paleography The scientific study of the age of manuscripts by the analysis of handwriting. Since handwriting styles change over the years, experts can discern the approximate date of a manuscript through the features of its handwriting.
Papias (ca. 70–160) Early church father and bishop of Hierapolis in Asia Minor, an important witness to the authorship and origin of the canonical Gospels. Papias wrote a five-volume work called Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord, which is now lost except for citations from the early church father Irenaeus (ca. 180) and the church historian Eusebius (ca. 320). Irenaeus identifies Papias as an associate of Polycarp (ca. 69–155; a mentor to Irenaeus) and one who learned from John the apostle. In his writings Papias provides significant (though disputed) information concerning the authorship and production of the Gospels—information he received from “the Elder John.” This John may be the apostle, though he is considered by Eusebius and some others to be a different John. Perhaps most significantly, Papias reports that Mark was Peter’s interpreter and recorded his preaching about Jesus. See also Eusebius of Caesarea; Irenaeus.
papyrus, papyri Papyrus is writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant, a reed grown in marshy climates. Our earliest NT manuscripts were written on papyrus. The plural, “papyri,” refers to documents made of papyrus. See also minuscule; parchment; uncial.
parable A short story meant to teach a particular theological or moral truth. The terms commonly translated “parable” in both Hebrew (mashal) and Greek (parabolē) have a much wider range of meaning. Mashal can mean a parable, proverb, saying, similitude, poem, oracle, taunt, and so on. Similarly, parabolē can mean parable, speech, proverb, simile, riddle, illustration, maxim, comparison, and so on. A parable proper is a short story or extended simile that teaches a spiritual truth. There are parables in the OT, such as Nathan’s story of a man and his lamb (2 Sam. 12:1–9), told to David after his sin with Bathsheba. The most famous parables in the Bible are those of Jesus, a master storyteller. Jesus’s parables of the kingdom, such as the parable of the sower (appearing in all three Synoptic Gospels), define the nature and growth of the kingdom of God—Jesus’s central message. Many of Jesus’s most well-known parables appear in Luke’s central section, known as the travel narrative or journey to Jerusalem (Luke 9:51–19:27). These include the parables of the good Samaritan, of the rich fool, of the great banquet, of the prodigal son, of the shrewd manager, of the rich man and Lazarus, of the persistent widow, and of the Pharisee and the tax collector.
Throughout church history there has been a great deal of misinterpretation of the parables by those who find in them a complex array of allegorical connections. Although parables may contain allegorical elements, they generally make one key point. Adolf Jülicher (1857–1938), in particular, argued that Jesus’s parables were not allegories and that allegorical features found in them were the result of later editing by the early church. This, however, would seem to be going beyond the evidence. Although there has certainly been excessive allegorization in the history of the church, many of Jesus’s parables do contain allegorical features. There is little doubt, for example, that the parable of the prodigal son allegorizes God’s free forgiveness of sinners and tax collectors in Jesus’s ministry and the opposition by the religious leaders (represented by the older brother). These allegorical elements fit the historical context of Jesus’s ministry. The interpretive key is to place the parables in the context of Jesus’s ministry and to relate them to his proclamation of the kingdom of God.
paraenesis “Paraenetic” (adj.) applies to rhetoric intended to provoke the reader to response. “Paraenesis” (n.) is literature focused on practical application and is sometimes contrasted with more strictly doctrinal material. For example, the letter to the Hebrews has doctrinal teaching related to the superiority of Christ and the new covenant interspersed with paraenetic calls to remain faithful in the face of suffering.
parallelism “Parallelism” refers to the relationship between cola (see colon, cola) of a poetic line; though not all biblical poetry has parallelism, the vast majority does. There is both semantic and grammatical parallelism. In semantic parallelism, a poetic line echoes the thought of the first colon in subsequent cola (usually there is only one more colon, but sometimes three or more) so that the following cola carry forward the thought of the first by sharpening or intensifying the idea initially presented. James Kugel described parallelism as “A (the first colon), what’s more B (the second).” This often works with the use of near synonyms (what used to be called synonymous parallelism), for instance, “Why do the nations rage (A) and the peoples plot in vain? (B)” (Ps. 2:1). Occasionally, parallelism works with antonyms (“Idle hands make one poor (A), but diligent hands bring riches (B)” (Prov. 10:4). To read poetry well, one must ask how the second and following cola further the thought of the first colon. Grammatical parallelism is a pattern of word order and syntax shared by cola within the poetic line. See also colon, cola; Kugel, James; poetry.
