Anton Köllisch (1888–1916), Alexander Shulgin (b. 1925), Leo Zeff (1912–1988)
In the mid-twentieth century, methylenedioxy-methamphtamine was an obscure chemical synthesized in 1912 by Anton Köllisch, a Merck chemist. By the 1980s, MDMA was among the most widely used illicit drugs in the United States and Europe.
Active interest in MDMA dramatically increased in 1976, after the California pharmacologist-chemist Alexander Shulgin resynthesized MDMA, sampled it himself (as was his custom), and shared his enthusiasm for it with friends—one of whom was psychotherapist Leo Zeff. This amphetamine-like stimulant—now better known as “ecstasy”—produces euphoria and physical energy, increasing feelings of empathy and intimacy with partners and the perception that “all is right with the world.” Zeff was so impressed with MDMA’s ability to enhance patient-therapist communications and to relieve anxiety disorders that he was said to have trained some 4,000 therapists in its clinical virtues and use.
Enthusiasm for MDMA transcended psychotherapy circles. Devotees of clubs and raves (dance parties) embraced it. After nonstop frenetic dancing for hours in hot, crowded surroundings, some participants experience hyperthermia, a dangerous rise in body temperature that can cause kidney and liver failure. Drinking excessive volumes of water, coupled with dehydration due to sweating, can cause a steep drop in blood sodium levels, potentially resulting in confusion, delirium, and convulsions.
Objective assessment of MDMA’s reported effects is complicated by the purity of street ecstasy, which commonly contains other psychoactive drugs responsible for adverse side effects, some quite dangerous. After MDMA use, some individuals report depression, anxiety, and fatigue. Conflicting reports have appeared as to whether it causes cognitive impairment.
MDMA is legally controlled in most countries and has been illegal in the United Kingdom since 1977 and the United States since 1985. Nevertheless, it remains among the most commonly used recreational drugs, taken by millions of people each year. Interest also continues among psychotherapists about its potential use in treating relationship disorders and to augment therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder.
SEE ALSO Amphetamine (1932), Methamphetamine (1944).
Ecstasy is the preferred drug at all-night dance parties (raves) that are commonly frequented by teenagers and young adults. “X” enables individuals to dance actively for long periods and it enhances emotional intimacy; hence, its nickname, “the love drug.”