accountability, 10, 45, 49, 51, 54, 55, 253, 352, 356–358; defined, 15
agents, 9–12, 15–16, 20, 24, 31, 45, 48, 52, 55, 60, 85, 87, 115, 118, 168, 170, 172, 201, 231, 238–239, 241, 283, 357
alternative vote, 124, 142–143, 152, 155–158, 159, 179, 219, 265
American exceptionalism, 1–7
anti-Federalists, 172
Argentina, 22, 40, 70, 310, 344; constitution, 65, 76, 177; federalism, 88, 101–102, 105, 106, 107n20, 263; legislature, 103–104, 149, 207, 214, 217; electoral system, 192, 224, 258, 262, 264, 268; cabinet, 246; presidential terms, 259, 261; vice president, 261; presidential powers, 275–276; courts and legal system, 305, 306
Articles of Confederation, 8, 26, 36, 49, 53, 58, 62, 89–90, 200, 227
Austria, 135, 267, 338, 340; federalism, 93; legislature, 103; executive, 135, 235, 256, 267; electoral system, 192; interest groups, 194–195; cabinet, 256; courts and legal system, 289, 290, 298, 306
Australia, 46, 73, 340, 342–344; federalism, 106–108, 111, 218n10; party system, 111, 191; electoral system, 124, 125, 132n18, 141, 156n33, 159–163, 219, 220, 224; legislature, 124, 125, 191, 214, 215, 217, 218n10, 208n11; cabinet, 246; courts and legal system, 295, 307, 311
Baker v. Carr, 148
Belgium, 72, 73, 340, 344; constitution, 68, 177, 178; federalism, 91, 93, 97; legislature, 103, 210; primary elections, 183; cabinet, 255; courts and legal system, 306
bicameralism. See parliaments
Bolivia, 305
bonus provisions, 123, 127, 137, 144, 219, 220
Brazil, 22, 40, 78, 329, 344; constitution, 65, 76; federalism, 99, 102, 103, 105–107, 319; legislature, 102–103, 207, 214, 216, 217; electoral system, 109, 149, 184n12, 185n14, 192, 224; executive, 181, 275–276, 277, 310; cabinet, 238, 255, 256; presidential terms, 259, 261; vice president, 261; courts and legal system, 300, 306
bureaucracy, 11, 12, 15, 16n10, 20, 47, 87, 194, 227, 292
Bush, George W., 3, 239, 262, 294
Bush v. Gore, 269n28
cabinet, 12, 14, 61, 169, 173, 186, 207, 227–228, 233, 237; minority, 111, 234, 245–246, 249–254; defined, 229, 238–239, 241; coalitions, 234, 239–241, 242–244, 245, 255–256; single-party, 237–239, 245–246, 247
Canada, 3, 4n5, 14, 46, 73, 208n10, 221, 326, 340, 342, 344, 349; constitution, 68, 177, 178; federalism, 93, 97, 114; legislature, 104, 106, 204; territories, 107–108; party system, 111–112, 113, 114, 191, 195, 317; electoral system, 125, 142, 146–148, 179–180, 182, 220, 222, 317; interest groups, 195; cabinet, 246, 248, 249–252; courts and legal system, 290, 295, 297, 298, 307, 311
Chile, 14, 76, 93, 137, 179n5, 192, 198, 207, 310, 338, 344; electoral system, 121–122, 137, 149, 192; legislature, 213, 216, 217; cabinet, 255, 256; presidential terms, 259; primary elections, 274; presidential powers, 277
citizens, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19–20, 28, 33, 26, 43, 60, 73, 74, 85, 97, 107n19, 115, 130, 137–140, 147, 168, 170, 172, 177, 198, 204, 239, 257, 283–285, 287, 334, 338, 340, 344, 346, 352, 356–357
Citizens United, 343
civil law, 286–287, 289, 295, 297–298, 300, 306
cloture. See filibuster
