted in Fa-Hien (Faxian), trans. James Legge, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (Adelaide, 2014), chapter 16: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au.
21	‘A Description of India in General by the Chinese Buddhism Pilgrim Hiuan Tsang’, in History of India, vol. IX: Historical Accounts of India by Foreign Travellers, Classic, Oriental and Occidental, ed. A. V. Williams Jackson (London, 1907), pp. 130–31. I also used the translation by Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, 629–645 AD (London, 1904), at www.archive.org.
22	Williams Jackson, Historical Accounts, pp. 138–9.
23	K. T. Achaya, Indian Food: A Historical Companion (New Delhi, 1994), p. 147.
24	I-Tsing (Yijing), A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago, trans. J. Takakusu (Oxford, 1896), pp. 40–44.
25	Hashi Raychaudhuri and Tapan Raychaudhuri, ‘Not by Curry Alone: An Introduction to Indian Cuisines for a Western Audience’, in National and Regional Styles of Cookery: Oxford Symposium on Food History (Totnes, 1981), p. 48.
26	Ibid., pp. 48–9.
27	H. N. Dubey, ‘Agriculture in the Age of Sangam’, in History of Agriculture in India, up to c. 1200 AD, ed. Lallanji Gopal and V. C. Srivastava (New Delhi, 2008), pp. 415–21.
28	Achaya, Indian Food, p. 45.
29	Quoted ibid., pp. 44–5.

FIVE: New Religious Trends and Movements: Feasting and Fasting, 500–1000 CE

1	Much has been written on this subject by Hindu and non-Hindu scholars. See, for example, K. M. Sen, Hinduism (London, 2005); Gavin D. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge, 1996); Kim Knott, Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2000); and S. Radhakrishnan, The Hindu View of Life (London, 1927).
2	Sen, Hinduism, p. 29.
3	Today the best-known followers of Krishna outside India are members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known popularly as the Hare Krishna movement, which was founded in New York in 1966. They follow a vegetarian diet and avoid onions and garlic.
4	Paul M. Toomey, ‘Mountain of Food, Mountain of Love’, in The Eternal Food: Gastronomic Ideas and Experiences of Hindus and Buddhists, ed. R. S. Khare (Albany, NY, 1992), pp. 117–46.
5	Paul M. Toomey, ‘Krishna’s Consuming Passions: Food as Metaphor and Metonym for Emotion at Mount Govardhan’, in Divine Passions: The Social Construction of Emotion in India, ed. Owen M. Lynch (Berkeley, CA, 1990), p. 167.
6	Carol Appadurai Breckenridge, ‘Food, Politics and Pilgrimage in South India, 1350–1640 AD’, in Food, Society and Culture: Aspects in South Asian Food Systems, ed. R.S. Khare and M.S.A. Rao (Durham, NC, 1986), p. 68.
7	Alka Pande, Mukhwas: Indian Food through the Ages (Delhi, 2013), p. 70.
8	Manuel Moreno, ‘Pancamirtam: God’s Washings as Food’, in Khare, The Eternal Food, p. 165.
9	Ibid., p. 149.
10	Roopa Varghese, ‘Food in Indian Temples’, Indian Food Gourmet (26 July 2008): www.indianfoodgourmet.com.
11	Stig Toft Madsen and Geoffrey Gardella, ‘Udupi Hotels: Entrepreneurship, Reform and Revival’, in Consuming Modernity: Public Culture in a South Asian World, ed. Carol Appadurai Breckenridge (Minneapolis, MN, 1995), p. 102.
12	These have been interpreted as inversions of the five products of the cow with which Hindus purify themselves (ghee, butter, milk, yoghurt and urine).
13	Arthur Avalon, trans., Mahanirvana Tantra: Tantra of the Great Liberation (1913), available at www.sacred-texts.com; ‘Sugar Cane – Early Technology’, www.kew.org, accessed 30 June 2014.
14	Diana L. Eck, India: A Sacred Geography (New York, 2012).
15	Kisari Mohan Ganguli, trans., Mahabharata (1883–96), part III, section 50, available at www.sacred-texts.com.
16	Cited in Indira Chakravarty, Saga of Indian Food: A Historical and Cultural Survey (New Delhi, 1972), pp. 24–5.
17	Padmini Sathianadhan Sengupta, Everyday Life in Ancient India (Bombay, 1950), pp. 547–8.
18	Ganguli, Mahabharata, part II, section 207, available at www.sacred-texts.com.
19	Trans. Ammini Ramachandran: http://peppertrail.com.
20	Ganguli, Mahabharata, part V, section 115.
21	Barbara Stoler Miller, trans., The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in Time of War (New York, 1986), p. 138.
22	See, for example, Swami Vishnu-Devananda, The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga (New York, 1988), pp. 204–19, and Swami Sivananda, Kundalini Yoga (Sivanangdanagar, India, 1991), pp. 8–11.
23	Arjun Appadurai, ‘Gastropolitics in Hindu South Asia’, American Ethnologist, VIII/3 (1981), pp. 494–511.
24	Joe Roberts and Colleen Taylor Sen, ‘A Carp Wearing Lipstick: The Role of Fish in Bengali Cuisine and Culture’, in Fish: Food from the Waters: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium of Food and Cookery, 1997, ed. Harlan Walker (Totnes, Devon, 1998), pp. 252–8.
25	Moni Nag, ‘Beliefs and Practices about Food During Pregnancy’, Economic and Political Weekly (10 September 1994), pp. 2427–38.