paraphrase To restate using different words, generally for the purpose of simplification and clarification. While idiomatic Bible translations are sometimes called “paraphrases,” from a linguistic perspective a true translation transfers meaning from one language to another, while a paraphrase is the simplification of a text within the same language. The Living Bible (1971) was a true paraphrase since it was produced by simplifying another English version, the American Standard Version. The New Living Translation (1996) is a translation, however, since it is an idiomatic translation from the Hebrew and Greek. See also Living Bible, The.
parataxis See hypotaxis.
parchment Material made from treated animal skins and used for writing. Many of the early manuscripts of the OT and NT are written on parchment. See also minuscule; papyrus, papyri; uncial.
paronomasia A play on words, also called a pun, that exploits the use of two or more meanings of the same word or similar-sounding words for a humorous or rhetorical effect. Isaiah 5:7 represents paronomasia in Hebrew when Isaiah says God “expected justice [mišpāṭ] but saw injustice [miśpāḥ]; he expected righteousness [ṣeḏāqâ], but heard cries of despair [ṣeʿāk].” Similarly, when Jesus says of the religious leaders that they “strain out a gnat, but gulp down a camel!” (Matt. 23:24), he is probably exploiting the similar Aramaic words for “gnat” (qalmâ) and “camel” (gamlâ).
parousia Greek word that could be translated “presence,” “coming,” or “arrival.” It is frequently used in the NT of the return of Christ (Matt. 24:3, 27, 37; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thess. 2:19; 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; James 5:7; 2 Pet. 3:4; 1 John 2:28) and has become a technical term in biblical studies for the second coming.
passion narrative Designation given to the account of Jesus’s suffering and death in the four Gospels, including the plot against him, the Last Supper, his arrest, trial, crucifixion, and burial. Form and source critics generally view the passion narrative as the first connected narrative in the oral transmission of the story of Jesus and perhaps the first part of the Jesus story to be put down in written form.
Pastoral Epistles Traditional title given to the NT letters 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus. The title refers to the fact that these letters give guidance for pastoral leadership over churches to two of Paul’s disciples. The Pastoral Epistles are the most disputed of the Pauline letters. If written by Paul, they were his last letters known to us, written after his first Roman imprisonment.
patriarchal history The middle section of Genesis (chaps. 12–36) describes the lives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who are commonly called the patriarchs, or fathers, of the (Jewish) faith. Abraham received the divine promise that his descendants would become a great nation and that God would bless them and through them God would bless the entire world (12:1–3). This promise was passed by Abraham to his son Isaac, who in turn passed it on to his son Jacob. Later Scripture will refer to God as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Paulinist Term used of someone who follows or reproduces the theological perspective of the apostle Paul. In biblical studies the term has sometimes been used of the writers of books considered to be deutero-Pauline, meaning written pseudonymously in Paul’s name by his disciples after his death. The term is sometimes also applied to 1 Peter, since that letter contains many themes recalling Paul’s own theology.
Pax Romana Latin for “Roman peace” and referring to the period of Roman domination of the Mediterranean region initiated and consolidated by Caesar Augustus, the first Roman emperor (ruled as emperor from 27 BC to AD 14). During this period of relative tranquility, which is generally dated from 27 BC to the late second or early third century AD, the Mediterranean came to be viewed as a “Roman lake.”
Pentateuch Also known as the Torah. Pentateuch means “five scrolls” and refers to the first five books of the OT (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). While these books are of disputed authorship, it is clear that their final form is a coherent literary whole. The reason why this work is divided into five parts is that a single scroll could not hold the whole composition. See also Documentary Hypothesis.
Pentecost Jewish festival that occurred fifty days after Passover. “Pentecost” means “fiftieth day.” The festival is also called the Festival of Weeks (Deut. 16:10) and Festival of Harvest (Exod. 23:16). The festival began as a harvest festival but came to commemorate God’s covenant with Israel established at Mount Sinai. The festival took on new meaning for the followers of Jesus when—after his ascension to the right hand of God—Jesus poured out the Holy Spirit on his people (Acts 2:1–41). This endowment of the Spirit marked the birth of the church and the beginning of the new age of salvation (Joel 2:28–32).
performance criticism A relatively new methodology that views the Gospels not as literature per se but as a written record of oral performance. Performance criticism starts with the assumptions that the culture of the first-century Greco-Roman world was primarily oral and that the great majority of people saw texts performed, rather than reading them. The Gospels ought, then, to be studied as “remnants” of oral performances rather than polished literary works. Performance criticism is often interdisciplinary, bringing together expertise in such fields as oral culture, speech arts, social identity, collective memory, literacy, classical rhetoric, and so on.
pericope A section of Scripture that forms a coherent unit of thought or a narrative event. The term is most commonly used with reference to the Synoptic Gospels, with their strings of short, semi-independent stories, miracles, and parables.