coalitions, 111n29, 173, 205, 238, 241, 245–246, 248, 255–256, 268, 279, 318, 359n17; defined, 17–18; German example, 242–244
collective action, 19, 44, 169
Colombia, 22, 310, 329, 334, 338, 344, 348; constitution, 65, 73, 76, 78; unitary state, 93; primary elections, 184; party system, 186; electoral system, 192, 222n12, 264; legislature, 207, 210; cabinet, 255, 256; presidential terms, 259, 260; vice president, 261; presidential powers, 276; courts, 285
common law, 61, 282, 286–287, 290, 295, 297, 300, 306, 307–308, 310, 311, 314
compulsory voting, 137
confederalism, 83, 88–90, 95; Madison’s analysis, 33, 89; defined, 85
confidence, 12, 40, 45, 61n4, 232–234, 239, 238, 245, 249–253, 274
Connecticut Plan. See Great Compromise
constitutions, 8, 15, 46, 57, 90, 115, 175, 201, 228, 231, 283, 310, 314, 320; defined, 58, 59–60, 81; and democracy, 59, 60, 172; unwritten, 61–62; constitutional systems, 63; replacements, 63, 65; amending, 78–82, 133; and courts, 284, 287–291, 297–298
Costa Rica, 22
courts, role of, 282–285, 287; types of jurisdiction, 286; of cassation, 289; constitutional, 289–290; career systems, 290–292; recognition systems, 290–292; judicial councils, 291–292; as a veto gate, 320, 321, 323
council of revision, 30, 50, 288
criminal justice, 329–334
cube-root law, 212–213
Czech Republic, 21, 70, 89, 217, 218, 229, 356
D’Hondt method, 46n14, 121–123, 155
defense policy, 334–338
delegation of authority, 9–12, 15, 24, 28, 31, 44–45, 49, 51–52, 83, 151, 239, 357
democracy, 12, 16, 19, 48, 60, 151, 175, 231, 233, 340, 356; defined, 9, 11; representative, 28, 115, 168, 170, 172–173, 198, 200–201, 315, 334; waves of democratization, 70, 72–73; direct v. indirect, 116; versus a republic, 116–119, 200–201; rule of law, 282–284, 288; quality of, 349, 352, 356–357
Denmark, 68, 72, 146, 147, 177, 178, 255, 305, 326, 348, 349
disproportionality, 144, 146, 147, 164n36, 265, 268
district magnitude, 120, 121–123, 124, 144, 146, 149, 152–154, 159, 160, 163, 167n38, 264–265
districting, 125, 149–152, 220–221. See also gerrymandering
divided government, 44–45, 237, 246n10, 277–280
Dred Scott case, 343
Droop, Henry R., 159
effective number of candidates, 267–268
effective number of parties: defined, 174; of legislative parties, 174, 180; of electoral parties, 174, 180
electoral college, 38, 43, 45, 50, 55, 119n5, 124, 135, 181, 206n3, 257, 262–263, 264–265, 267–269, 269–272, 281; in non-US cases, 229, 257n17, 262–263, 268, 271n32
electoral systems, 4, 20, 48, 61, 86, 118–119, 125, 151–152, 168, 175, 187, 204, 218, 246, 255, 315; defined, 115–116; proportional representation, 119, 121–123, 137, 141, 179, 219–220, 224, 265, 268; plurality, 119, 125, 137, 140, 142–144, 179, 219, 220, 255, 265; majoritarian, 119, 179–180, 219; ranked choice, 124; semi-proportional systems, 124, 142; Mixed-Member Majoritarian (MMM), 125, 127, 137, 146, 164, 167, 179, 186, 220; Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP), 125, 128, 141, 142, 144, 146, 164–167, 255; mixed-member systems, 125, 163–167; limited vote, 141; cumulative vote, 141–142
electoral thresholds, 123, 127n11, 144, 165–167, 258, 274