SIX: Food and Indian Doctors, 600 BCE–600 CE

1	Cakrapanidatta, quoted in Dominik Wujastyk, The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings (London, 2001), p. 8.
2	Ken Albala, Food in Early Modern Europe (Westport, CT, 2003), p. 216.
3	Manu claimed that physicians were ambasthas, born of a brahmin father and a vaisya mother.
4	The Sushruta Samhita: An English Translation Based on Original Sanskrit Texts, trans. Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna, 3 vols (New Delhi, 2006).
5	See, for example, Tina Hesman Saey, ‘Gut Bacteria May Affect Cardiovascular Risk’, Science News, 4 December 2012: www.sciencenews.org; and Susan Young Rojahn, ‘Transplanted Gut Bugs Protect Mice from Diabetes’, MIT Technology Review, 21 January 2013: www.technologyreview.com.
6	Quoted in K. T. Achaya, Indian Food: A Historical Companion (New Delhi, 1994), p. 76.
7	Francis Zimmermann, The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats: An Ecological Theme in Hindu Medicine (Berkeley, CA, 1987), p. 116.
8	The origin of the word ‘jungle’. In the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century the word acquired its present-day meaning of forest or tangled wilderness. See Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (London and Boston, MA, 1985), p. 470.
9	Large herds of antelope once roamed northern India, but following Independence in 1947 a massacre took place (comparable to those in the 1880s on the American prairie) when the regulations abolishing hunting with rifles, considered a form of colonial oppression, were abolished. Hunters roamed the countryside at night, and India’s antelope population was virtually exterminated. Today it survives in a few sanctuaries. Zimmermann, The Jungle, p. 58.
10	Kṣēmaśarmā, trans. R. Shankar, Kṣēmakutūhalam: A Work on Dietetics and Well-being (Bangalore, 2009), p. 115. This is another example of the depth of ancient wisdom. The ghee-making process concentrates the conjugated linoleic acid (a cancer fighter and atherosclerosis preventer) of the butter, making ghee healthier than butter. The process also changes the fat profile so ghee is more robust, with a longer shelf-life and higher smoke point. Ghee does not go rancid and therefore is healthier than butter. Dr Kantha Shelke, personal communication.
11	An attempt to launch a urine-based soft drink called gau jal (‘cow water’) in 2009 was abandoned. (See Dean Nelson, ‘India Makes Cola from Cow Urine’, The Telegraph, 11 February 2009.) Far from being an ancient Indian practice, drinking one’s own urine as a therapy gained currency only in the 1940s, when the British naturopath John W. Armstrong published a book claiming that the practice could cure most diseases. The practice gained worldwide publicity when India’s prime minister Morarji Desai said in an interview that drinking his own urine had cured his piles and that urine therapy was the perfect medical solution for the millions of Indians unable to afford medical treatment. See Prasenjit Chowdhury, ‘Curative Elixir: Waters of India’, The Times of India, 27 July 2009.
12	Kṣēmaśarmā, trans. R. Shankar, Kṣēmakutūhalam, pp. 417–18.
13	Aparna Chattopadhyay, ‘Studies in Ancient Indian Medicine’, post-doctoral thesis, Varanasi, India, 1993, pp. 75–82.
14	Wujastyk, The Roots of Ayurveda, p. 42.
15	Quoted in ibid., pp. 202, 206.
16	Quoted in ibid., p. 204.
17	In 1742 Benjamin Franklin wrote in Poor Richard’s Almanack, ‘After Fish, Milk do not Wish.’ Eating milk and fish together was believed to cause skin diseases, including leprosy. However, there is no clinical evidence that this is true. See Eric Silla, ‘After Fish, Milk Do Not Wish: Recurring Ideas in a Global Culture’, Cahiers études africaines, XXXV/144 (1996), pp. 613–24.
18	Robert E. Svoboda, Ayurveda: Life, Health and Longevity (New Delhi, 1993), pp. 118–20.
19	Caroline Rowe, ‘Thalis of India’, in Food and Material Culture: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2013, ed. Mark McWilliams (Totnes, Devon, 2014), pp. 264–71.
20	See, for example, Swami Vishnu-Devananda, The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga (New York, 1988), pp. 204–19, and Swami Sivananda, Kundalini Yoga (Sivanangdanagar, India, 1991), pp. 8–11.
21	For a detailed study of food practices among North Indian brahmins, see R. S. Khare, The Hindu Hearth and Home (New Delhi, 1976).
22	While water boils at 100°C (212°F), the smoking point of oils (the temperature at which they start to burn) ranges from 121°C (250F) to as high as 270°C (520°F). Ghee has a high smoking point of 190°C (375°F) compared with 121°C (250°F) for unclarified butter.
23	A. L. Basham, ‘The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India’, in Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study, ed. Charles Leslie (New Delhi, 1998), pp. 19–20.
24	A suggested alternative derivation is that the Unani system comes from Yunnan province in China, perhaps because of similarities between Chinese and Indian medicine, including the hot–cold dichotomy.
25	A search of the United States National Institute of Health’s PubMed database in January 2013 found 2,143 articles on studies or trials that involved applying Ayurvedic remedies to such diverse medical problems as diabetes, cancer, tuberculosis and even depression. See www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