Persia Cyrus the Great (ca. 580–529 BC) took a relatively small regional power in western Iran and through diplomacy and battle created an empire in the Near East not seen before. His greatest victory, and the one that brought the province of Judah/Yehud into its orbit, was over Babylon in 539 BC. Persia then initiated a foreign policy that allowed Babylon’s former vassals, including Judah, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. Thus, the postexilic period in Israel began. The events of Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther take place during the period of Persian rule. The Persian Empire lasted until circa 330 BC, when Alexander the Great defeated Darius III. See also Cyrus Cylinder; postexilic period.
personification Presenting inanimate objects or abstract ideas as if they were persons. For instance, the book of Proverbs presents wisdom as a woman in 1:20–33; 8:1–36; 9:1–6. Personification allows the composer to present a concept with greater clarity and vividness. Proverbs speaks directly to young men, and the presentation of wisdom as a woman heightens its appeal and also suggests an intimate relationship.
pesher See Dead Sea Scrolls.
Peshitta The traditional Syriac translation of the Bible, probably produced beginning in the second century AD. Syriac is a dialect of western Aramaic. Some scholars have claimed that an Aramaic NT of the Peshitta preceded the Greek and so contains the original Aramaic words of Jesus. The consensus of scholarship, however, is that the OT of the Peshitta was translated from Hebrew and the NT was translated from Greek. See also Aram, Aramaic; Syriac.
Pharisees A Jewish sect that flourished in Israel during the Second Temple period. Their chief opponents were the Sadducees. Though their origin is uncertain, the Pharisees likely arose from the Hasidim, the pious Jews who opposed the hellenization of Israel during the period of Seleucid domination and the persecutions of Antiochus IV “Epiphanes.” After the Maccabees gained independence from the Seleucids, the Pharisees began to withdraw their support because of opposition to the increasing hellenization of the later Maccabees (the term Pharisee probably means “separatist”). The Pharisees are best known for their strict adherence to the law of Moses, including not only the written law but also the oral “tradition of the elders” (Mark 7:3) that had been passed down for generations. See also Hasidim; Maccabees, Maccabean revolt; Sadducees.
Philistia In the twelfth century BC, as part of a widespread dislocation of peoples through the eastern Mediterranean, a group from the Aegean region resettled on the southern coast of Israel and pushed inland, threatening Israel’s place in the land. The threat was particularly strong during the period of the judges (see the Samson story in Judg. 13–16) and the time of Saul and David. Important Philistine cities included Gath, Gezer, Ekron, Ashkelon, and Ashdod. The mention of Philistines in the book of Genesis is considered an anachronism by some but may represent an earlier incursion into the land. See also Ashdod; Ashkelon; Ekron; Gath.
Philo of Alexandria (ca. 20 BC–AD 50) First-century Jewish philosopher, theologian, and historian. Philo was a Hellenistic Jew heavily influenced by Greek thought. He sought to synthesize Judaism with Greek philosophical traditions. He wrote more than seventy works, including philosophical treatises, commentaries on the Bible, and apologetic defenses of Judaism against pagan opponents. Like later Alexandrian Christianity, Philo interpreted the Scriptures allegorically, finding in them teachings parallel to those of Plato and other Greek philosophers.
phoneme A unit of sound in a particular language system. For example, a “b” in English is a phoneme whose sound can be analyzed as a bilabial voiced stop. It is made by bringing the lips together (bilabial) to produce an explosion of air (a stop), while using the vocal cords to make the sound (voiced). Similarly, a “p” is a bilabial unvoiced stop, since it is formed the same way yet not using the vocal cords. Such phonemes constitute the oral dimension of a spoken language system. Phonetics is the study of these sounds.
Platonism The philosophy of Plato of Athens (ca. 428–348 BC) and of those who followed him and developed the implications of his philosophical framework. Fundamental to Platonism is the belief that true reality consists of the world of ideas (which he called “forms”) and that the physical world is merely a shadow of this true reality. These transcendent forms represent eternal and unchanging realities that are independent of the changing things of the world that can be perceived with the senses. Further, these realities represent the true cause of human existence and give it value and meaning. Anything created is an imperfect copy of transcendent forms. The highest of all forms is that of “the Good.” Though Platonism is primarily philosophical, a number of religious movements arose around the concepts of Platonic dualism. Gnosticism, for example, eschewed the physical world in favor of the world of true spirit.
poetics The study of poetry and its conventions. See also poetry.