employee protection, 340
environmental policy, 344
European Parliament, 89n2, 131, 141
executive power, 44, 45, 60, 62, 95, 135, 186, 314; and legislatures, 61, 229; defined, 227, 228–229. See also cabinets; parliamentary systems; presidential systems; semi-presidential systems
federalism, 13, 24, 26, 28, 34, 39, 40–41, 83, 129, 151, 193, 207, 310–311, 319–320, 323; defined, 85, 94–95; ethnicity, 91, 93–94; country size, 91–94; and bicameralism, 95–96, 202, 204, 214, 217; fiscal decentralization, 96–99, 324; number of subunits, 100–108; and courts, 282, 286, 290, 298
Federalist Papers, 7–9, 16, 19, 32, 38, 58, 62, 89, 116, 172–173, 206n3; 1, 8; 9, 33n9; 10, 9, 28, 33, 38, 45, 47, 118n4, 171, 172–173, 357; 14, 118; 18, 29n6, 33n9, 89; 19, 29n6, 33n9, 89; 20, 29n6, 33n9, 89; 39, 10–11, 117, 119; 51, 9, 16n11, 38–40, 59, 200; 66, 50, 206n3; 68, 206n3; 78, 286
felon voting, 137–140, 152, 334
Finland, 135, 349; electoral system, 146, 184n12, 192, 263, 268; party system, 190; legislature, 210; executive, 235, 236; cabinet, 255, 256; courts and legal system, 305n16
Florida v. the Department of Health and Human Services, 323
France, 3, 89n2, 135, 141, 340, 342, 349; constitutions, 63, 65, 66, 72, 77–78; unitary state, 93; electoral system, 124, 135, 141, 146, 179, 180, 192, 219, 220, 224, 262; party system, 187, 190; labor unions, 198; legislature, 215; executive, 235–237, 256, 279; cabinet, 256, 279; presidential terms, 259, 260–261; courts and legal system, 289, 292, 297, 298, 300
Freedom House, 21–22
Germany, 3, 340, 342–343, 349; federalism, 110; party system, 111, 191; electoral system, 125, 144n26, 149, 164–165; legislature, 203, 213, 214; executive, 229, 281n39; cabinet, 242–244, 359n17; courts and legal system, 289, 306, 308
gerrymandering, 143, 150, 220–221; defined, 150n31. See also districting
Gini Index, 348
government, 11, 19, 128, 143, 154, 169, 229, 232, 234, 236, 237–246, 249–254, 278–280; dual usage of term, 12; defined, 12, 14–15; v. administration, 14. See also cabinets
governmental effectiveness, 346–356
Great Compromise, 35–39, 43, 95–96, 99–100, 102, 104, 200, 206
Greece, 70, 97, 127, 179, 191, 220, 229, 246
gun rights, 338–340
Hamilton Plan, 35, 49, 51, 54, 227
HDI. See Human Development Index
hierarchy, 16, 61, 185–187, 199, 231, 233–234, 236, 316; defined, 15
Human Development Index, 22, 329
Hungary, 70, 179, 190, 229, 306
Iceland, 22
India, 3, 7, 22, 72, 148, 329, 334; constitution, 68, 79; federalism, 91, 93, 102–104, 106, 108, 110, 114; legislature, 102–104, 106; party system, 111–113, 191; electoral system, 125, 146, 148, 149, 179, 220, 221; primary elections, 183; executive, 229; cabinet, 255; courts and legal system, 291n9, 297
instant run-off. See alternative vote
institutions, 6–7, 9, 12, 15–17, 18, 20–22, 24, 29, 245, 309, 314, 315, 317, 358; defined, 7, 20; US institutional mix, 25–26, 40–46, 309–317, 324, 358; of federalism, 94–95; sequencing, 314–317
interest groups, 24, 46–47, 61, 172; defined, 19–20, 168, 170; pluralist, 171; corporatist, 171
Ireland, 124