SEVEN: The Middle Ages: The Manasolassa, Lokopakara and Regional Cuisines, 600–1300 CE

1	Arjun Appadurai, ‘How to Make a National Cuisine: Cookbooks in Contemporary India’, Comparative Studies in Sociology and History, XXX/1 (1988), pp. 3–24.
2	Ibid., pp. 12–13.
3	The only English translation, by Dr (Mrs) P. Arundhati (New Delhi, 1994), is more of a paraphrase than a translation and contains inconsistencies, misspellings and mistranslations. I enlisted the help of Jessica Navright, a Sanskrit scholar and graduate student in the South Asian Department, University of Chicago, who retranslated many unclear passages using the version of Mansasollassa published in Gaekwad’s Oriental Series, vols I, II and III (Baroda, India, 1939). She also provided many useful comments and background information.
4	A passage in the Manasolassa (1.4V: 45–52) contains a list of forbidden foods, including carrot, onion and garlic and the meat of tigers, crows, monkeys, lions, elephants, horses, parrots, hawks and ‘all village animals and birds’. However, some of the recipes in the book use these ingredients. The list was probably inserted to pay lip service to the rules laid down for proper Hindu dietary habits.
5	K. T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi, 2002), p. 61.
6	Oggarane means ‘spice’ in modern Kannada, and a popular cooking show is called Oggarane Dabbi, or ‘spice box’.
7	The first mention of the idli is in a tenth-century Kannada work, but rice was not part of it until the thirteenth century. See Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food, p. 61.
8	Kishori Prasad Sahu, Some Aspects of Indian Social Life, 1000–1526 AD (Calcutta, 1973), p. 34.
9	Quoted ibid., p. 42.
10	Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, vol. I, part 1, p. 531.
11	Taponath Chakravarty, Food and Drink in Ancient Bengal (Calcutta, 1959), p. 6.
12	‘The Charypada’, available at www.oocities.org, accessed 1 July 2014.
13	France Bhattacharya, trans. Radha Sharma, ‘Food Rituals in the “Chandi Mangala”’, India International Centre Quarterly, XII/2 (June 1985), pp. 169–92.
14	Ibid., pp. 188–9.
15	Om Prakash, Economy and Food in Ancient India (New Delhi, 1987), pp. 358–9.
16	Marco Polo, The Travels (London and Harmondsworth, 1974); see also Namit Arora, ‘Marco Polo’s India’, Kyoto Journal, LXXIV (June 2010), available at www.shunya.net.
17	Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi, 2002), p. 97.

EIGHT: The Delhi Sultanate: Ni’Matnama, Supa Shastra and Ksemakutuhalam, 1300–1550