poetry In Hebrew, poetry is composed of parallel lines arranged in stanzas rather than prose, which has sentences arranged in paragraphs. Poetry uses compact language (see terseness), saying a lot using a few words, and thus increasing ambiguity. In poetry the second colon of a parallel line usually intensifies or sharpens the thought of the first (see parallelism). Poetry uses figurative language more extensively than prose (see hyperbole; metaphor; metonymy; personification; simile). The poets of Israel also used many other conventions, though less frequently than parallelism and figurative language (see acrostic; merism).
postcolonial biblical criticism Type of biblical criticism that interprets the Bible in light of the period of domination of much of the two-thirds world by Western colonial powers. Following the decline of colonial hegemony during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, biblical scholars began to examine how Western powers had influenced biblical interpretation in these colonies, especially with reference to military and political dominance, assertions of cultural superiority, and racial and ethnic prejudice. Postcolonial interpretation often compares the role and influence of biblical world empires—the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans—with that of Western world powers.
postexilic period In 539 BC, Persia under Cyrus (the Great) defeated Babylon and inherited the vast Babylonian Empire to expand the core of its empire (located in western Iran). In this year, Cyrus issued a decree permitting the Jewish people who had been deported to Babylon to return to Judah and rebuild their temple (2 Chron. 36:22–23; Ezra 1:2–4), thus initiating the postexilic period. The initial returns were led by Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel.
postmillennialism A theological perspective that sees the thousand-year reign of Christ (Rev. 20:1–7) as the gradual triumph of the church on earth through its establishment of the kingdom of God. The return of Christ is postmillennial, meaning Jesus will come to claim his kingdom after the church establishes the kingdom on earth. See also amillennialism; dispensationalism; premillennialism.
preexistence Term used for the belief that the soul exists prior to physical birth; also called premortal existence. The Greek philosopher Plato taught the preexistence of the soul, as did the early church father Origen. This belief was condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople (553). Today, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) holds to a form of the premortal existence of the soul. All major Christian denominations, including Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant denominations, reject this belief.
preexistence of Christ Term used to describe the Son of God’s existence as one of the persons of the Triune God prior to his incarnation. The preexistence of Christ has been denied by those who consider him to be merely human or by those who hold to an adoptionist Christology, whereby Jesus became the Son of God at a particular time, whether his resurrection, transfiguration, baptism, or birth. The preexistence of Christ is seen most clearly in passages like John 1:1–2; 17:5; Philippians 2:6–8; Colossians 1:16–17; Hebrews 1:2. It is also implied in the many passages that speak of the sending of the Son by the Father.
premillennialism A theological perspective that interprets the thousand-year reign of Christ described in Revelation 20:1–7 as a literal reign of Christ on earth between the second coming and the establishment of a new heaven and new earth (Rev. 21:1). See also amillennialism; dispensationalism; postmillennialism.
primeval history Refers to Genesis 1–11, which covers the time from the creation of the cosmos and humanity to just before the life of Abraham. The two accounts of creation (1:1–2:4a; 2:4b–25) inform the reader that when humans were given the status of image bearers (reflecting God’s glory and representing him in his creation), they were morally innocent and living in harmony with God, each other, and creation itself. Genesis 3 recounts Adam and Eve’s rebellion when they assert their own moral independence from God. The consequences are devastating, destroying the harmony that existed before the fall. Even so, God continues to pursue reconciliation with his wayward creatures. Three stories, connected by genealogies, follow the account of Adam and Eve’s rebellion (Cain and Abel; the flood; the tower of Babel). Each of these stories has the same structure as Genesis 3: they recount a sin concerning which God announces and then executes judgment. Each story, with the exception of the tower of Babel story, also has an indication of God’s continuing grace: God gave clothing to Adam and Eve, a mark to preserve Cain from violence, and a warning to Noah and his family to survive the flood. Though lacking a token of grace, the tower of Babel story is nevertheless followed by the call of Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3) as God adopts a new strategy of bringing blessing back to his creatures.
pronouncement story A form or genre of Gospel story categorized by form critics. A pronouncement story is an episode that builds to an authoritative statement or pronouncement by Jesus. For example, the call of Levi and the banquet he holds for Jesus (Mark 2:14–17) result in criticism of Jesus by the religious leaders for socializing with tax collectors and sinners. Jesus responds with an authoritative pronouncement: “It is not those who are well who need a doctor, but those who are sick. I didn’t come to call the righteous, but sinners” (Mark 2:17). This “pronouncement” represents the central theme of the passage. See also form criticism (Formgeschichte).
prooftext A generally pejorative term that refers to a text of Scripture used out of context to seek to prove a theological point.