Israel, 79, 334, 336, 340, 342, 356; basic law, 62, 68; electoral system, 146, 149; primaries, 183; party system, 205; legislature, 210; executive, 229, 234, 281n39; cabinet, 255, 256; courts and legal system, 297
Italy, 340; unitary state, 93; electoral system, 119, 127, 137, 164n36, 220; legislature, 210, 215; executive, 229; cabinet, 255; courts, 300
Japan, 326; constitution, 65, 68, 76, 177; unitary state, 92, 93; electoral system, 119, 124–125, 127, 153, 141, 164, 167, 179; party system, 127, 154, 186; legislature, 210, 217, 218
Jay, John, 288–289
judicial power, 61; defined, 282; judicial review, 287–289, 297–298, 319, 320, 323. See also courts
Kennedy, Edward (Ted), 278, 322
Korea, 198, 305, 356; unitary state, 93; electoral system, 125n10, 130, 135, 148, 179, 264; party system, 181, 185n14, 271; executive, 236n4, 277; cabinet, 248; presidential terms, 260; courts and legal system, 300, 310
legislative power: defined, 18, 200. See also parliaments
legislatures. See parliaments
lobbying, 172, 193, 194, 198; defined, 170
Madison, James, 8–10, 25, 27–30, 42, 46–48, 59, 89–90, 106n17, 116n1, 117–119, 200, 288, 357; factional balancing, 28–34, 38, 51, 171, 173; and political parties, 33–34; separation of powers, 38–40
Magna Carta, 61
malapportionment, 102n12, 148–150, 213, 271n32
McCulloch v. Maryland, 42
McDonald v. Chicago, 338
Mexico, 21, 22, 40, 73n8, 76, 135, 310, 329, 334, 338, 344; legislature, 103, 133, 206, 207, 214, 215, 217; electoral system, 106, 110, 125n10, 264; party system, 111, 181, 187, 273, 277; primary elections, 184, 273; labor unions, 198; cabinet, 246; presidential terms, 260; presidential powers, 277; courts and legal system, 306
MMM (Mixed-Member Majoritarian). See electoral systems
MMP (Mixed-Member Proportional). See electoral systems
Montesquieu, Baron de, 33
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sibelius, 323
Netherlands, 66, 72, 73n9, 146, 148, 149, 177, 190, 210, 297, 344
New Jersey Plan, 34–37, 49–50, 53, 89, 95, 200
New Zealand, 18, 22, 73, 221, 340, 342, 358n1; constitution, 59, 62, 79; Treaty of Waitangi, 62; electoral system, 119, 125, 127, 128, 142, 144, 146, 149, 164–167, 358n16; party system, 128, 191; labor unions, 198; legislature, 215; cabinet, 246, 252–254, 255; courts and legal system, 295, 307, 311
nominal tier, 163–167
Northern Ireland, 141
Norway, 22, 138n19, 218n10, 329, 349
Obama, Barack, 3, 14, 183, 189, 239, 270n31, 320, 321
Obamacare. See Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)
parliaments, 200–201; number of chambers, 18, 37, 40, 48, 78, 92–93, 95–96, 113, 201–204, 214, 224–225, 310, 314, 317–319, 358; symmetry, 37, 40, 44, 50, 20–203, 206–207, 209, 225, 317–319, 359n17; congruence, 37, 202, 204, 209
parliamentary systems, 12, 14, 44–45, 60–61, 134, 169, 173, 185–186, 205, 216, 229, 231–234, 236, 238–241, 245–246, 249, 255–256, 274–275, 280, 314–315, 359. See also executive power
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), 320–324, 329
Paul, Ron, 182–183
Philadelphia Convention, 7, 24, 25–27, 28n4, 29n7, 30, 34, 35n11, 40, 44, 46–48, 58, 62, 83, 89, 95, 116, 119, 151, 200, 227, 310, 315, 357; comparison of plans, 49–56