1	For a description of Muslim feasts in India, see Christopher P. H. Murphy, ‘Piety and Honor: The Meaning of Muslim Feasts in Old Delhi’ in Food, Society and Culture: Aspects in South Asian Food Systems, ed. R. S. Khare and M.S.A. Rao (Durham, NC, 1986), pp. 85–119.
2	Christopher P. H. Murphy, ‘Piety and Honor: The Meaning of Muslim Feasts in Old Delhi’, in Food, Society and Culture, pp. 98–100.
3	K. Gajendra Singh, ‘Contribution of Turkic Languages in the Evolution and Development of Hindustani Languages’, at www.cs.colostate.edu, accessed 9 July 2014.
4	Much of the following description comes from Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi, ‘Food Dishes and the Catering Profession in Pre-Mughal India’, Islamic Culture, LIV/2 (April 1985), pp. 117–74, and Kishori Prasad Sahu, Some Aspects of Indian Social Life, 1000–1526 AD (Calcutta, 1973).
5	The word derives from the Arabic shariba, ‘to drink’. Related English words are sherbet, sorbet, syrup and shrub (a drink popular during the American colonial era).
6	Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Al-Karim (the scribe of Baghdad), A Baghdad Cookery Book: The Book of Dishes, trans. Charles Perry (Totnes, Devon, 2005), p. 78.
7	Siddiqi, ‘Food Dishes and the Catering Profession’, pp. 124–5.
8	According to Charles Perry, personal communication, the earliest reference to shorba (which in Persian signifies a dish cooked with salt water) is in the Kitab-Al-Tabikh, a tenth-century Arab cookbook, which describes how the dish was prepared for a sixth-century Persian king. The meat was boiled lightly, removed from the water (which was thrown away) and then cooked with fresh water, salt, cinnamon and galangal.
9	The culinary term for this is betel quid, a phrase related to the word cud, meaning something that is chewed for a long time. Paan comes from the Sanskrit word parṣa, ‘feather’ or ‘leaf. A synonym is tambula, which refers to both betel leaf and the quid itself.
10	In October 2013 the Indian government banned the manufacture and sale of gutka and chewing tobacco, citing the health risks and economic cost. India has one of the highest rates of oral cancer in the world, and it is the leading cause of cancer deaths among men.
11	Quoted in Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Indo-Persian Travels in the Age of Discoveries, 1400–1800 (Cambridge, 2007), p. 75.
12	Quoted in Siddiqi, ‘Food Dishes and the Catering Profession’, p. 130.
13	Quoted in Sahu, Some Aspects of Indian Social Life, p. 63.
14	Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi, Perso-Arabic Sources of Information on the Life and Conditions in the Sultanate of Delhi (New Delhi, 1992), p. 115.
15	Shahzad Ghorasian, personal communication.
16	Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, 2nd edn (London, 1986), p. 710.
17	The word gharib can mean either ‘foreign’ or ‘humble, poor’. Although the translator uses the first meaning, the second seems more appropriate in the context.
18	Many of the recipes were tested by modern homemakers, who noted that the instructions were clear and easily followed and the food not difficult to cook in the present context. Many items are part of Karnataka cuisine today, including roti, mandige, dosa made with different grains, and vada. Madhukar Konantambigi, trans., Culinary Traditions of Medieval Karnataka: The Soopa Shastra of Mangarasa III, ed. N. P. Bhat and Nerupama Y. Modwel (Delhi, 2012), p. 107. 326
19	Kṣēmaśarmā, trans. R. Shankar, Kṣēmaśarmā: A Work on Dietetics and Well-being (Bangalore, 2009).
20	Ammini Ramachandran, private communication.
21	Kṣēmaśarmā, Kṣēmaśarmā, p. 171.
22	Ibid., pp. 225–7.
23	Ibid., p. 192.
24	Quoted in Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India (London, 1900), p. 237.