proselyte A person who has converted to a particular religion, opinion, or political party. The term is used in the NT of converts to Judaism from paganism. Luke reports, for example, that some of the Jews in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost were proselytes (Acts 2:10), and Nicolaus, one of the seven chosen to help the poor widows in Jerusalem, is identified as a proselyte (Acts 6:5). Although Judaism was not a strongly conversion-oriented religion (but see Matt. 23:15), many pagans found the monotheism and ancient roots of Judaism attractive. Proselytes should be distinguished from “God-fearers” (Acts 13:16, 26). While Gentile God-fearers believed in the one true God of Israel and joined in synagogue worship, they had not converted fully to Judaism by being circumcised (for males) and fully keeping the law of Moses.
protasis See conditional sentence.
protevangelium Latin word meaning “first gospel” and the traditional title given to Genesis 3:15, part of the judgment against the serpent after the fall: “I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will crush your head, and you will strike his heel” (NIV). While for some, this is a statement about the fear and hostility that exist between snakes and humans, for others it is the “first gospel,” the earliest prediction of the restoration of fallen creation after the fall. It predicts the ultimate defeat of Satan (the crushing of his head) after the wound he will inflict on the Messiah (the striking of his heel).
provenance Term meaning “place of origin” and commonly used in biblical studies for the place where a biblical document was written. For example, the most commonly named provenance for the Gospel of Mark is Rome. The provenance for Matthew is often suggested to be Antioch in Syria. The term is also commonly used by archaeologists to refer to the place where an artifact was discovered. Identifying the provenance is important to determine the authenticity of such artifacts and whether they were legitimately recovered.
proverb A brief (usually a bicolon) observation, admonition, or prohibition. Proverbs are true when applied at the right time. They do not guarantee results but inform a person of the best route to a desired conclusion. In the Bible, the largest collection of proverbs is found in the book of Proverbs (particularly chaps. 10–31). See also colon, cola.
Psalms of Solomon A Jewish collection written pseudonymously in the name of Solomon and dated to the latter half of the first century BC. The Psalms were written by Jewish pietists who opposed certain “sinners” who had illegitimately seized the throne of David and defiled the Jerusalem temple. In response God had sent a foreign conqueror who seized Jerusalem and killed many of its citizens (Pss. Sol. 1:6–8; 2:3–8; 8:8–22; 17:7–20). These statements likely refer to the subjugation of Jerusalem by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BC. The “sinners” are the Hasmonean priest-kings, who have usurped David’s throne and whose political infighting allowed Pompey to seize the city. The collection has traditionally been ascribed to Pharisaic circles, though others have suggested an Essene origin. The Psalms are important as testimony to strong Jewish expectations for a conquering Messiah from the line of David (Pss. Sol. 17–18). They contain the first use of “son of David” as a messianic title (Pss. Sol. 17:21). See also Essenes; Hasmoneans; Pseudepigrapha, the.
Pseudepigrapha, the Large collection of mostly Jewish works written during the Second Temple period. The Pseudepigrapha contains wisdom literature, proverbs, psalms, expansions on OT narratives, apocalyptic literature, testaments (last words) of biblical figures, and other genres. Pseudepigrapha means “written under an assumed name” and refers to the fact that much of this literature is written pseudonymously in the name of OT characters. Though, unlike the Apocrypha, these books are not accepted as canonical by any wing of the church (Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant), they contain a wealth of important background information for the history, culture, social setting, politics, and religion of the NT period.
pseudonymity, pseudonymous “Pseudonymous” (adj.) refers to something written under a false or assumed name. Pseudonymity (n.) is the practice or result of such writing. A good number of the books of the Pseudepigrapha (Jewish literature written between the OT and NT) are pseudonymous. Many scholars also consider certain NT letters to be pseudonymous, especially the Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy, Titus) and 2 Peter, but also perhaps 2 Thessalonians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 1 Peter. There is a significant debate among NT scholars as to whether pseudonymity was an acceptable literary practice in the first-century church. If so, it would have been a way disciples honored their mentors, by writing in their name. No deceit would have been intended, and readers would recognize the noble motives of the author. Others argue that there is no evidence for the acceptance of pseudonymity and that those who were caught writing in another’s name were always censured. See also Pseudepigrapha, the.
Purim Jewish holiday celebrating the salvation of the Jewish nation through the actions of Esther and her cousin Mordecai, as recorded in the book of Esther. After being chosen to be queen by King Ahasuerus of Persia, Esther works with her cousin Mordecai to thwart the plot of the evil and arrogant Haman, who is seeking to eradicate the Jews. Haman eventually gets his due by being arrested and hanged on the very gallows that he has built for Mordecai. Purim is celebrated on the fourteenth day of Adar, which is usually in March.