plurality rule. See electoral systems
Poland, 117, 135; legislature, 130, 216; electoral system, 146n27, 184n12, 192; executive, 235, 236, 256, 279; cabinet, 256, 279
political engineering, 7–8, 22, 24, 25–26, 28, 30, 32, 37–39, 47–48, 49, 62, 81, 115, 119, 128, 175, 200, 255, 314
political parties, 14–15, 16, 17, 19, 33, 41, 45–47, 88, 171–175, 183, 198–199, 229, 234, 239, 315–316, 342; presidentialization of US parties, 43–44, 181; defined, 168, 169–170; party systems, 173–177. See also effective number of parties
political science, 8, 25, 213; subdisciplines of, 5–6; defined, 7
politicians, 10–12, 15, 16n10, 19–20, 29, 32, 39, 45, 60, 86–87, 115–116, 168, 185, 193, 239, 292, 294, 359
popular sovereignty, 12, 28, 60; defined, 59
Portugal, 135, 192, 235, 256, 340
PPACA. See Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)
presidential systems, 4, 7, 14, 16, 21, 34, 37, 40–41, 43–45, 53, 58, 135, 152, 181, 229, 231–234, 238, 245, 256, 259, 280, 310, 311, 315, 317–319. See also executive power
primary elections, 3, 40–41, 43, 134, 147, 181–184, 190, 192, 220, 272–274, 310, 314, 316, 323
principals, 9–11, 15–16, 18, 20, 31, 45, 60, 85, 87, 115, 168, 170, 172, 186, 198, 201, 231, 233, 237, 239, 357–358
proportional representation. See electoral Systems
proportionality, 102n12, 103, 105, 121–123, 144, 146, 147, 152, 265, 271n32; in US elections, 144–147
public policy, 7, 24, 41, 47, 60–62, 190, 319, 324
qualified plurality, 192, 258, 264, 270
recall elections, 133–134, 151
redistricting. See districting
referenda, 78, 79, 112, 128, 133–134, 143
regime, 12–15, 22, 46, 65, 117, 338, 340, 343, 357
republic, 11, 28, 31–34, 38–39, 57, 90, 200; defined, 9; versus democracy, 116–119; in US Constitution, 117
Republic of Korea. See Korea
Reynolds v. Sims, 148n29
run-off system. See two-round system
semi-presidential systems, 130, 186, 235–237, 238, 255, 256, 259, 280, 281. See also executive power
Single Non-Transferrable Vote (SNTV), 124, 127, 141, 142, 152–155, 162–163, 186
single-seat districts, 40–41, 120, 123, 125, 127–128, 135, 140, 144, 148–152, 155, 163–167, 179, 218–219, 224, 226, 255, 268, 311, 314
Single Transferable Vote (STV), 124–125, 141–143, 152, 158–163
slavery, 11, 47, 65, 76–78, 317, 343
Slovakia, 89
SNTV. See Single Non-Transferrable Vote
South Africa, 21, 22, 76, 79, 210n1, 285, 290, 329, 334, 340, 349, 356; federalism, 91, 93, 103n15; electoral system, 146, 148, 149; party system, 179–180; executive, 229; cabinet, 248; courts and legal system, 297, 342
South Korea. See Korea
sovereignty, 12, 13, 28, 32, 59, 60, 85, 88–91, 94–95, 113–114, 290
Spain, 356; constitution, 68, 103n14; federalism, 91, 97, 110; party system, 111–112, 191; electoral system, 103, 121, 149; labor unions, 198; cabinet, 246, 248, 255; courts and legal system, 297
spurious majorities, 128, 142–144, 147
state: defined, 13–13, as a subunit, 129
STV. See Single Transferable Vote
Sudan, 89n3
Sweden, 97, 194, 215, 255, 349
Switzerland, 45, 73, 129–131, 133–135, 137, 140, 218, 338; constitution, 65–66, 68, 79; federalism, 93, 97, 102, 105, 118, 129n15; executive, 130n17, 229, 234, 256