NINE: The Mughal Dynasty and its Successors, 1526–1857

1	Quoted in Salma Husain, The Emperor’s Table: The Art of Mughal Cuisine (New Delhi, 2008), p. 29.
2	Babur (Zahiru’d-din Muhammad Babur Padshah Ghazi), Babur-Nama: Memoirs of Babur, trans. Annette Susannah Beveridge (New Delhi, 1989), vol. I, p. 3.
3	Ibid., vol. II, pp. 517–18.
4	Knives and spoons were apparently in use at the time. A chronicler wrote of one of Babur’s dinner parties: ‘A piece of fish was kept in the dish of Sherkhan [one of his courtiers] but Sherkhan, finding difficulty in tackling it, cut it into small pieces with a knife and then ate them with a spoon.’ Kishori Prasad Sahu, Some Aspects of Indian Social Life, 1000–1526 AD (Calcutta, 1973), p. 33.
5	Opium had reached India by the twelfth century from West Asia, and was initially used as medicine. The first record of its cultivation dates from the fifteenth century. The Mughals made it a state monopoly, which was later taken over by the British. In the sixteenth century it became an important article of trade between India and China and other countries. By the seventeenth century the use of opium became more common among all classes as a replacement for alcohol, although it was banned by Emperor Aurangzeb. See S. P. Sangar, ‘Intoxicants in Mughal India’, Indian Journal of History of Science, XVI/2 (November 1981), pp. 202–14.
6	Quoted in Joyce Pamela Westrip, ‘Some Persian Influences on the Cooking of India’ in Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 1984, ed. Tom Jaine (Totnes, Devon, 1985), p. 74.
7	The Islamic sect called Sufism began in Iraq in the second half of the seventh century as a reaction against what some saw as the growing worldliness of Muslims. Its antecedents were a group contemporary with the Prophet, called Ahi al-suffa (People of the Bench) because of their practice of remaining in the mosque all day and night in devotion. Sufis embraced poverty, abstinence from worldly pleasures and intensive fasting as a method of self-discipline, purification and opening the soul to God. While not strictly vegetarian, they maintained the sense that eating meat could be deleterious to spirituality. A thirteenth-century Sufi master wrote: ‘Be careful of your diet. It is better if your food be nourishing but devoid of animal fat.’ Valerie J. Hoffman, ‘Eating and Fasting for God in Sufi Tradition’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, LXIII/3 (1995), pp. 465–84. For a contemporary discussion of Islam and vegetarianism, see http://islamicconcern.com.
8	Abu’l-Fazl ibn Mubarak Allami, The Ain i Akbari, trans. H. Blochmann [1873] (New Delhi, 1989). Abu’l-Fazl himself was described as having an extraordinary appetite, consuming 22 sers (about 45 kg/99 lb) of food each day. He was murdered under the orders of Akbar’s son Salim, who was jealous of his influence.
9	J. S. Hoyland, trans., The Commentary of Father Monserrate, SJ, on his Journey to the Court of Akbar [1591] (London, 1922), from an excerpt at www.columbia.edu.
10	The word kashk and its cognates (including kishik, keshk) denote a very wide range of dishes found throughout the Middle East, Egypt and Central Asia, involving either a sour milk product or fermented barley or, more generally, requiring complex preparation. See Françoise Aubaile-Sallenave, ‘Al-Kishk: The Past and Present of a Complex Culinary Practice’ in A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, ed. Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper (London, 2000), pp. 105–39. The word shulla had its origin in various Mongolian and Turkic languages, where it appears as shilen, shilan, shölen, shülen, shilen and so on, plus various forms without the ‘n’. Charles Perry, private communication.
11	Michael H. Fisher, ed., Visions of Mughal India: An Anthology of European Travel Writing (London and New York, 2007), p. ix.
12	K. T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi, 2002), p. 43.
13	Willem Floor, ‘Tobacco’, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 20 July 2009, www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tobacco.
14	Quoted in Annemarie Schimmel, The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (London, 2004), p. 194.
15	Quoted in ibid., p. 193.
16	Abu’l-Fazl, The Ain i Akbari, p. 59.
17	Ibid., p. 64.
18	The Tuzuk-i-jahangiri; or, Memoirs of Jahangir, trans. Alexander Rogers, ed. Henry Beveridge (London, 1900), p. 419, available at http://archive.org.
19	Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food, p. 162.
20	Ibid., pp. 162–3.
21	Quoted in Chakravarty, Saga of Indian Food, p. 73.
22	Abdul Halim Sharar, Lucknow: The Last Phase of an Oriental Culture, trans. E. S. Harcourt and Fakhir Hussain (Delhi, 1994), p. 13.
23	Quoted in William Dalrymple, White Mughals: Love and Betrayal in Eighteenth-century India (London, 2002), p. 266.
24	Sharar, Lucknow, p. 157.
25	Ibid., p. 159.
26	For an analysis of the dish and the legend, see Holly Shaffer, ‘Dum Pukht: A Pseudo-Historical Cuisine’, in Krishnendu Ray and Tulasi Srinivas, Curried Cultures: Globalization, Food and South Asia (Berkeley, CA, 2012), pp. 110–25.
27	See Mukul Mangalik, ‘Lucknow Food, Streets, and Bazaars’, 16 May 2007: www.gourmetindia.com; also Margo True, ‘Fragrant Feasts of Lucknow’, Saveur, 78 (October 2004), pp. 56–72.
28	Quoted in Michael H. Fisher, ed., Visions of Mughal India: An Anthology of European Travel Writing (London and New York, 2007), p. ix.
29	Ja’far Sharif, ed. and trans. Gerhard Andreas Herklots, Qanoon-e-Islam, or, The Customs of the Moosulmans of India; Comprising a Full and Exact Account of their Various Rites and Ceremonies, from the Moment of Birth Till the Hour of Death (London, 1832).
30	Sidq Jaisi (pen name of Mirza Tassaduz Hussain), The Nocturnal Court, Darbaar-e-Durbaar: The Life of a Prince of Hyderabad, trans. Narendra Luther (New Delhi, 2004), p. 12.
31	Ibid., p. XXXV.

TEN: The Europeans, the Princes and their Legacy, 1500–1947

1	Michael Krondl, The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice (New York, 2007), p. 116.
2	Minakshie Das Gupta, Bunny Gupta and Jaya Chaliha, The Calcutta Cook Book: A Treasury of Over 200 Recipes from Pavement to Palace (New Delhi, 1995), p. 148.
3	Colleen Taylor Sen, ‘Sandesh: The Emblem of Bengaliness’, in Milk: Beyond the Dairy, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 1999, ed. Harlan Walker (Totnes, Devon, 2000), pp. 300–308.
4	See, for example, Carl Johanssen, ‘Pre-Columbia American Sunflower and Maize Images in Indian Temples: Evidence of Contact between Civilizations in India and America’, NEARA Journal, XXXII/I (Summer 1998), pp. 164–80; and Johanssen, ‘Considerations of Asian Crops Indicate Longstanding Transoceanic Pre-Columbian Contacts’, Epigraphic Society Occasional Paper, XXV (2006), pp. 5–12. A more radical version of this theory holds that there was even earlier contact between South America, the Pacific Islands, Indonesia and India, and that the ancient Indians were the origins of the ancient civilizations of the New World. This is based on depictions of what appear to be Hindu deities and animals (such as the elephant) in Aztec and Mayan ruins, and similarities in social, religious and political structures and, of course, food – the tortilla/chapatti similarity is cited as a prime example. See Chaman Lal, Hindu America? (Bombay, 1941).
5	Ruben L. Villareal, Tomatoes in the Tropics (Boulder, CO, 1980), p. 56.
6	William Roxburgh, Flora Indica: or, Descriptions of Indian Plants, ed. William Carey, vol. I (Serampore, India, 1832), p. 565.
7	Rachel Laudan, ‘Why 1492 is a Non-Event in Culinary History’, 16 December 2009: www.rachellaudan.com.
8	Garcia de Orta, trans. Sir Clements Markham, Colloquies on the Simples and Drugs of India (London, 1913).
9	Ibid., pp. 44–5.
10	For an interesting account of the history and role of bhang in India, see Dominik Wujastyk, ‘Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine’, in Ayurveda at the Crossroads of Care and Cure: Proceedings of the Indo-European Seminar on Ayurveda Held at Arrábida, Portugal, in November 2001, ed. Anna Salema (Lisbon, 2002), pp. 45–73.
11	Lourdes Tirouvanziam-Louis, The Pondicherry Kitchen: Traditional Recipes from the Indo-French Territory (Chennai, 2012).
12	David Burton, The Raj at Table: A Culinary History of the British in India (London, 1993), pp. 3–4.
13	Henry Hobbs, John Barley Bahadur: Old Time Taverns in India (Calcutta, 1944) p. 127.
14	Ibid., p. 35.
15	Jayanta Sengupta, ‘Nation on a Platter: The Culture and Politics of Food in Colonial Bengal’, in Krishnendu Ray and Tulasi Srinivas, Curried Cultures: Globalization, Food and South Asia (Berkeley, CA, 2012), p. 74.
16	Eleanor Bobb, The Raj Cookbook (Delhi, 1981), p. 10.
17	Shrabani Basu, Victoria and Abdul: The True Story of the Queen’s Closest Confidant (London, 2011), pp. 129–30.
18	Quoted in Burton, The Raj at Table, p. 84.
19	Caroline Rowe, ‘Fermented Nagaland: A Culinary Adventure’ in Cured, Fermented and Smoked Foods, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2010, ed. Helen Saberi (Totnes, Devon, 2011), pp. 263–77.
20	Alan Pryor, ‘Indian Pale Ale: An Icon of Empire’ in Global Histories, Imperial Commodities, Local Interactions, ed. Jonathan Curry-Machado (New York, 2013), pp. 38–57. For a slightly different account, see Martyn Cornell, ‘Hodgon’s Brewer, Bow and the Birth of IPA’, Brewery History, 111 (2003), pp. 63–8.
21	For a list of Indian clubs, see ‘List of India’s Gentlemen’s Clubs’, http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed 30 June 2014.
22	Kal Raustiala, ‘The Imperial Cocktail’, Slate (28 August 2013): www.slate.com.
23	See Patricia Brown, Anglo-Indian Food and Customs (Delhi, 1998).
24	For a full listing of the princely states, see http://princelystatesofindia.com and ‘List of Indian Princely States’, http://en.wikipedia.org, accessed 30 June 2014.
25	Anna Jackson and Jaffer Amin, eds, Maharaja: The Splendour of India’s Royal Courts (London, 2009).
26	Neha Prasada and Ashima Narain, Dining with the Maharajas: A Thousand Years of Culinary Tradition (New Delhi, 2013), passim.
27	Government of Rajasthan, Integrated Excise Management System, ‘Heritage Liqueur’: https://rajexcise.gov.in.
28	Ammini Ramachandran, Grains, Greens and Grated Coconuts: Recipes and Remembrances of a Vegetarian Legacy (Lincoln, NE, 2007), pp. 142–3.
29	Digvijaya Singh, Cooking Delights of the Maharajahs: Exotic Dishes from the Princely House of Sailana (Bombay, 1982). Manju Shivraj Singh, A Taste of Palace Life: Royal Indian Cookery (Leicester, 1987). Another book of recipes by a member of the Indore royal family and his American wife is Shivaji Rao Holkar and Shalini Devi Holkar, Cooking of the Maharajas: The Royal Recipes of India (New York, 1975).
30	S. Vivekenanda, Patrabali Letters, 5th edn (Calcutta, 1987), quoted in Jayanta Sengupta, ‘Nation on a Platter’, in Curried Cultures: Globalization, Food and South Asia, ed. Krishnendu Ray and Tulasi Srinivas (Berkeley, CA, 2012), p. 85.
31	Mohandas K. Gandhi, Autobiography: The Story of my Experiments with Truth, trans. Mahadev Desai (New York, 1983).
32	Ibid., p. 43.
33	M. K. Gandhi, Key to Health, trans. Sushila Nayar (Ahmedabad, 1948).
34	Gandhi’s grandson Arun Gandhi denies that his grandfather followed this practice.
35	Young India, 10 June 1921.
36	The Mind of Mohatma Gandhi: The Complete Book, p. 118, at www.mkgandhi.org.