tax policy, 27, 29, 36, 42, 47, 77, 97, 243, 324–326, 346
Tea Party, 183, 189–190, 323–324
transactional relationships, 12, 19, 39, 187, 209, 228, 244–246, 250–254, 256, 258, 358–359; defined, 16–17, 18; in US system, 40, 44–45, 48, 185, 274, 277, 280; in presidential systems, 61; in federalism, 85, 87–88, 94–95; among parties, 173; in bicameralism, 202, 204–205; and executive power, 231, 233; in semi-presidential systems, 236; in parliamentary systems, 238–241; within coalitions, 240–241
two-round systems, 124, 140, 155, 180, 219, 258, 263–264, 316n1; in France, 124, 180n6, 192; in the United States, 192
unicameralism. See parliaments
unitary states, 24, 83–85, 87–89, 91, 95–97, 207, 214
United Kingdom, 14, 73n9, 79, 191, 221, 231, 326, 338, 340, 342, 343, 348, 349, 358n15, 358n16; constitution, 59, 61; unitary state, 93; electoral system, 119, 125, 141–143, 146, 148, 179–180, 182, 220, 222, 317; party system, 174, 205; legislature, 203–204, 210, 213, 214, 215, 218; cabinet, 218, 248, 250; courts and legal system, 295, 311
United States: Senate, 36–38, 43, 74, 96, 99–102, 106, 130, 207–209, 214, 216, 225, 237, 261n22, 278, 305–306, 318, 320–322, 324, 358; House of Representatives, 46, 77, 96, 99, 119, 129, 130, 132, 140, 188–189, 206n3, 207, 209–215, 215–217, 226, 260; ethnic breakdown, 93–94; effective number of states, 102–106; DC representation, 106–107; territories, 108; electoral calendar, 108–110, 132, 134, 147–148, 217–218; party system, 110–111, 146–147, 172, 178–179, 185–186, 187–191, 199; electoral system, 129–132, 140–144, 146, 179, 218–220, 257; ballot, 134; voter turn-out, 134–135; campaigns, 184–185, 191–192, 193; interest groups, 192–195; labor unions, 195–198; cabinet, 207, 237–239, 245, 246, 256, 278; districting, 220–221, 226; female representation, 222–224, 226; presidential terms, 259–261; vice president, 261–262, 278n37; presidential powers, 274–275; courts and legal system, 288, 294, 295, 297, 298–299, 307–308, 323; judicial review, 285, 286n4, 297–298, 306, 314, 320, 323. See also Electoral College; filibuster; primary elections; US Constitution
US Constitution, 3, 4, 7, 8, 25, 28, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 47, 57, 58, 65, 95, 99, 102, 105, 117, 123, 173, 200, 206, 231, 285–286, 297, 310, 315, 324–343; in comparative perspective, 66–81; Supremacy Clause, 286, 297. See also United States
veto gates, 40, 48, 58, 78, 239, 245, 253–254, 280, 310, 317–319, 320–324, 357–359; defined, 17, 18; legislative chambers, 201–206, 209, 225, 231, 241, 256, 317–318; executives, 280, 319; courts, 319; federalism, 319
veto players, 78, 173, 205, 209, 225, 239, 241, 244, 245, 252, 255–256, 280, 317–318, 324, 357, 359; defined, 17, 18
veto powers, 39, 53, 88, 201, 231, 233, 288, 317–319, 320, 358; defined, 17; suspensory, 203; executives, 275–277, 279–280, 318, 319
Virginia Plan, 30–31, 33–37, 45, 49, 51–53, 95, 200, 288
Wałęsa, Lech, 279
Ware v. Hylton, 286n4
Washington, George, 29, 50n15, 288, 289
wealth distribution, 344–349
Yugoslavia, 89n3