ELEVEN: An Overview of Indian Cuisine: The Meal, Cooking Techniques and Regional Variations

1	K. T. Achaya, Indian Food: A Historical Companion (New Delhi, 1994), p. 57.
2	Quoted in Krishnendu Ray, The Migrant’s Table: Meals and Memories in Bengali-American Households (Philadelphia, PA, 2004), pp. 28–9.
3	Caroline Rowe, ‘Thalis of India’, in Food and Material Culture: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2013, ed. Mark McWilliams (Totnes, Devon, 2014), pp. 264–71.
4	Geeta Samtani, A Taste of Kashmir (London, 1995); Shyam Rani Kilam and Kaul Kilam, Culinary Art of Kashmir: A Cook Book of all Popular Kashmiri Dishes (New Delhi, n.d.), available at www.ikashmir.net; M.S.W. Khan et al., Wazwaan: Traditional Kashmiri Cuisine (New Delhi, 2007). For an overview of the debate on GM foods in India, see Michael Specter, ‘Seeds of Doubt’, New Yorker, 25 August 2014, pp. 46–57.
5	Shanaz Ramzi, Food Prints: An Epicurean Voyage through Pakistan: Overview of Pakistani Cuisine (Karachi, 2012), pp. 7–11.
6	Ibid., pp. 101–4, and Aroona Reejhsinghani, The Essential Sindhi Cookbook (New Delhi, 2004).
7	Kaumudi Marathé, The Essential Marathi Cookbook (New Delhi, 2009); Hermalata Dandekar, Beyond Curry: Quick and Easy Indian Cooking Featuring Cuisine from Maharashtra State (Ann Arbor, MI, 1983).
8	Maria Teresa Menezes, The Essential Goa Cookbook (New Delhi, 2000); Mridula Baljekar, A Taste of Goa (London, 1995).
9	The bible of Tamil cooking is S. Meenakshi Ammal’s Cook and See (Samaithu Par) (Madras, 1991). It was first self-published by the author in Tamil in 1951 to teach young brides how to cook traditional vegetarian Tamil dishes. In 1972 it was translated into English with the traditional Tamil measurements (ollocks, palams) converted to metric units. See www.meenakshiammal.com.
10	Alamelu Vairavan, Chettinad Kitchen: Food and Flavours from South India (New Chennai, India, 2010).
11	K. M. Mathew, Kerala Cookery (Kottayam, India, 1964); Vijayan Kannampilly, The Essential Kerala Cookbook (New Delhi, 2003); and Ammini Ramachandran, Grains, Greens and Grated Coconuts: Recipes and Remembrances of a Vegetarian Legacy (Lincoln, NE, 2007).
12	Ramachandran, Grains, Greens and Grated Coconuts, p. 56.
13	Lathika George, The Kerala Kitchen: Recipes and Recollections from the Syrian Christians of South India (New York, 2009).
14	Bilkees I. Latif, The Essential Andhra Cookbook with Hyderabadi Specialties (New Delhi, 1999).
15	Minakshie Das Gupta, Bunny Gupta and Jaya Chaliha, The Calcutta Cook Book: A Treasury of over 200 Recipes from Pavement to Palace (New Delhi, 1995); and Chitrita Banerji, Life and Food in Bengal (New Delhi, 1993).
16	Joe Roberts and Colleen Taylor Sen, ‘A Carp Wearing Lipstick: The Role of Fish in Bengali Cuisine and Culture’, in Fish: Food from the Waters: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium of Food and Cookery, 1997, ed. Harlan Walker (Totnes, Devon, 1998), pp. 252–8.
17	Laxmi Parida, Purba: Feasts from the East: Oriya Cuisine from Eastern India (New York, 2003).
18	Hoihnu Hauzel, The Essential North-East Cookbook (New Delhi, 2003).
19	Caroline Rowe, ‘Fermented Nagaland: A Culinary Adventure’ in Cured, Fermented and Smoked Foods, Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2010, ed. Helen Saberi (Totnes, Devon, 2011), pp. 263–77.
20	Colleen Taylor Sen, ‘The Forest Foodways of India’s Tribals’ in Wild Food: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2004, ed. Richard Hosking (Totnes, Devon, 2006), pp. 285–90.

TWELVE: New Trends in Indian Food, 1947–Present

1	P. Sainath, ‘Farmers’ Suicide Rates Soar Above the Rest’, The Hindu, 18 May 2013.
2	International Food Policy Research Institute, ‘2012 Global Hunger Index’, 2012, at www.ifpri.org.
3	Vikas Bajaj, ‘As Grain Piles Up, India’s Poor Still Go Hungry’, New York Times, 7 June 2012.
4	Navdanya, Bhoole Bisre Anaj: Forgotten Foods (New Delhi, 2006), foreword. Navdanya means both ‘new gift’ and ‘nine seeds’ in Sanskrit, a reference to the nine ancient grains and lentils of India. For an overview of the debate on GM foods in India, see Michael Specter, ‘Seeds of Doubt’, New Yorker, 25 August 2014, pp. 46–57.
5	See Rukmini Shrnivasan, ‘Middle Class: Who are They?’, Times of India, 1 December 2012: www.timescrest.com; and Christian Meyer and Nancy Birdsall, ‘New Estimates of India’s Middle Class: Technical Note’, November 2012: www.cgdev.org.
6	Y. Yadav and S. Kumar, ‘The Food Habits of a Nation’, The Hindu, 14 August 2006.
7	R. S. Khare, The Hindu Hearth and Home (New Delhi, 1976), pp. 244–63.
8	Ibid., p. 246.
9	Compare this with Sung China (960–1279 CE), where a restaurant culture flourished. The capital cities Haifeng and Hangchow were home to hundreds of elegantly decorated restaurants serving regional delicacies and alcoholic beverages in both private rooms and commonal dining areas. Their patrons were wealthy merchants and officials who valued connoisseurship and experimentation: ‘Mobile, experimental, and egalitarian in temper, little influenced by dietary taboos, they brought about the creation of a Chinese cuisine’, writes Michael Freeman in ‘Sung’, in Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives, ed. K. C. Chang (New Haven, CT, 1977), p. 175.
10	For a more comprehensive description of Indian and world street food, see Bruce Kraig and Colleen Taylor Sen, Street Food Around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013).
11	In Indian English, the word ‘hotel’ denotes ‘any establishment, even a roadside stall, open to all and serving meals’. Nigel B. Hankin, Hanklyn-Janklyn; or, A Stranger’s Rumble-Tumble Guide to Some Words, Customs, and Quiddities Indian and Indo-British (New Delhi, 1992), p. 88.
12	For a history of restaurants in Mumbai, see Frank F. Conlon, ‘Dining out in Bombay’, in Consuming Modernity: Public Culture in a South Asian World, ed. Carol Appadurai Breckenridge (Minneapolis, MN, 1995), pp. 90–127.
13	Colleen Taylor Sen and Ashish Sen, ‘In Delhi, it’s the Moti Mahal’, Christian Science Monitor (5 October 1988), and Monish Gujral, Moti Mahal’s Tandoori Trail (Delhi, 1994).
14	See USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Wine Market Update 2012, Report no. IN2162, 24 December 2012, and Western Australia Trade Office – India, Indian Wine Industry Report, January 2012.
15	See www.busybeeforever.com, accessed 30 June 2014.
16	See www.uppercrustindia.com, accessed 30 June 2014.
17	See ‘Diabetes in India’, www.diabetes.co.uk, and Mark Bergen, ‘No Answers in Sight for India’s Diabetes Crisis’, Time, 12 May 2013.
18	See, for example, Sheela Rani Chunkath, ‘Easy Herbal Route to Tackle Diabetes’, New Indian Express, 9 December 2012: http://newindianexpress.com.

THIRTEEN: The Food of the Indian Diaspora

1	There is evidence that some were slaves. See Francis C. Assisi, ‘Indian Slaves in Colonial America’, New Indian Express, 16 May 2007: www.indiacurrents.com.
2	See the report The Indian Diaspora published by the Indian Government in 1994, at http://indiandiaspora.nic.in.
3	Earlier the French had recruited artisans and other workers from their Indian colonies.
4	V. S. Naipaul, An Area of Darkness (London and Harmondsworth, 1968), p. 30.
5	See the chapter on food in G. A. Grierson, Bihar Peasant Life [1885] (Delhi, 1975).
6	Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, The Settler’s Cookbook: A Memoir of Love, Migration and Food (London, 2008), p. 103.
7	Laurens van der Post, African Cooking (New York, 1970), p. 124.
8	‘Fish and Chips Crowned the UK’s Favourite Takeaway’, The Sun, 12 October 2012: www.thesun.co.uk.
9	Every Englishman received a 20-ha (50-acre) land grant for each worker or servant he ‘imported’ to the colony. See ‘The Geography of Slavery in Virginia’, project compiled by Thomas Costa, Professor of History, University of Virginia’s College at Wise: www.vcdh.virginia.edu/gos.
10	For a study of these Bengali immigrants and their descendants, see Vivek Bald, Bengali Harlem and the Lost Histories of South Asian America (Cambridge, MA, 2013).
11	See Karen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California’s Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia, PA, 1991), and Leonard, ‘California’s Punjabi Mexican Americans’, 1989, at www.sikhpioneers.org.
12	Krishnendu Ray, ‘Indian American Food’, in The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, ed. Andrew F. Smith (Oxford, 2007), p. 317.